Circuit Analysis

November 22, 2022

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Contents

I Fundamental concepts and laws 5

1 Principles of electrical circuits 7

1.1 Voltage, current and resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Atomic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Electrical charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 DC circuits with energy storage elements 27

2.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Series and Parallel Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3
4 CONTENTS
 Part I
Fundamental concepts and laws

5
Chapter 1
Principles of electrical circuits

1.1 Voltage, current and resistance

1.1.1 Atomic structure

Atom, is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element.
Nucleus, protons (+), neutrons, electrons (-). Each type of atom has a certain

Figure 1.1: Modelo de un átomo de Bohr

number of a protons and electrons that distinguish it from atoms of other elements.
The simplest atom is hydrogen which has one proton and one electron. Another exam-
ple, the atom helium, has two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus plus two electrons
orbiting the nucleus.

7
8 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Figure 1.2: Hydrogem and Helium atoms

Atomic number

The atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. in your
state normal (or neutral), all atoms of a given element have the same number of electrons
and of protons; positive charges equal negative charges, and the atom has a net charge of
zero, making it electrically neutral.

Shells, orbits and energy levels

Electrons describe orbits around the nucleus at certain distances from it and are restricted
to those specic orbits. Within the atom, each orbit corresponds to a dierent energy level
known as a shell. The shells are designated 1, 2, 3, and so on, with shell 1 being closest
to the nucleus. Electrons farther from the nucleus they are at higher energy levels. The
lowest level (n = 1) is called the ground state and represents the most stable atom with
only one electron in the rst shell. If this electron acquires an amount specic energy by
absorbing a photon, can rise to one of the lowest energy levels tall. In this high state, the
electron can emit a photon containing exactly the same amount of energy and then return
to the ground state. The transitions between energy levels explain the various phenomena
that occur in electronics, such as the color of the light emitted by a light-emitting diode.
1.1. VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE 9

Figure 1.3: Energy levels

Energy Levels and Ionization Energy

If an electron absorbs a photon with sucient energy, it escapes from the atom and becomes
a free electron.
Any time an atom or group of atoms is left with a net charge, it is called an ion. When
an electron escapes from the neutral hydrogen atom (designated H). the atom is left with
a net positive charge and becomes a positive ion (designated H+). In some cases, an atom
or group of atoms can acquire an electron. in which case it is called a negative ion.

The Copper Atom

Copper is the most commonly used metal in electrical applications.
The copper atom has 29 electrons that orbit the nucleus in four shells.
The number of electrons in each shell follows a predictable pattern according to the
fonnula, 2N 2 , where N is the number of the shell.
The rst shell of any atom can have up to 2 electrons, the second shell up to 8 elec
trons, the third shell up to 18 electrons, and the fourth shell up to 32 electrons.
Notice that the fourth or outermost shell the valence shell, has only 1 valence electron.
When the valence electron in the outer shell of the copper atom gains sucient thermal
10 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Figure 1.4: Copper atom

energy, it can break away from the parent atom and become a free electron. In a piece
of copper at room temperature a "sea" of these free electrons is present. These electrons
are not bound to a given atom but are free to move in the copper material. Free electrons
make copper an excellent conductor and make electrical current possible.

Categories of Materials
ˆ Conductors are materials that readily allow current. They have a large number of
free electrons and are characterized by one to three valence electrons in their struc-
ture. Most metals are good conductors. Silver is the best conductor, and copper is
next. Copper is the most widely used conductive material because it is less expensive
than silver. Copper wire is commonly used as a conductor in electric circuits.

ˆ Semiconductors are classed below the conductors in their ability to carry current
because they have fewer free electrons than do conductors. Semiconductors have
four valence electrons in their atomic structures. However, because of their unique
characteristics, certain semiconductor materials are the basis for electronic devices
1.2. ELECTRICAL CHARGE 11

such as the diode, transistor, and integrated circuit. Silicon and germanium are
common semiconductive materials.

ˆ Insulators are materials that are poor conductors of electric current. In fact, insu-
lators are used to prevent current where it is not wanted. Compared to conductive
materials, insulators have very few free electrons and are characterized by more than
four valence electrons in their atomic structures.

1.2 Electrical charge

The charge of an electron and that of a proton are equal in magnitude. Electrical charge,
an electrical property of matter that exists because of an excess or deciency of electrons,
is symbolized by Q.
Everyone has experienced the eects of static electricity from time to time, for example,
when attempting to touch a metal surface or another person or when the clothes in a dryer
cling together.
Materials with charges of opposite polarity are attracted to each other, and materials
with charges of the same polarity are repelled,

Figure 1.5: Attraction and repulsion electrical charges

Coulomb: The Unit of Charge

One coulomb is the total charge possessed by 6.25 × 1018 electrons.
A single electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C . The total charge Q, expressed in
coulombs, for a given number of electrons is stated in the following formula:

number of electrons
Q=
6.25 × 1018 electrons/C

Positive and Negative Charge

Consider a neutral atom that is, one that has the same number of electrons and protons
and thus has no net charge.
As you know, when a valence electron is pulled away from the atom by the application
of energy. the atom is left with a net positive charge (more protons than electrons) and
12 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

becomes a positive ion. If an atom acquires an extra electron in its outer shell, it has a net
negative charge and becomes a negative ion.
The amount of energy required to free a valence electron is related to the number of
electrons in the outer shell. An atom can have up to eight valence electrons. The more
complete the outer shell, the more stable the atom and thus the more energy is required
to release an electron.
The creation of a positive ion and a negative ion when a hydrogen atom gives up its
single valence electron to a chlorine atom, fmIlling gaseous hydrogen cWoride (HCl). When
the gaseous HCl is dissolved in water. hydrochloric acid is formed.

Figure 1.6: formation of positive and negative ions

1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 13

1.3 VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

Voltage
As you have seen, a force of attraction exists between a positive and a negative charge. A
certain amount of energy must be exerted, in the form of work, to overcome the force and
move the charges a given distance apart. All opposite charges possess a certain potential
energy because of the separation between them. The dierence in potential energy per
charge is the potential dierence or voltage. Voltage is the driving force in electric circuits
and is what establishes current.
Voltage, symbolized by V is dened as energy or work per unit charge.
W
V =
Q
Where:

V = Voltage in volts(V )
W = Energy in Joules(J)
Q = Charge in coulombs(C)

One volt is the potential dierence (voltage) between two points when one joule of energy
is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

Current
Voltage provides energy to electrons, allowing them to move through a circuit. This move-
ment of electrons is the current, which results in work being done in an electrical circuit.
As you have learned, free electrons are available in all conductive and semiconductive
materials. These electrons drift randomly in all directions, from atom to atom, within the
structure of the material,

Figure 1.7: Random motion of free electrons in a material

If a voltage is placed across a conductive or semi conductive material, one end becomes
positive and the other negative. The repulsive force produced by the negative voltage at
the left end causes the free electrons (negative charges) to move toward the right. The
14 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

attractive force produced by the positive voltage at the right end pulls the free electrons
to the right. The result is a net movement of the free electrons from the negative end of
the material to the positive end.

Figure 1.8: Voltage is applied across a conductive or semiconductive material

The movement of these free electrons from the negative end of the material to the posi-
tive end is the electrical current, symbolized by I .

Electrical current is the rate of ow of charge

Current in a conductive material is determined by the number of electrons (amount of
charge) that ow past a point in a unit of time.

Q
I=
t
Where:

I = Current in amperes(A)
Q = charge in coulombs(C)
t = time in seconds(s)

One ampere (1A) is the amount of current that exists when a number of
electrons having a total charge of one coulomb (1C) move through a given
cross-sectional area in one second (1s).

Figure 1.9: 1A of current (1C/s) in a material.

1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 15

Resistance
When there is current through a material, the free electrons move through the material
and occasionally collide with atoms. These collisions cause the electrons to lose some of
their energy, thus restricting their movement. The more collisions, the more the ow of
electrons is restricted. This restriction varies and is determined by the type of material.
The property of a material to restrict or oppose the ow of electrons is called resistance.
R.
Resistance is the opposition to current.
Resistance is expressed in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
One ohm (1Ω) of resistance exists if there is one ampere (1A) of current in a material
when one volt (1V ) is applied across the material.

Figure 1.10: Resistance symbol

Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is conductance, symbolized by G. It is a measure of the ease
with which current is established.
1
G=
R
The unit of conductance is the siemens, abbreviated S .

1. What is the basic particle of negative charge?

2. Dene atom.

3. What does an atom consist of?

4. Dene atomic number.

5. Do all elements have the same types of atoms?

6. What is a free electron?

7. What is a shell in the atomic structure?

marcos.puc@upy.edu.mx
16 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

1. Name two conductive materials.

2. What is the symbol for charge?

3. What is the unit of charge, and what is the unit symbol?

4. What causes positive and negative charge?

5. How much charge, in coulombs, is there in 10 × 1012 electrons?

6. Dene voltage.

7. What is the unit of voltage?

8. How much is the voltage when there are 24 joules of energy for 10 coulombs of charge?

9. Dene current and state its unit.

10. How many electrons make up one coulomb of charge?

11. What is the current in amperes when 10 ( ow past a point in a wire in 4 s?

12. Dene resistance.

13. Name the unit of resistance.

14. Dene one ohm.

1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 17

ˆ An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

ˆ Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists,
measured in coulombs (C).

ˆ Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
ˆ A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
ˆ An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
ˆ Voltage (or potential dierence) is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element, measured in volts (V).

ˆ Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
ˆ Passive sign convention is satised when the current enters through the positive
terminal of an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative
terminal, p = −vi.

ˆ Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

ˆ An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specied voltage
or current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.

ˆ An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the

source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

ˆ Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the ow of electric

charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance
and is represented by the symbol R.

ˆ The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A

and its length l,
l
R=ρ
A
where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters.

ˆ Ohm's law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current i owing through the resistor.

v = iR

Problem 1
An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
18 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Problem 2
The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resistor) that converts
electrical energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn by a toaster with
resistance at 110 V?

Problem 3
In the circuit shown in Fig., calculate the current i, the conductance G, and the
power p.

Figure 1.11:

Problem 4
For the circuit shown in Fig., calculate the voltage v , the conductance G, and the
power p

Figure 1.12:
1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 19

Problem 5
A voltage source of 20 sin(πt) V is connected across a 5 − kΩ resistor. Find the
current through the resistor and the power dissipated.

Problem 6
A resistor absorbs an instantaneous power of 20 cos2 t mW when connected to a
voltage source v = 10 cos t V. Find i and R

ˆ A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

ˆ A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
ˆ A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
ˆ A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one branch which is not a part
of any other independent loop.

ˆ Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and con-
sequently carry the same current.

ˆ Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes
and consequently have the same voltage across them.

example 1
Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in Fig. Identify
which elements are in series and which are in parallel.

Figure 1.13: gura

20 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Problem 1
How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. have? Identify the elements
that are in series and in parallel.

Figure 1.14: gura

ˆ Kirchho's current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering
a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
the node.

ˆ Kirchho's voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

Problema 1
Find i1 , i2 and i3

Problema 2
Determine i1 , i2 in the circuit

Problema 3
For the circuit in g. Use KCL to nd the branch currents I1 a I4

Problema 4
In the circuit of g. Calculate V1 and V2 .
1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 21

Problema 5
In the circuit of g. Obtain v1 , v2 and v3 .

Problema 6
Given the circuit in Fig. , use KVL to nd the branch voltages to V to V4 .
22 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Problema 7
Find I and Vab in the circuit of Fig.

Problema 8
From the circuit in Fig., nd I , the power dissipated by the resistor, and the power absorbed
by each source.
sol.

Problema 9
Obtain v1 through v3 in the circuit of Fig.
1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 23

Problema 1
Determine the current labeled I3 in the circuit of Fig.

Figure 1:

sol.

Problema 2
From the circuit in Fig., nd I , the power dissipated by the resistor, and the power absorbed
by each source.

Figure 2:

sol.

Problema 3
Obtain v1 through v3 in the circuit of Fig.

Figure 1.15:
24 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Figure 1.16:

Figure 1.17:

Figure 1.18:
1.3. VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE 25

Figure 1.19:

Figure 1.20:

Figure 1.21:
26 CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Figure 1.22:

Figure 1.23:
Chapter 2
DC circuits with energy storage
elements

Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors and inductors do not dissipate but store
energy, which can be retrieved at a later time. For this reason, capacitors and inductors
are called storage elements.
The application of resistive circuits is quite limited. With the introduction of capacitors
and inductors in this chapter, we will be able to analyze more important and practical
circuits. Be assured that the circuit analysis techniques covered in Chapters 2 and 3 are
equally applicable to circuits with capacitors and inductors.

2.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric eld.
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric).

Figure 2.1: A typical capacitor.

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28 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENTS

In many practical applications, the plates may be aluminum foil while the dielectric
may be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.
When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. 2.2, the source deposits
a positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge on the other. The capacitor is said
to store the electric charge.

Figure 2.2: A capacitor with applied voltage v.

The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the applied

voltage so that
q = Cv (2.1)
where C , the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), in honor of the English physicist Michael Faraday
(17911867). From Eq. 2.1, we may derive the following denition.
Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage
dierence between the two plates, measured in farads (F).
Note from Eq. 2.1 that 1 farad 1 coulomb/volt
Although the capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge q per plate to the
applied voltage v it does not depend on q or v . It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor. For example, for the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig. 2.1, the capacitance
is given by

A
C=ϵ (2.2)
d
where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and ϵ is
the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates. Although Eq. 2.2 applies to
only parallel-plate capacitors, we may infer from it that, in general, three factors determine
the value of the capacitance:

1. The surface area of the platesthe larger the area, the greater the capacitance.

2. The spacing between the platesthe smaller the spacing, the greater the capacitance.
2.1. CAPACITORS 29

3. The permittivity of the materialthe higher the permittivity, the greater the capac-
itance.

Capacitors are commercially available in dierent values and types. Typically, capac-
itors have values in the picofarad (pF) to microfarad (µF ) range. They are described by
the dielectric material they are made of and by whether they are of xed or variable type.
Figure 2.3 shows the circuit symbols for xed and variable capacitors. Note that according
to the passive sign convention, if i > 0 and v > 0 or if i < 0 and v < 0 the capacitor is
being charged, and if i · v < 0 the capacitor is discharging.

Figure 2.3: Circuit symbols for capacitors: (a) xed capacitor, (b) variable capacitor.

In addition, capacitors are used to block dc, pass ac, shift phase, store energy, start
motors, and suppress noise.

Figure 2.4: Fixed capacitors: (a) polyester capacitor, (b) ceramic capacitor, (c) electrolytic
capacitor. Courtesy of Tech Americ.

Current-voltage relationship of the capacitor,

dv
i=C (2.3)
dt
Voltage-current relation of the capacitor
t
1
Z
v= idt + v(t0 ) (2.4)
C t0
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
dv
p = v · i = Cv (2.5)
dt
30 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENTS

The energy stored in the capacitor is

1
w = Cv 2 (2.6)
2
Using Eq. 2.1, we may rewrite Eq. 2.6 as

q2
w= (2.7)
2C
Equation 2.6 or 2.7 represents the energy stored in the electric eld that exists between
the plates of the capacitor. This energy can be retrieved, since an ideal capacitor cannot
dissipate energy. In fact, the word capacitor is derived from this element's capacity to store
energy in an electric eld.
We should note the following important properties of a capacitor:

1. Note from Eq. 2.3 that when the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with
time (i.e., dc voltage), the current through the capacitor is zero. Thus,
A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.

However, if a battery (dc voltage) is connected across a capacitor, the capacitor

charges.

2. The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous.

The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly.

3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from the circuit when
storing energy in its eld and returns previously stored energy when delivering power
to the circuit.

4. A real, nonideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance.

Example 1
a. Calculate the charge stored on a 3-pF capacitor with 20 V across it.

b. Find the energy stored in the capacitor.

sol. a. 60pC b. 600pJ

Problem 1
What is the voltage across a 3 − µF capacitor if the charge on one plate is 0.12 mC? How
much energy is stored?
2.1. CAPACITORS 31

Example 2
The voltage across a 5 − µF capacitor is

v(t) = 10cos6000tV (2.8)

Calculate the current through it. sol. −0.3sin6000tA

Problem 2
If a 10 − µF capacitor is connected to a voltage source with

v(t) = 50 sin 2000tV (2.9)

determine the current through the capacitor.

Example 3
Determine the voltage across a 2 − µF capacitor if the current through it is

i(t) = 6e−3000t mA (2.10)

Assume that the initial capacitor voltage is zero. sol. (1 − e−3000t )V

Problem 3
The current through a 100 − µF capacitor is i(t) = 50 sin 120πt mA Calculate the voltage
across it at t = 1 ms and t = 5ms. Take v(0) = 0. Answer: 93.14 mV, 1.736 V.

Example 4
Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor in Fig. 2.5 (a) under dc conditions. sol. 16

mJ, 128 mJ.

Problem 4
Under dc conditions, nd the energy stored in the capacitors in Fig. 2.6. Answer: 810µJ ,
135µJ .
32 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENTS

Figure 2.5: For Example 4

Figure 2.6: For Prob. 4

2.2 Series and Parallel Capacitors

The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected capacitors is the sum of the indi-
vidual capacitances.
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + · · · + CN (2.11)

Figure 2.7: (a) Parallel-connected N capacitors, (b) equivalent circuit for the parallel ca-
pacitors.

We observe that capacitors in parallel combine in the same manner as resistors in series.
2.2. SERIES AND PARALLEL CAPACITORS 33

The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the

sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· + (2.12)
Ceq C1 C2 C3 CN

Figure 2.8: (a) Series-connected N capacitors, (b) equivalent circuit for the series capacitor.

Note that capacitors in series combine in the same manner as resistors in parallel.

Example 5
Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a and b of the circuit in Fig. 2.9.

Figure 2.9: For Example 5

Problem 5
Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals of the circuit in Fig. 2.10. Answer:

40µF
34 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENTS

Figure 2.10: For Prob. 5

Example 6
For the circuit in Fig. 2.11, nd the voltage across each capacitor. sol. v1 = 15V , v2 = 10V ,
v3 = 5V

Figure 2.11: For Example 6

Problem 6
For the circuit in Fig. 2.12, nd the voltage across each capacitor. Answer: v1 = 30V ,
v2 = 30V , v3 = 10V , v4 = 20V

Figure 2.12: For Prob. 6

2.3 Inductors