Unit 2 Transpiration
What is transpiration?
The aerial parts of a plant
are those that are above
ground
Lenticels are spongy areas
in the bark of plants that
allow gaseous exchange
directy between the
atmosphere and the
intenal tissue of the
plant
Youwlleam about the
Water potentialgradient
nUnit 3of this topic on
pagesb6 68
Youlearnt about guard
cellsinTopic 1, Unit 12, on
page 44
Ahigh temperature is
uSually dlosely linked to
Temperature
a high light intensity, so
plants need to be able to
maximise photosynthesis
and limit transpiration
rate at the same time.
Rewind
Woulearnt about leaf
Structurein Topic1,
Unit15,onpages58-59
Remember that
transpiration isa loss of
Water vapour from the
L Various leaf structures have evolved to reduce the
plant, so an increased
transpiration rate means
that more water is lost.
the aerial parts ofa plant.
Transpiration is the loss ofwater vapour from
About 90% of
Stomatal transpiration takes place via the stomata of the leaves.
transpiration occurs through the stomata.
the leaf which is not
Cuticular transpiration takes place through the cuticle of
occurs to a limited extent.
completely impermeable to gases. Cuticular transpiration
Lenticular transpiration occurs through the lenticels. Very little lenticular transpiration
Occurs.
Environmental factors influencing transpiration rate
DEnvironmental factors affect the opening and closing of the stomata. This affects the
since transpiration occurs through the stomata.
transpiration rate most
Humidity
DLow humidity increases the water potential gradient berween the inside and outside
of the leaf.
Low humidity increases the transpiration rate.
High humidity decreases the transpiration rate.
Light intensity
On a sunny day plants will photosynthesise at the maximum rate.
To ensure the maximum absorption ofCO, for photosynthesis, the stoma must
open fully.
For the stoma to open fully, the turgor pressure in the guard cells must increase
through ion exchange and osmosis).
Open stomata also allow the maximum amount of stomatal transpiration.
Increasingly bright light increases the transpiration rate, until a maximum rate
is achieved.
At higher temperatures, molecules have more kinetic energy and move faster.
Thus the water molecules inside the leaf are able
to move out of the leaves faster.
D Higher temperatures increase the transpiration rate.
Low temperatures decrease the rate of transpiration.
DIfthe temperature is too high, or remains high for too long, the stomata close and
transpiration stops. This is to conserve water.
Wind
Wind blows water vapour-rich air
away from the external leaf surface. This increases the
potential gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf.
water
DMore wind increases the transpiration rate.
Less wind decreases the transpiration rate.
The influence of leaf structure
on the transpiration rate
amount of water lost
by transpiration.
 Position of the stomata
o s t stomata occur on the lower surface of the leaf, so the stomata are not exposed to
D
the direct rays of the Sun.
t i s position, the guard cells are cooler and the stomata do not open as Wide as they

would in direct
sunlight.
h e position of stomata on the lower surface of the leaf reduces the transpiration rate.

Sunken stomata Cuticle

vein
Moist air is air
with Stomata that are sunk below the
upper ultipie
concentration of surface of the epidermis enable a epiderrnis
a high
water vapour. pocket of still, moist air to be in bundie-sheath
direct contact with the stoma. extension

This pocket of air reduces the water spongy

parenchyma
potential gradient between the bundie sheath
inside and outside of the leaf guard cell
Sunken stomata decrease the palisade
transpiration rate. parenchyma
trichome

lower multiple epidermis

Thickened cuticle
A thickened cuticle reduces the Figure 2.5 Sunken stomata
amount of cuticular transpiration.

Hairy leaves
Hairy leaves trap a layer of moist air around a leaf, which reduces the water potential

gradient between the inside and the outside of the leaf.

Hairs can increase the shininess of the leaves, making them reflective and thus cooler.
Hairy leaves decrease the transpiration rate by reducing the water potential gradient

and temperature.

Reduced leaf size/leaf thorns

The smaller the leaf surface area, the less space there is for stomata.
The fewer stomata there are, the less water is lost due to transpiration.
chorns instead
Reduced leaf size decreases the transpiration rate; some plants produce
reduced.
of leaves, which results in the surface area for transpiration being greatly

Rolled leaves
When leaves roll up, water vapour is trapped by the leaf roll. The water vapour
concentration increases in this enclosed air space.

The trapped moist air reduces the water potential gradient between the inside and
outside of the leaf, which decreases transpiration.
much smaller surface area for transpiration.
A rolled leaf exposes a
Rolled leaves decrease the transpiration
rate.

Leaf arrangement
to decrease the transpiration rate.
Some leaves are arranged
in the shape of a rosette.
Some leaves are arranged
the lower leaves from direct sunlight.
The upper leaves shade
This keeps the lower leaves cooler, resulting in less water loss due to transpiration.
 Some leaves are
arranged vertically
This exposes the maximum leaf surface to the Sun only in the early morning
and late afternoon.
Dung the middle of the day the minimum surface area is exposed directly to
the Sun.
This keeps the leaf as cool as possible, resulting in less water loss due to

transpiration.

Wilting
You leamt about plant Under normal atmospheric and soil conditions, plant cells are turgid (swollen) and
cellsin Topic 1 Unit5, contain the maximum amount of water that they can hold.
pages 19-20.
Turgid cells are rigid and push against each other. This provides support to all
parts of the plant.
Piants that are adapted In hot conditions with
dry, lack of soil water,
a plants lose more water
through
to live in arid
(extremely
dry) conditions are called transpiration than they absorb from the soil.
This results in a water shortage in the
xerophytes parenchyma cells and the cells are no

Figure 2.6 Guttation
enables plants to
release high root
pressure
longer turgid.
The cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall due to the loss of water from the
vacuole and the cells are
plasmolysed.
Plasmolysed cells are flaccid (soft) and can no longer support the plant. The plant
wilts (its sterms and leaves become soft and
droopy).
Wilting can usually be reversed by watering the plants or when the Sun sets and the
transpiration rate slows down significantly.
However, if the wilted condition lasts too long, the plasmolysed cells die,
in the death of the
resulting
plant.
Guttation
Guttation is the loss of xylem sap (water droplets) from the hydathodes (pores) on the
leaf margin.
Guttation occurs at night when stomata are closed and there is
high soil water a
content and high atmospheric humidity, which prevent normal transpiration.
This high water content results in water
and producing higher than normal root
accumulating in the plant
pressure.
DGuttation occurs to relieve this high root pressure.
Guttation is usually visible first thing in the morning, before the droplets have
evaporated.

Unit 3 Absorption and transport in plants

Water potential is the
difference in free energy
or chemical potential
energy between pure
H,0 and H,0 in cells
and solutions. Water
molecules will move from
an area of higher water
potential to an area of
lower water potential.
The absorption and transport of water
and mineral salts
Mineral salts are absorbed at the
time as water and
same
are then transported to
the aerial parts of the plant by the
xylen.
Step 1 Water enters the root hairs down the water
potential (Y) gradient by osmosis.
Step 2 The water moves across the cortex, endodermis and
pericycle by diffusion and
osmosis, depending on the route the water follows.
Step 3 Finally, the water enters the xylem in the centre of the
root, and moves up the
xylem vessels to the leaves.
We can also refer to ne torces that
transpiration pull as
are
responsible for the upward movement of water are: root
pressure,
the suction force of capillarity and transpiration pull
Water passes
transpiration. through the tissue of the root in two ways, called the major pathway and
the minor pathway.

Major pathway
Water moves between the cells of the cortex along the cell walls and through the
intercellular air spaces.
Water is able to move
rapidly along this route and most of the water reaches the
stele in this
way.
When the water reaches the endodermis, the Casparian strips force the water to
pass through the passage cells, which are opposite the xylem tissue. This ensures
that most of the water entering the root goes directly into the xylerm tissue.

Minor pathway
Some of the water that enters the root moves from cell to cell down a water
potential gradient.
Water that moves from cell to cell nmoves much more slowly, therefore less water
enters the root this way.
in

The water eventually passes through the passage cells of the endodermis, and into
the xylem tissue.

Minor pathway

xylem
endodermis

phloem
Cortex

pericycle

Casparian strip

Major pathway
Figure 2.7 Movement of water through the root via the major and minor pathways

Root pressure
Root pressure is a force that pushes water up the stem of a plant.
the rigid
Root pressure is caused by the build-up of water in the xylem pushing on
cell walls.
m o v e m e n t of water to the leaves at the
Root pressure is not high enough to explain the
root pressure recorded can only push water up to a
top of the tallest trees. The highest
7 metres.
height of about
Forces of attraction
between diferent
molecules are called
adhesive forces
adhesion) Forces of
attraction between the
same types of molecules
are called cohesive forces
cohesion).
Transpiration pull
D Transpiration pull works together with adhesion and cohesion and occurs due to
The transport of food
Capillarityy
Capillarity is the ability ofa liquid to rise up a narrow space on its own, for example,
in xylem vessels.
Capillarity can cause liquids to flow against the force of gravity.
Capillarity occurs becauseof the forces of adhesion and cohesion.
The adhesive and cohesive forces are only able to lift the water if the diameter of the
tube is very small. The height to which the water can rise, however, is limited.
the loss of water vapour during transpiration.
Transpiration pull is a force that is generated in the leaves and pulls the water
column up the hollow xylem elements.
Transpiration pull forces are large enough to pull water up to the leaves in trees that
are up to 100 metres tall.
Transpiration pull causes water to move from the roots to the leaves in the
following way:
Water evaporates out of the stomata of the leaves.
This reduces the concentration of water vapour in the sub-stomatal chambers
of the leaves.
Water evaporates from the spongy mesophyll into the air spaces. This reduces the
water potential of the spongy mesophyll cells.
DThis sets up a water potential gradient through the cells to the xylem of the veins
of the leaf and causes water to move from the xylem into the adjacent cells
Water molecules in the xylem form a continuous column from the leaf to the roots.
DThe water molecules adhere to each other and cohere to the walls of the xylem vessels.
As water molecules leave the xylem in the leaves, the whole column of water is
pulled upwards.
Food is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the sap in the sieve
tube elements.
Substances moved in this way include sucrose, amino acids, hormones, orgarnic
phosphates and m- RNA.
The process of moving organic material via the phloem sap is called translocation.
Practical Work
Experiment 1 Path of water
To investigate the tissues responsible for the upward transport
of water through the plant.

Apparatus/Chemicals
beaker (x2)
living plant with roots e.g. blackjack (x2) eosin water
eosin or food colouring solution

glass slide, cover slips, microscope

Experiment Control
Method
The roots of a newly uprooted plant were rinsed in water.
.The plant was then placed in a beaker of water to which eosin (or food colouring) had been added. (Experiment)
The other plant was placed in a beaker of water. (Control)
The plants were allowed to stand for 24 hours.
Sections through the root (/s) and stem (/s) were examined under the microscope.
Result
Only xylem tissue was stained red (colour of eosin), i.e. the experiment.
There were no stained tissues in the control.

Conclusion
Xylem tissue is responsible for the transport of water in plants.

Experiment 2
To investigate the effect of wind, temperature and humidity on the rate of transpiration.

A potometer is used to determine the rate of transpiration.

The speed at which the air bubble moves along the narrow tube is the rate of water uptake, which is used to indicate
water loss from the leaves of the plant (i.e. the rate of
transpiration).
reservoir

Under "normal" conditions the time taken ruler

air bubble
for the air bubble to pass between two
points on the ruler is noted.

capillary tube.

water

Method Results
Wind: To simulate a windy day, a fan is placed near the Wind: It was noted that the air bubble travels very fast
leaves of the twig. when the fan was placed near the leafy twig.
High temperature: A heater, as a source of heat, is placed High temperature: The air bubble was observed to travel
near the leaves. very fast.
High humidity: A clear plastic bag is placed over the High humidity: The air bubble travels slower than under
normal conditions.
Conclusion
Wind increases the rate of
transpiration.
High temperature increases the rate of
transpiration.
High humidity decreases the rate of transpiration.
Factors that increase the rate of
evaporation will also increase the rate of transpiration.