STARTER ACTIVITY

Give two ways of

determining the
genotypes
(height) of the
pawpaw plant
shown.
9 PLANT BIOLOGY
 AREAS OF EXPLORATION

(i) Transport in the xylem of plants

(ii) Transport in the phloem of plants
(iii) Growth in plants
(iv) Reproduction in plants.

 TRANSPORT IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS

(i) Transpiration
(ii) Xylem and water transport
(iii) Active transport and transpiration.
(iv) Adaptations for water conservation.
(v) Factors affecting the rate of
transpiration.

TRANSPORT IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS

 TRANSPORT IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS
Transpiration is Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through the leaves, stems, and other
above-ground parts of the plant.
- Light energy converts water in the leaves to vapour, which evaporates from the leaf via
stomata.
- New water is absorbed from the soil by the roots, creating a difference in pressure between
the leaves (low) and roots (high)
- Water will flow, via the xylem, along the pressure gradient to replace the water lost from
leaves (transpiration stream)
- Stomata are pores on the underside of the leaf which facilitate gas exchange (needed for
photosynthesis)
- As photosynthetic gas exchange requires stomata to be open, transpiration will be affected by
the level of photosynthesis.
- Transpiration is an inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf.

TRANSPORT IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS

B
TRANSPORT IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS
TRANSPORT IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS
XYLEM AND WATER TRANSPORT

XYLEM AND WATER TRANSPORT

XYLEM AND WATER TRANSPORT

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
AND
TRANSPIRATION

ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION

ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION

ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
AND
TRANSPIRATION

 TRANSPORT OF WATER TO THE XYLEM

Water exists as a thin film on the soil / between soil particles; the
concentration of cell sap of root hair cell is greater than that of
surrounding soil solution; thus drawing the water molecules across the
cell membrane into the root hair cells; by osmosis; the water drawn /
absorbed into the root hair cells dilute the cell sap / makes it less
concentrated than that of the adjacent cortex cells of the root; water
therefore moves from the root hair cells into the cortex cells by
osmosis; within the cortex water moves from cell to cell (by osmosis);
and across the endodermis by active transport; into the xylem vessels
of the root; then it is conducted up into the xylem (vessel) of the stem.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
AND
TRANSPIRATION

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION

(i) Xerophytes

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION

(a) Thick waxy cuticle on leaf and/or stem: Reduces non-stomatal
transpiration rate because the cuticle is hydrophobic and creates a barrier to
prevent water loss.
(b) Stomata in sunken pits: Reduces transpiration rate by allowing moisture
(humidity) to build up near stomata.
(c) Fewer stomata: Reduces transpiration rate by having fewer openings in
the leaf.
(d) Fine hairs along underside of leaf: Reduces transpiration rate by
retaining a layer of moisture near the stomata.
(e) Reduced air spaces in leaf mesophyll: Reduces transpiration rate due
to reduced surface area for evaporation.

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION

(e) CAM physiology (crassulacean acid metabolism): Reduces
transpiration rate enormously because stomata close during the day. Stomata
open at night to collect and store carbon dioxide, when darkness and cooler
temperatures reduce evaporation. During the day, pre-collected carbon dioxide
allows photosynthesis to occur without water loss.
(f) Few/small leaves, or photosynthesis moved into stem: Reduces
transpiration rate because there is reduced surface area for light to strike and
water to evaporate.
(g) Curled or rolled leaves: Reduces transpiration rate because there is
reduced surface area for water loss and there can be production of humid
areas by the stomata.

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION

(h) Water storage tissue: increased water

storage when water is available. Succulent plants have
tissues in stems or leaves adapted to store large
amounts of water; other plants store water in tubers.
(i) Deep, highly branched roots: ncreased ability to
take up water because deep roots may reach a lower
water table beyond the dry soil. Branched roots provide
increased surface area for water absorption.

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION: HALOPHYES

(ii) Halophytes

ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION: HALOPHYTES

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION: HALOPHYTES
(i) Salt storage in vacuoles: Compartmentalises salt in vacuoles, thus
protecting cellular organelles and enzymes from damage by high salt
concentration.
(ii) High concentration of organic solutes: Increases osmolarity by having
a high concentration of sugars and other solutes, thus water can still enter by
osmosis.
(iii) Salt storage glands in leaf: Accumulates salt in a limited area by filling
the salt glands until they release salt crystals onto the leaf surface where they
will fall off or be dissolved in rain.
(iv) Leaf abscission for some leaves: Removes salt by breaking off leaves
with toxic levels of salt and letting them fall from the plant.

 ADAPTATIONS FOR WATER CONSERVATION: HALOPHYTES

(v) Selectively permeable membrane in root

cells: Excludes salt by having no ion channels to
allow passage of Na and Cl , and/or has active
+ -

transport pumps to remove the ions.

(vi) Xerophytic adaptations: Conserves water by
having few stomata, water storage tissue, thick
cuticle etc

 DETERMINATION
OF
TRANSPIRATION RATES

USE OF PHOTOMETER TO MEASURE TRANSPIRATION RATES

USE OF PHOTOMETER TO MEASURE TRANSPIRATION RATES

 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION RATES

Internal factors include: External (environmental)

• Surface area of leaves factors include:
• Number of stomata per unit • Light

leaf area • Wind

• Leaf structure, for example, • Temperature

the presence of hair or thick • Humidity

waxy cuticle. • Water availability

• Atmospheric pressure

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Light
As light intensity increases , the rate of transpiration increases: Stomata are
closed in the dark, but as light intensity increases stomata open and allow
water vapour to escape from the air spaces of the leaves. Therefore, bright
sunlight increases the rate of transpiration. Photons also provide energy
for evaporation .

- Increased light intensity cases the stomata to open which brings the sub
stomatal air spaces into direct contact with the external environment which
increases the rate of transpiration. water vapour then diffuse out at a higher
rate in bright light than in dim light.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Wind
- As wind velocity increases , the rate of transpiration increases:
- In low wind conditions, the air underneath leaf becomes increasingly humid.
This reduces the water vapour concentration gradient from the leaf's air
spaces to the outside air, and so reduces the rate of transpiration. As wind
speed increases, the humid air is blown away more quickly and is replaced by
drier air, which increases the rate of transpiration due to the increased
concentration gradient for water vapour. However, if the wind speed reaches
a critical level, the stomata may close to reduce the rate of transpiration.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Wind

- Wind carries away water vapour as fast as it diffuses out of the

leaves, hence water vapour does not accumulate.This raises
diffusion gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf,
thereby increasing the rate of transpiration.
- On a windy day the rate of transpiration is high however when the
air is still the region around the leaf become saturated with water
vapour hence diffusion gradient becomes low and transpiration slow.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Temperature

As temperature increases, the rate of transpiration increases .

Higher temperatures provide more energy for evaporation of
water from the cell walls and decrease the humidity of the
external atmosphere. However, if the temperature gets too high
for enzymes to function efficiently, the stomata may close and the
transpiration rate may fall.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Humidity

As humidity increases , the rate of transpiration decreases .

Humidity refers to the percentage of water vapour present in the
atmosphere. When the air surrounding a leaf is dry (low humidity),
the concentration gradient for diffusion of water vapour from the air
spaces within the leaf to the outside is steep and transpiration
occurs quickly.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Atmospheric Pressure

The lower the atmospheric pressure the greater

the rate of evaporation.
At high altitude i.e on mountain peaks where
atmospheric pressure is low hence plants lose a lot
of water due to high transpiration.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Cuticle

A waxy water proof material covering upper and lower epidermis. Thin
cuticle allows high rate of transpiration while a thick cuticle reduce the
rate of transpiration e.g. Sisal growing in semi arid areas have thick waxy
cuticle to conserve water.

Some leaves have shiny surfaces to reflect light resulting in reduced

internal temperatures of the leaf thus lowering rate of transpiration.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Leaf Size and Shape

These expose a large surface through which water is lost,
Broad leaves that are spread expose a large surface area
for the loss of water hence high rate of transpiration
compared to reduced leaves or curled [ folded].
Compare the surface exposed by a broad leaf and the
one exposed by a narrow leaf.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Leaf Fall

Some broad leaved plants shed their leaves during drought to

expose less surface area lowering the rate of transpiration. i.e
deciduous trees.

Plants also shed their leaves in order to get rid of waste products.

In some grass species the aerial shoot dries op to ground level

during drought to lower the rate of transpiration.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Stomata

-Plants with less or no stomata on the upper

surface but more on the lower surface have a
lower rate of transpiration since the stomata are
not exposed to high temperature and sun.
-Large stomata increase the rate of transpiration
compared to stomata of small aperture.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Stomata

-Leaves with sunken stomata form pits below the epidermis, water
vapour accumulates in the pits which decreases the concentration
gradient between the atmosphere and the pit thus reducing water loss.
- Some plants have reversed stomatal rhythm where the stomata close
at day time but open at night to lower transpiration.
- Some stomata close at midday when the temperature are high to
reduce water loss and prevent them from wilting a phenomena called
midday closure.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Hairy Leaves

Some leaves are covered with hair which trap a

layer of moisture on the leaves surface reducing
the saturation deficit, this lowers the rate of
transpiration.

TRANSPORT IN THE PHLOEM

OF
PLANTS

 TRANSPORT IN THE PHLOEM OF PLANTS

This sub-topic will cover;
•How the structure of phloem supports its function of translocation.
•How organic compounds are transported in plants by the active process of
translocation.
•Experiments that have demonstrated the nature of translocation and
phloem.
•The identification of xylem and phloem in cross sections of roots and leaves.
Essential idea: Structure and function are correlated in the phloem of
plants.

 PHLOEM OF PLANTS
▪ Moves materials via the process of active translocation.
▪ Transports food and nutrients to storage organs and growing parts
of the plant (bidirectional transport).
▪ Phloem occupy the outer portion of the vascular bundle and are
composed of sieve tube elements and companion cells.
▪ Vessel wall consists of cells that are connected at their transverse
ends to form porous sieve plates (function as cross walls).
▪ Vessels are composed of living tissue, however sieve tube
elements lack nuclei and have few organelles.

 PHLOEM SIEVE TUBES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Translocation is the movement of organic compounds (e.g. sugars, amino acids) from
sources to sinks
▪ The source is where the organic compounds are synthesised – this is the photosynthetic
tissues (leaves)
▪ The sink is where the compounds are delivered to for use or storage – this includes roots,
fruits and seeds
Organic compounds are transported from sources to sinks via a vascular tube system
called the phloem
▪ Sugars are principally transported as sucrose (disaccharide), because it is soluble but
metabolically inert.
▪ The nutrient-rich, viscous fluid of the phloem is called plant sap.

Phloem Tissue
Phloem Tissue
 PHLOEM SIEVE TUBES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Phloem sieve tubes are

primarily composed of two
main types of cells – sieve
element cells and
companion cells
▪ The phloem also contains
schlerenchymal and
parenchymal cells which
fill additional spaces and
provide support.

 Translocation of Organic Compounds.

Translocation- this is the transportation of organic products of
photosynthesis in the phloem to all parts of the plant where required e.g. ;
1. Growing and developing regions of the plant e.g. young shoots, roots,
leaves, flowers and fruits.
2. Storage organs or tissues such as tubers, corns, bulbs, rhizomes and
seeds.
3. Secondary organs such as sector glands in some insect pollinated plants
e.g. banana.
• The phloem runs from the roots to the leaves, these products of
photosynthesis include sugar, among acids and vitamins.

 SIEVE ELEMENT CELLS

Sieve elements are long and narrow cells that are connected
together to form the sieve tube.
▪ Sieve elements are connected by sieve plates at their transverse
ends, which are porous to enable flow between cells.
▪ Sieve elements have no nuclei and reduced numbers of
organelles to maximise space for the translocation of materials.
▪ The sieve elements also have thick and rigid cell walls to
withstand the hydrostatic pressures which facilitate flow.

 COMPANION CELLS
Provide metabolic support for sieve element cells and facilitate
the loading and unloading of materials at source and sink.
▪ Possess an infolding plasma membrane which increases SA:Vol
ratio to allow for more material exchange.
▪ Have many mitochondria to fuel the active transport of
materials between the sieve tube and the source or sink.
▪ Contain appropriate transport proteins within the plasma
membrane to move materials into or out of the sieve tube.
▪

 PHLOEM SIEVE TUBES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Sieve elements are unable to sustain independent

metabolic activity without the support of a companion cell.
▪ This is because the sieve element cells have no nuclei
and fewer organelles (to maximise flow rate).
▪ Plasmodesmata exist between sieve elements and
companion cells in relatively large numbers.
▪ These connect the cytoplasm of the two cells and
mediate the symplastic exchange of metabolites.

 Structure and function of phloem.

- Reduced organelles in sieve elements; Absence of cell
structures (including nucleus, cytoskeleton, golgi, ribosomes and
vacuole) frees the lumen to conduct a large volume of sap.
- Companion cells; Metabolic support cells (containing all the
standard organelles) provide biomolecules (e.g. enzymes) necessary
to maintain life functions in the sieve elements.
- Plasmodesmata; Openings between the sieve elements and
companion cells allow communication and support from companion
cells.

 Structure and function of phloem.

- Sieve plate; Pores through the horizontal cells that
join sieve elements allow sap to flow freely.
- Cell membrane; Presence of a fully functional cell
membrane in sieve elements that contains specialised
protein pumps provides the structures needed to
control the composition of sap.

 Adaptations of phloem tissues to their functions

1. Have sieve cells lacking several cell organelles including the nucleus
to allow free movement of materials.
2. Have cytoplasmic strands/filaments which permit the bidirectional
movement of materials within the phloem tissues.
3. They have sieve pores, openings to allow free movement of materials
from one sieve tube to another.
4. Have companion cells with abundant mitochondria to supply energy
for active transportation of materials within the phloem tissue.

5. Have plasmodesmata which connect the companion

cells to the sieve tube cells.
6. The sieve tube cells are longitudinally arranged to
provide a long tube for continuous translocation.
7. Have sieve plates which provide connection between
sieve tubes and provide additional strength to the phloem
tissue.

TRANSLOCATION
IN
THE PHLOEM

 TRANSLOCATION IN THE PHLOEM

1. produced by a source (in photosynthesis or released from storage organs) is actively
loaded using ATP into phloem tubes. (Technically, companion cells are actively loaded and
sucrose then diffuses through plasmodesmata into the sap of the sieve tube elements.)
2. The active loading of sucrose increases the solute concentration in the sieve tubes.
3. Water then moves from xylem vessels to the sieve tubes by osmosis, moving from an area
of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration.
4. Water is essentially incompressible, meaning its volume has almost no change at different
pressures. As water enters sieve elements and pushes on the phloem cell walls, it causes
increased internal pressure. The pressure exerted by water is called hydrostatic pressure.
5. The high hydrostatic pressure at the source squeezes the sap through the pores of the
sieve plates, away from the source and towards the sink . This movement is called mass
flow, or bulk flow, because the water and solutes are moving together.

 TRANSLOCATION IN THE PHLOEM

6. At the sink, companion cells unload sugars from the sieve tube. This may
be active or passive transport depending on the relative sugar concentrations.
As sugars leave the sieve tube, the concentration of solutes decreases.
7. Decreasing solute concentration allows water to return to xylem vessels.
8. The decrease in water in the sieve tube causes lower hydrostatic pressure
near the sink . This allows sap to flow from the areas of high hydrostatic
pressure by the source to areas of low hydrostatic pressure by the sinks.
9. As phloem sap flows from source to sink, it flows down hydrostatic
pressure gradients. This process is also referred to as the pressure-flow
mechanism.

 MASS FLOW FROM SOURCE TO SINK IN PHLOEM.

Organic compounds produced at the source are actively loaded into phloem sieve tubes by companion cells
▪ Materials can pass into the sieve tube via interconnecting plasmodesmata (symplastic loading)
▪ Alternatively, materials can be pumped across the intervening cell wall by membrane proteins
(apoplastic loading)

Apoplastic loading of sucrose into the phloem sieve tubes is an active transport process that requires ATP
expenditure
▪ Hydrogen ions (H+) are actively transported out of phloem cells by proton pumps (involves the hydrolysis
of ATP)
▪ The concentration of hydrogen ions consequently builds up outside of the cell, creating a proton gradient
▪ Hydrogen ions passively diffuse back into the phloem cell via a co-transport protein, which requires
sucrose movement
▪ This results in a build up of sucrose within the phloem sieve tube for subsequent transport from the
source.



APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT

APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT

 APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT

▪ Aphids possess a protruding
mouthpiece (called a stylet), which
pierces the plant’s sieve tube to allow
sap to be extracted
▪ The penetration of the stylet into the
sieve tube is aided by digestive enzymes
that soften the intervening tissue layers
▪ If the stylet is severed, sap will
continue to flow from the plant due to
the hydrostatic pressure within the sieve
tube.

APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT

 APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT: MEASURING PHLOEM TRANSPORT

▪ Aphids can be used to collect sap at various sites along a plant's length and thus provide a
measure of phloem transport rates.
▪A plant is grown within a lab with the leaves sealed within a glass chamber containing
radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide.
▪ The leaves will convert the CO2 into radioactively-labelled sugars (via photosynthesis), which
are transported by the phloem.
▪ Aphids are positioned along the plant’s length and encouraged to feed on the phloem sap.
▪ Once feeding has commenced, the aphid stylet is severed and sap continues to flow from
the plant at the selected positions.
▪ The sap is then analysed for the presence of radioactively-labelled sugars.
▪ The rate of phloem transport (translocation rate) can be calculated based on the time taken
for the radioisotope to be detected at different positions along the plant’s length.

APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT: MEASURING PHLOEM TRANSPORT

APHIDS AND PHLOEM TRANSPORT: MEASURING PHLOEM TRANSPORT
 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSLOCATION RATE
The rate of phloem transport will principally be determined by the concentration of
dissolved sugars in the phloem

The concentration of dissolved sugars in the phloem sap will be affected by:
▪ The rate of photosynthesis (which is affected by light intensity, CO2 concentration,
temperature, water.)
▪ The rate of cellular respiration (this may be affected by any factor which physically
stresses the plant)
▪ The rate of transpiration (this will potentially determine how much water enters the
phloem)
▪ The diameter of the sieve tubes (will affect the hydrostatic pressure and may differ
between plant species)

 PHLOEM AND XYLEM

Phloem Xylem

Movement Trans location Trans piration

process:

Movement Hydrostatic pressure gradients in Evaporation and cohesion-

due to: phloem tension creating transpiration
ATP for loading sugar into phloem at pull
source, water follows by osmosis ATP for loading ions into roots,
water follows by osmosis

Materials Sucrose and other organics (other sugars, Water and dissolved minerals
transported: hormones, amino acids, proteins)

Direction of Source to sink (bidirectional) Roots to shoots especially

movement: leaves ( upwards only )

 PHLOEM AND XYLEM

Phloem Xylem
Cellular Columns of living cells called sieve Columns of dead cells
structure: tube elements called xylem vessels

Horizontal Perforated walls called sieve plates Continuous hollow tube

end walls: allow the continuous  ow of sap with removed end
walls allows an unbroken
column of water

Special Connected by plasmodesmata Thickened cell walls

features: to companion cells that support consisting
metabolic functions of lignin making strong,
woody tissue
fl
DISTRIBUTION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN ROOTS

 ROOTS
▪ In monocotyledons, the stele is large and vessels will form a
radiating circle around the central pith.
▪ Xylem vessels will be located more internally and phloem
vessels will be located more externally.
▪ In dicotyledons, the stele is very small and the xylem is located
centrally with the phloem surrounding it.
▪ Xylem vessels may form a cross-like shape (‘X’ for xylem), while
the phloem is situated in the surrounding gaps.

DISTRIBUTION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN STEMS

GROWTH IN PLANTS

 AREAS OF EXPLORATION

(i) Undifferentiated cells in meristems.

(ii) Plant hormones and tropisms.
(iii) Auxin and cell elongation.
(iv) Micropropagation.

Essential idea: Plants adapt their growth to environmental conditions.

 UNDIFFERENTIATED CELLS IN MERISTEMS.

Meristems are tissues in a plant consisting of undifferentiated cells capable of indeterminate

growth
▪ They are analagous to totipotent stem cells in animals, except that they have specific regions of
growth and development
▪ Meristematic tissue can allow plants to regrow structures or even form entirely new plants
(vegetative propagation)
Meristematic tissue can be divided into apical meristems and lateral meristems:
▪ Apical meristems occur at shoot and root tips and are responsible for primary growth (i.e.
plant lengthening)
▪ Lateral meristems occur at the cambium and are responsible for secondary growth (i.e.
plant widening / thickening)
▪ Apical meristems give rise to new leaves and flowers, while lateral meristems are responsible for
the production of bark.

UNDIFFERENTIATED CELLS IN MERISTEMS.

 APICAL GROWTH
The apical meristems give rise to primary growth (lengthening) and occurs at
the tips of the roots and shoots
▪ Growth at these regions is due to a combination of cell enlargement and
repeated cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis)
▪ Differentiation of the dividing meristem gives rise to a variety of stem
tissues and structures – including leaves and flowers.
▪ In the stem, growth occurs in sections called nodes – with the remaining
meristem tissue forming an inactive axillary bud
▪ These axillary (lateral) buds have the potential to form new branching
shoots, complete with leaves and flowers

APICAL GROWTH IN SHOOTS AND ROOTS

APICAL GROWTH IN SHOOTS AND ROOTS
UNDIFFERENTIATED CELLS IN MERISTEMS.
 Undifferentiated cells in meristems.
Meristematic cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide
rapidly, allowing growth in plants.
There are two major types of meristematic tissue, apical and
lateral.
Apical meristematic tissue occurs in root tips and in other
areas that allow lengthening of plant parts. Lateral
meristematic tissue occurs in stem tissue and allows growth
in width

Undifferentiated cells in meristems.

The zone of cell division is where

new undifferentiated cells are forming,
corresponding with the M phase of the
cell cycle.
The zone of elongation is where cells
are enlarging in size, corresponding
with the G phase of the cell cycle 1
The zone of maturation is where cells
become a functional part of the plant.

 Primary and secondary Growth

The region of growth in plants is found in localised areas called meristems.
A meristem is a group of undifferentiated cells in plants which are capable
of continuous mitotic cell division.
The main meristems in flowering plants are found at the tips of shoots and
roots, in young leaves, at the bases of the inter-nodes, and Intervascular
cambium and cork cambium.
The meristems at the tips of the shoots and the roots are known as apical
meristems and are responsible for primary growth. The cambium
meristems are responsible for secondary growth.

 Primary Growth.
Primary growth occurs at the tips of roots and shoots due to the
activity of apical meristems.
These meristems originate from the embryonic tissues. In this
growth there are three distinctive regions, the region of cell division,
cell elongation and cell differentiation.
The region of cell division is an area of actively dividing
meristematic cells. These cells have thin cell walls, dense
cytoplasm and no vacuoles.

Primary Growth.
Primary Growth
 Primary Growth.
In the region of cell elongation, the cells become enlarged to
their maximum size by the stretching of their walls. Vacuoles start
forming and enlarging.
In the region of cell differentiation the cells attain their
permanent size, have large vacuoles and thickened wall cells. The
cells also differentiate into tissues specialised for specific functions.
Primary growth results into an increase in the length of shoots and
roots.

 APICAL DOMINANCE
The growth of the stem and the formation of new nodes is controlled by plant hormones released from the
shoot apex
▪ One of the main groups of plant hormones involved in shoot and root growth are auxins (e.g. indole-3-
acetic acid / IAA)

When auxins are produced by the shoot apical meristem, it promotes growth in the shoot apex via cell
elongation and division
▪ The production of auxins additionally prevents growth in lateral (axillary) buds, a condition known as apical
dominance
▪ Apical dominance ensures that a plant will use its energy to grow up towards the light in order to
outcompete other plants
▪ As the distance between the terminal bud and axillary bud increases, the inhibition of the axillary bud by
auxin diminishes
▪ Different species of plants will show different levels of apical dominance.



THE ROLE OF AUXIN IN APICAL DOMINANCE

THE ROLE OF AUXIN IN APICAL DOMINANCE
 AUXIN HORMONE
Auxins are a group of hormones produced by the tip of a shoot or root (i.e. apical meristems) that
regulate plant growth.
▪ Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients within tissues – changing the distribution of
auxin within the plant.
▪ These pumps can control the direction of plant growth by determining which regions of plant tissue
have high auxin levels.
▪ Auxin efflux pumps can change position within the membrane (due to fluidity) and be activated by
various factors.
Auxin has different mechanism of action in the roots of plants versus the shoots of plants:
▪ In the shoots, auxin stimulates cell elongation and thus high concentrations of auxin promote
growth (cells become larger).
▪ In the roots, auxin inhibits cell elongation and thus high concentrations of auxin limit growth (cells
become relatively smaller).

Role of Growth Hormones in plants.

 Role of Growth Hormones in plants.
Auxins. Indole acetic acid (IAA) is one best known auxin. Auxins- produced at the
shoot and root tips. Maximum influence on growth in plants occurs when auxins
are produced simultaneously with other plant hormones e.g. gibberellins.
Maximum growth response in stems requires more IAA than in roots.Auxins are
known to have various effects on the growth and development in plants.
They stimulate cell division and cell elongation in stems and roots leading to
primary growth.
Auxins cause tropic responses, which are growth responses in plants due to
external stimuli acting from a given direction.

IAA stimulates the growth of adventitious roots which develop from the
stem rather than the main root. Cuttings can be encouraged to develop
roots with the help of IAA. If the cut end of a stem is dipped into IAA, root
sprouting is faster.
IAA is also used to induce parthenocarpy. This is the growth of an ovary
into a fruit without fertilisation. This is commonly used by horticulturalists to
bring about a good crop of fruits particularly pineapples.
Auxins inhibit development of side branches from lateral buds. They
therefore enhance apical dominance.

During secondary growth auxins Play an important role by initiating cell

division in the cambium and differentiation of these cambium cells into
vascular tissues.
Auxins in association with other plant hormones such as the cytokinins
induce the formation of callus tissue which causes the healing of wounds.
When the concentration of auxins falls in the plant, it promotes
formation of an abscission layer leading to leaf fall.
A synthetic auxin, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) induces
distorted growth and excessive respiration leading to death of the plant.
Hence it can be used as a selective weed killer.

THE ROLE OF AUXIN EFFLUX PUMPS ON GROWTH PATTERNS IN PLANT SHOOTS

THE ROLE OF AUXIN EFFLUX PUMPS ON GROWTH PATTERNS IN PLANT SHOOTS

THE ROLE OF AUXIN EFFLUX PUMPS ON GROWTH PATTERNS IN PLANT SHOOTS

 THE ROLE OF AUXIN EFFLUX PUMPS ON GROWTH PATTERNS IN PLANT

- Auxin is a plant hormone and influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene
expression with a plant’s cells.

-Auxin’s mechanism of action is different in shoots and roots as different gene pathways are
activated in each tissue.

-In shoots, auxin increases the flexibility of the cell wall to promote plant growth via cell elongation

- Auxin activates a proton pump in the plasma membrane which causes the secretion of H+ ions into
the cell wall.

-The resultant decrease in pH causes cellulose fibres within the cell wall to loosen (by breaking the
bonds between them).

- Additionally, auxin upregulates expression of expansins, which similarly increases the elasticity of
the cell wall. With the cell wall now more flexible, an influx of water (to be stored in the vacuole)
causes the cell to increase in size ..

THE ROLE OF AUXIN EFFLUX PUMPS ON GROWTH PATTERNS IN PLANT

TROPISMS
 Tropic responses (Tropisms)
-A tropism refers to a directional growth response made by a
part of a plant in response to an external unidirectional
stimulus.
- They involve plant parts curving in response to external
stimuli.
-Tropic responses are slow and permanent as compared to
taxes which are quick and temporary.

 Types of Tropic responses (Tropisms)

(i) Phototropism
(ii) Geotropism
(iii) Thigmotropism
(iv) Chemotropism
(v) Hydrotropism

Phototropism
Phototropism
Phototropism
Phototropism
Phototropism
Phototropism
 Auxin and Phototropism
Under uniform light distribution, Auxins produced from shoot
apex are translocated evenly leading to uniform growth rate in
the zone of cell elongation.

Under uni-directional light, light causes the lateral migration of

auxins from the lit side to the darker side leading to higher
concentration of Auxins on the darker side leading to rapid cell
elongation hence faster growth on the darker side leading to
curvature to source of light.

 Role of Auxins
in
Cell elongation

Auxin and cell

elongation

 Auxin and cell elongation

- In the apical meristem, a group of proteins called phototropins are produced to
detect light intensity.
- When light is equally bright on all sides of the shoot tip, auxin moves symmetrically
downward, being pumped into and out of successive layers of cells through specialised
protein pumps.
- Plant cells have auxin influx carriers in their apical (top) cell membranes and auxin
efflux carriers in their bottom (basal) cell membranes. This allows the cells to move
auxin continually downward, pumped into the top of a cell and out of the bottom, then
into the cell below. This even distribution of auxin leads to even cell growth and vertical
extension of the stem.

 Auxin and cell elongation

- When there is a difference in brightness on different sides
of the shoot, phototropins cause some types of auxin efflux
carriers to increase on the internal lateral (side) membrane.
- This causes transport of auxin to the shaded side of the
plant and establishes a concentration gradient.
- The shaded side of the shoot experiences greater cell
elongation, bending the stem toward the light.

 Starter Activity
The image shows seedlings
that have been exposed to
unidirectional light.
Which statement explains the growth
towards the light source?
A.Light causes auxin to inhibit cell division
in the shoot meristem.
B. Light causes auxin to promote cell
division in the shoot meristem.
C. Auxin is concentrated in the side of the
shoot with light and inhibits cell
elongation.
D.Auxin is concentrated in the side of the
shoot without light and promotes cell
elongation.

 Starter Activity
The photomicrograph shows a
section through the top of a What are the structures labelled X and Y?

plant shoot.

Analyse the set-ups

Auxin and cell
elongation

How auxin stimulates cell elongation in the stem

How auxin
stimulates cell
elongation in
the stem

How auxin stimulates cell elongation in the stem

 How auxin stimulates cell elongation in the stem

Auxin stimulates cell elongation in the stem.
◦ Auxin stimulates proton pumps that use ATP to move protons (hydrogen ions, H+ ) out of
the cytoplasm and into the cell wall.
◦ A higher H+ concentration in the cell wall means the cell wall becomes more acidic (a
decreased pH).
◦ The acidic pH breaks bonds between cellulose fibres in the cell wall directly by disrupting
hydrogen bonding and indirectly by activating pH-dependent expansin proteins that
sever cellulose connections.
◦ The reduced number of bonds between cellulose microfibrils makes the cell wall more
flexible.
◦ Cellulose fibres can slide apart as they are pushed by turgor pressure inside the cell, thus
the cell elongates as the cell wall becomes softer and more flexible.

 Turn and talk

Name pes of opisms

ty
tr
 Geotropism
- This is a plant growth response to force of gravity.

-Plant shoots move away from the force of gravity (move

against the force of gravity). This is negative
geotropism.

-Plant roots move towards the force of gravity. This is

positive geotropism.

 Auxins and Geotropism

Roots are positive geotropic while Shoots are negatively geotropic.
When a seedling is placed in the dark in horizontal position ,
gravity causes Auxins to migrate and accumulate on the lower
side promoting faster growth in stems but inhibits growth in roots.
In shoots greater concentration of Auxins on lower side promotes
faster growth than upper side causing the shoot to bend upwards.
In roots lower concentration of Auxins on the upper side promotes
faster growth than on lower side hence bend downwards .

A klinostat- A device with clockwork mechanism which slowly

rotates a plant to nullify effect of unidirectional stimulus.
Geotropism and Clinostat
In your table group ,
interpret the curves
shown below.
 igmo opism/Hap opism
Th
tr
to
tr
Thigmotropism/
Haptotropism
 Auxins and Thigmotropism.
When climbing stem comes into contact with an object, the
contact causes lateral migration of Auxins to the outer side
of the stem.
This higher concentration promotes faster growth in
shoots. The greater the concentration in the outer part the
faster the growth than part in contact hence the shoot
continues to coil.

Chemotropism
 Chemotropism
- This is a plant response to a chemical response.
- Pollen tube grows towards the embryo sac in
response to the chemical substances secreted by
the embryo sac into the style. This response
enhances fertilisation.

Auxins are produced at tip of the coleoptile .

By placing the cut tip on one side of the
coleoptile there is unequal distribution of
Auxins.
Side of the shoot with higher concentration
of Auxin grows faster hence curvature

Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
 Micropropagation
Micropropagation is a technique used to produce large
numbers of identical plants (clones) from a selected stock plant
▪ Plants can reproduce asexually from meristems because they
are undifferentiated cells capable of indeterminate growth.
▪ When a plant cutting is used to reproduce asexually in the
native environment it is called vegetative propagation.
▪ When plant tissues are cultured in the laboratory (in vitro) in
order to reproduce asexually it is called micropropagation.

 Micropropagation
The process of micropropagation involves a number of key steps:
▪ Specific plant tissue (typically the undifferentiated shoot apex) is selected
from a stock plant and sterilised
▪ The tissue sample (called the explant) is grown on a sterile nutrient agar gel
▪ The explant is treated with growth hormones (e.g. auxins) to stimulate
shoot and root development
▪ The growing shoots can be continuously divided and separated to form new
samples (multiplication phase)
▪ Once the root and shoot are developed, the cloned plant can be transferred
to soil.

 Micropropagation
Micropropagation is a technology that uses plants' flexible growth patterns
to produce very large numbers of clones from an original parent plant.
- A small tissue sample is taken, usually from the shoot apical meristem, and
sterilised.
- It is grown in a sterile medium with concentrations of auxin that promote
cell growth but not differentiation. This produces a large mass of
undifferentiated cells called a callus. The callus can then be broken up to
create many tiny cell samples that are grown in a different medium, this one
with concentrations of hormones that trigger cell differentiation and plant
development.

 Micropropagation
Micropropagation is used to rapidly produce large numbers of cloned plants under controlled conditions:

Rapid Bulking
▪ Desirable stock plants can be cloned via micropropagation to conserve the fidelity of the selected characteristic
▪ This process is more reliable that selective breeding because new plants are genetically identical to the stock plant
▪ This technique is also used to rapidly produce large quantities of plants created via genetic modification

Virus-Free Strains
▪ Plant viruses have the potential to decimate crops, crippling economies and leading to famine
▪ Viruses typically spread through infected plants via the vascular tissue – which meristems do not contain
▪ Propagating plants from the non-infected meristems allows for the rapid reproduction of virus-free plant strains

Propagation of Rare Species

▪ Micropropagation is commonly used to increase numbers of rare or endangered plant species
▪ It is also used to increase numbers of species that are difficult to breed sexually (e.g. orchids)
▪ It may also be used to increase numbers of plant species that are commercially in demand





 Important benefits of micropropagation

1.When a new variety of plant is created, micropropagation allows rapid increase
in numbers of plants, known as 'bulking up' a new variety. Other methods of
plant cultivation would take much longer.
2.Production of virus-free individuals of existing varieties. Even when a parent
plant is infected with a virus, the virus is usually not found in the newly
produced cells of the apical meristem. The sterile micropropagation technique
allows uninfected individuals to be grown from an infected parent.
3.Production of orchids and other rare species. Orchids are delicate and difficult
to breed, as well as difficult to grow from their tiny seeds. Micropropagation
allows many individuals to be created from a callus, bypassing issues with
breeding and germination.

 Reproduction
in
plants

 Reproduction in plants
The following areas will be explored:

• The structure and function of flowers and seeds

• The processes of pollination, fertilisation, and
seed dispersal
• Control of flowering and germination.

 Introduction
The Plants can reproduce in a number of different ways:
Vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction from a
plant cutting).
Spore formations (e.g. moulds, ferns)
Pollen transfer (flowering plants – angiospermophytes)

 Flowering and gene expression

The following areas will be explored:

• The structure and function of flowers and seeds

• The processes of pollination, fertilisation, and
seed dispersal
• Control of flowering and germination.

 Flowering and gene expression

The following factors affect flowering:

Internal factors such as age of the plant, molecular signalling

regarding food storage and plant health, and the concentration
of hormones like gibberellin.
External factors such as temperature, and photoperiod – the
relative length of day and night, that affects molecules sensitive
to environmental stimuli. For example, phytochrome molecules
are sensitive to light.

 Photoperiodism

 Photoperiodism
- Phytochromes are leaf pigments which are used by the plant to detect periods of light
and darkness
- The response of the plant to the relative lengths of light and darkness is
called photoperiodism.
-Phytochromes exist in two forms – an active form and an inactive form:
- The inactive form of phytochrome (Pr) is converted into the active form when it
absorbs red light (~660 nm).
- The active form of phytochrome (Pfr) is broken down into the inactive form when
it absorbs far red light (~725 nm).
- Additionally, the active form will gradually revert to the inactive form in the absence of
light (darkness reversion).

 Photoperiodism
-Because sunlight contains more red light than moonlight, the active form is predominant during the
day

- Similarly, as the active form is reverted in darkness, the inactive form is predominant during the night

 Photoperiodism
- Only the active form of phytochrome (Pfr) is capable of causing flowering, however its
action differs in certain types of plants.
-Plants can be classed as short-day or long-day plants, however the critical factor in
determining their activity is night length.
-Short-day plants flower when the days are short – hence require the night period
to exceed a critical length.
-In short-day plants, Pfr inhibits flowering and hence flowering requires low levels
of Pfr (i.e. resulting from long nights)
-Long-day plants flower when the days are long – hence require the night period to be less
than a critical length.
-In long-day plants, Pfr activates flowering and hence flowering requires high levels
of Pfr (i.e. resulting from short nights)

 Application of Photoperiodism
- Horticulturalists can manipulate the flowering of short-day and long-day plants
by controlling the exposure of light.
- The critical night length required for a flowering response must be uninterrupted
in order to be effective.
- Long-day plants require periods of darkness to be less than an uninterrupted
critical length.
- These plants will traditionally not flower during the winter and autumn months
when night lengths are long.
- Horticulturalists can trigger flowering in these plants by exposing the plant to a
light source during the night.
- Carnations are an example of a long-day plant.

 Application of Photoperiodism
- Short-day plants require periods of darkness to be
greater than an uninterrupted critical length.
- These plants will traditionally not flower during the
summer months when night lengths are short.
- Horticulturalists can trigger flowering in these plants by
covering the plant with an opaque black cloth for ~12
hours a day.
- Crysanthemums are an example of a short-day plant.

 Photoperiodism

 Flowering and gene expression

- During long days, increased amounts of Pfr promote
flowering in long-day plants.

- Flowering in short-day plants is inhibited by Pfr , but during

long nights, sufficient Pfr is removed to allow them to flower.

- The exact mechanism of phytochrome action is not fully

understood but it is thought that it causes changes in the
expression of genes concerned with flowering.

 Flowering and gene expression

Some short-day plants, such as poinsettias or
chrysanthemums, are commercially produced so
t h a t t h e y fl o w e r a t a n y t i m e o f y e a r.
Horticulturalists grow them in shaded
glasshouses where an extended period of
darkness induces them to produce flowers.

Parts of a Flower
Parts of a Flower
Starter Activity
Identify the types of pollination

2
1

3
 Structure and function of a flower
A flower is made of a flower stalk (pedicel), the apex
of the stalk is receptacle and the four floral parts
namely;

Calyx, made up of sepals.

Corolla, some coloured.
Androecium, the male parts of a flower.
Gynoecium/ Pistil, the female parts of a flower.

i) Calyx is made up of sepals which are usually

green. Two types namely;
Polysepalous calyx, where sepals are free.
Gamosepalous calyx, where sepals are fused.
Calyx protects the inner parts of a flower
specially during bud development.

ii) Corolla is made up of petals. Petals are

bright in colour, large and conspicuous in
insect pollinated flowers. Two types of
corolla namely;
Polypetalous, where petals are free.
Gamopetalous, where petals are fused.

iii) Androecium is the male part of a flower.

Made up of one or more stamens.
Stamen consists of anther and filament.
The anther consists of four pollen sacs
which contain pollen grains.
The pollen grains contain the male gametes.

iv) Gynoecium/ Pistils, this is the female part of a

flower.
Consist of one or more carpels.
Carpel consists of the ovary, style and stigma.
There are different types of gynoecium depending
on the number of carpels namely;
Monocarpous- gynoecium has one carpel ie beans.

 Parts of a flower
The male part of the flower is called
the stamen and is composed of:

Anther – pollen producing organ of the flower

(pollen is the male gamete of a flowering plant)

Filament – slender stalk supporting the anther

(makes the anther accessible to pollinators)

 Parts of a flower
The female part of the flower is called the pistil (or carpel) and is
composed of:

Stigma – the sticky, receptive tip of the pistil that is responsible for
catching the pollen.

Style – the tube-shaped connection between the stigma and ovule (it
elevates the stigma to help catch pollen).

Ovule – the structure that contains the female reproductive cells (after
fertilisation, it will develop into a seed).

 Parts of a flower
The following are support structures:
Petals – brightly coloured modified leaves, which
function to attract pollinators.
Sepal – Outer covering which protects the flower
when in bud.
Peduncle – Stalk of the flower.

 Pollination

Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Two types of pollination namely;
i) Self-pollination; is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the same flower or from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on the same plant.
ii) Cross-pollination; is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
of one flower to the stigma of another flower of a different plant but
of same species.

 Advantages of cross pollination

i) Increases variety.
ii) Leads to hybrid vigour/ heterosis.
iii) Resistance to diseases/drought/viruses,
bacteria, pests.

Agents of pollination
 Agents of pollination

Include:
i) Wind
ii) Insects.

Adaptation of insect-pollinated (entomophilous) flowers

1.The flowers are large, conspicuous, with bright coloured petals,
inflorescence or bracts (modified leaves for the purpose of
attracting agents of pollination) to attract insects.
2.Flowers are scented and produce nectar which attracts insects
that come to collect nectar as their food.
3.Anthers are small and firmly attached to a firm filament. This
ensures that insects rub against anthers as they crawl into the
flower hence collecting pollen grains on their bodies.

4.Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy and rough/sticky so

as to stick onto the body of an insect.
5.Stigmas are small and sticky so that pollen grains from the
body of an insect sticks onto them.
6.The flower is specially designed with tubular or funnel
shaped corolla, landing platforms, honey guides. These
features ensures that the insect comes into contact with
stamen and carpels when getting into nectary.

Adaptation of wind-pollinated(Anemophilous) flowers.

1.The flowers are small, with inconspicuous petals,
bracts or inflorescence.
2.Flowers are not scented and lack nectar.
3.Anthers are large and produces lots of pollen
grains.

4.Anthers are loosely attached to a flexible filament.

This ensures that pollen grains are released readily
when wind blows on anthers.
5.Pollen grains are usually small, smooth and light to
enable them float in air currents.
6.Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the
flowers acting as nets to trap pollen grains.

Features and mechanisms that hinder self-pollination

and self-fertilisation.
- Plants have developed features and mechanisms that
hinder self-pollination and self-fertilisation but at the same
time enhances cross-pollination and cross-fertilisation.
- Cross-fertilisation provides variations for better
adaptability.

i)Protandry; a situation where the stamen ripens earlier

than the carpel such that the anthers shed their pollen
grains before the stigma is mature enough to receive them.
ie in sunflowers.
ii)Protogyny; a situation where the stigma matures earlier
and is ready to receive pollen grains before the anthers are
ripe enough to shed their pollen grains. Common in most
grasses ie maize.

iii) Self-sterility or incompatibility; a situation where pollen grains are

sterile to the stigma of the same plant. i.e. in maize flowers.
iv) Dioecious plants; a situation where plants have male and female
reproductive structures on different plants. As such self-pollination and
self-fertilisation is not possible.
v) Brightly coloured petals, scented flowers; in hermaphrodite
flowers attract insects hence hindering self-pollination and self-fertilisation.
v) Heterostyly; a condition of having styles of different lengths in
relation to stamens. Some plants have a style longer than stamen while in
others, style is shorter than stamen.

 Advantages of self-pollination
(i) The plants spend less energy since they do not need
to produce attractants such as colour pigments.
(ii) The self-fertilizing plants can do well in regions with
low populations of pollinators.
(iii) There are less chances of pollination failure.
(iv) Self-pollination can help maintain the good qualities
of the plant.

 Disadvantages of self-pollination
(i) The offspring show decreased hybrid vigour due
to repeated inbreeding.
(ii) The undesirable traits are maintained in the
plant.
(iii) There is reduction in disease resistance
capability of the plant species in frequent progeny.

 Advantages of cross pollination

(i) Leads to genetic variations that lead to increased

hybrid vigour .
(ii) The offspring are best suited to environment with
increased resistance to diseases.
(iii) Contributes to evolution of species.
(iv) It can lead to loss of undesirable traits in parental
generations.

 Disadvantages of cross pollination

(i) A lot of energy is spent by the plants on

production of attractants .
(ii) There is less less chance of pollination.
(iii) Leads to decreased plant populations in areas
with low pollinator species (for pollination dependent
on biotic agents).

The Plant Gametes

The Pollen grain Structure
The Pollen
grain
Structure
Embryo sac Structure
 Structure of the Gametes

• The male gamete (generative nucleus) is

contained in the pollen grain produced in the
anther.
• The female gamete (egg cell) is found in ovules
within embryo sac. The embryo sac also contain
antipodal cells, polar nuclei and synergids.

The process of fertilisation in flowering plants(Double fertilisation)

After pollination , The pollen gains absorb nutrients from

the stigma and develop a pollen tube;
The pollen tube grows down the style to the embryo sac
taking along male gamete;
The stigma cells secretes a sticky substance which ensure
the pollen grain adhere to the stigma; and stimulate the
pollen grain to germinate sending down the pollen tube;

The pollen tube obtains its nourishment from the

surrounding tissues as it pushes through the style to the
ovary;
As the pollen grain germinates, the tube nucleus occupies
the position at the tip of the growing pollen tube;
The generative nucleus divides by mitosis into two male
gamete nuclei; which follow behind the tube nucleus as
the pollen tube grows;.

The pollen tube enters an ovule through the Micropyle; and

penetrates the wall of the embryo sac and bursts open;
The tube nucleus disintegrates giving way for entry of male
nuclei;
One male nuclei fuses with the egg cell nucleus to form a
diploid zygote ; The other male nucleus fuses with poler
nuclei to form a triploid nucleus; which develop into
endosperm;.

Germination of pollen grain and pollen tube

Double fertilisation in owering plants.

fl
 Activity

Study the diagram below and

E
answer the questions that
follow.
(i) Identify the structure. D
A
(ii) Identify parts labelled A, B,
B
C, D, and E.
(iii) Define double fertilization.
C

 Seed and Fruits Development

After fertilisation,
(i) The external protective calyx dries up, falls off of
persist.
(ii) Petals and Stamens wither and fall off.
(iii) Ovary develops into fruit.
(iv) The ovule develops to form the seed.

Seed development.
Seed development.
Seed development.
Seed development.
 Seed development.

A dicotyledonous seed normally contains the following:

• The embryonic plant, which comprises:

◦ Radicle – an embryonic root
◦ Plumule – an embryonic shoot
◦ Hypocotyl – a shoot above the root and below the cotyledons
◦ Cotyledons – modified leaves that store food for the embryo
• Testa – a seed coat that protects the embryo and food stores
• Hilum – a scar where the seed was attached to the ovary
• Micropyle – a small pore above the hilum where the pollen tube entered to allow
fertilisation.

 Seed development.
The zygote undergoes mitotic division and develops into
an embryo.
The embryo has a plumule (young shoot), radicle
(young) shoot and one or two cotyledons (young leaves).
Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the
endosperm.

The ovule forms the seed.

Integuments develop into seed coat/testa.
The testa has one scar, hilum which is the point of
attachment to the placenta.
The embryo completely separates from the endosperm
by a membrane, leaving an opening called a micropyle,
which allows water into the seed during germination.

 Key Points

Pollination: delivery of pollen to the stigma of a flower.

- Major vectors are wind and animals.

- Insects are the most common pollinators.

- Pollen must be carried to other individuals to maintain genetic diversity.

Fertilisation: fusion of the sperm and the egg to create a diploid zygote

Occurs in the ovule.

Pollen grain grows a tube through the style to allow the sperm to travel from the stigma to the ovule

Flowers must be pollinated before the eggs can be fertilised

Seed dispersal: transport of seeds to new locations

Major vectors are wind, water and animals

Mammals and birds are the most common animal seed-dispersal agents

Seeds (each containing an embryo) must be dispersed to reduce competition between closely related individuals and to
colonise new areas.

 Adaptation of seeds to wind Dispersal.

Some seeds have developed hairy and feather-like projections;
to increase their surface area for wind to carry them.(Extended
pericarp and coat)
Seeds are generally small and light; so that they can easily be
carried by wind
Some seeds are loosely attached to the stalk; so that they can
easily be swayed by wind that scatter the seeds.

Some seeds eg Jacaranda, Nandi flame have

developed wing like structures ; to increase their
surface area so that they can easily be carried by
wind and scattered.
Some seeds have parachute-like structures;
which are filled by air making them buoyant and
easily blown by wind.

 Adaptation to animal dispersal.

Some seeds have hook-like structures that sticks on the
animal body.
Seeds have a hard testa/ seed coat that is resistant to
digestive enzymes.

 Adaptation to water dispersal.

Some seeds have a spongy or fibrous coat e.g coconut;
which encloses large air spaces; the trapped air makes the
fruit lighter and buoyant.
Some have a water proof testa/seed coat; to prevent soaking
by water.
Plants like water Lilly produce seeds whose seed coats trap
air bubbles enabling the seeds to float in water and be
carried away from the parent plant.

GERMINATION
Stages of Germination
Stages of Germination
 Germination
Germination is the process by which the seed develops into a seedling.
. It refers to all the changes that take place when a seed becomes a seedling.
· At the beginning of germination water is absorbed into the seed through the
micropyle in a process known as Imbibition and causes the seed to swell.
· The cells of the cotyledons become turgid and active. They begin to make use of
the water to dissolve and break down the food substances stored in the cotyledons.
· The soluble food is transported to the growing plumule and radicle.The plumule
grows into a shoot while the radicle grows into a root.
·The radical emerges from the seed through micropyle, bursting the seed coat as it
does so.

 Stages
of
Germination

 Stages of Germination
The first step in the germination process is the metabolic activation of a dormant
seed
▪ Germination begins with the absorption of water, which causes gibberellin to be
produced.
▪ Gibberellin triggers the synthesis of amylase, which breaks down starch into
maltose.
▪ Maltose is either hydrolysed (to glucose) for energy, or polymerised (to cellulose)
for cell wall formation.
▪ This energy and cellular building blocks is used to promote cell division and the
growth of a nascent shoot.
▪

 Continue…
Once the seed is metabolically activated, germination proceeds
according to the following stages;
- The seed coat (testa) ruptures and the embryonic root (radicle)
grows into the ground to extract key nutrients and minerals.
- The cotyledon emerges and produces the growing shoot’s first
leaves.
- The growing plant can be divided into the epicotyl (embryonic
shoot), hypocotyl (embryonic stem) and developing roots.
▪

 Conditions necessary for germination

(i) Water
(ii) Oxygen
(iii) Temperature
(iv) Enzymes
(v) Hormones
(vi) Viability
(vii) pH

 1. Water
- Water activates the enzymes and provides the medium for
enzymes to act and break down the stored food into soluble form.
- Water hydrolyses and dissolves the food materials.
- Provides medium for transport of dissolved food substances
through the various cells to the growing region of the radical and
plumule.
- Besides, water softens the seed coat which can subsequently
burst and facilitate the emergence of the radicle.

 2. Oxygen
- Germinating seeds require energy for cell division and
growth.
- This energy is obtained from the oxidation of food
substances stored in the seed through respiration thus
making oxygen an important factor in seed germination.
- Seed in water logged soil or seed buried deep into the
soil will not germinate due to lack of oxygen.

 3. Temperature
- Most seeds require suitable temperature before they can germinate.
- Seeds will not germinate below 0°C or above 47° C.
- The optimum temperature for seeds to germinate is 30°C.
- At higher temperature the protoplasm is killed and the enzymes in the
seed are denatured.
- At very low temperatures the enzymes become inactive. Therefore, the
protoplasm and the enzymes work best within the optimum temperature
range. The rate of germination increases with temperature until it reaches
an optimum.

 4. Enzymes
- Enzymes play a vital role during germination in the breakdown and
subsequent oxidation of food.
- Food is stored in seeds in form of carbohydrates, fats and proteins which
are in insoluble form.
- The insoluble food is converted into a soluble form by the enzymes.
- Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose by the diastase enzyme,
fats into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase, and proteins into amino acids
by protease. Enzymes are also necessary for the conversion of hydrolysed
products to new plant tissues.

 5. Hormones
·Several hormones play a vital role in germination
since they act as growth stimulators.
·These include gibberellins and cytokinins.
·These hormones also counteract the effect of
germination inhibitors.

 6. Viability
· Only seeds whose embryos are alive and
healthy will be able to germinate and grow.
· Seeds stored for long periods usually lose their
viability due to depletion of their food reserves
and destruction of their embryo by pests and
diseases.

 7. pH
Seeds require a suitable soil pH in order to
sprout (for optimal function of enzymes)

 Note
Additionally, certain plant species may require additional conditions for germination:
Fire – some seeds will only sprout after exposure to intense heat (e.g. after bushfires
remove established flora).
Freezing – some seeds will only sprout after periods of intense cold (e.g. in spring,
following the winter snows).
Digestion – some seeds require prior animal digestion to erode the seed coat before the
seed will sprout.
Washing – some seeds may be covered with inhibitors and will only sprout after being
washed to remove the inhibitors
Scarification – seeds are more likely to germinate if the seed coat is weakened from
physical damage.