PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW

Physical Anthropology is concerned at understanding the principles that determine biological adaptation,
variation, and change.

Theories Explaining Existence of Life forms

a. Creationism – states that biological similarities and differences originated at the creation as
documented in the first book of the Bible (Genesis) stating that God created all life during 6 days of
creation. Biblical scholars James Ussher and John Lightfoot traced the creation to a very specific time
(October 23, 400BC at 9am). Moreover, Carolus Linnaeous (1707-1778) accepted the Biblical account
of creation and developed the first comprehensive and still influential classification or taxonomy of
plants and animals.

b. Catastrophism – replaced the preceding doctrine stating that fires floods, and other catastrophies,
including the Biblical flood involving Noah’s ark, had destroyed the ancient species, causing new life
forms to be given birth.

c. Evolution – also called transformism, was the alternative to the other two principles. It believed that
species arose from others through a long and gradual process of transformation or descent with
modification. This was espoused by Charles Darwin. Confirming this theory is the concept of Natural
Selection which refers to the process by which nature selects the forms most fit to survive and
reproduce in a given environment. For natural selection to work on a particular population there must
be variety within the population and competition for strategic resources such as food and space.

d. Genetics – a science that emerged after Darwin stating that DNA molecules make up genes and
chromosomes (basic hereditary units) are subject to natural selection, thus explaining biological
variation. Through sexual reproduction, recombination of genetic traits of mother and father in each
generation leads to new arrangements of the hereditary units received from each parent. Man’s
genetic make-up allows him to be capable to adapt to his environment.

Primatology is the study of non-human primates (fossil and living apes, monkeys, and prosimians) including
their behavior and social life. It helps anthropologists make inferences about their early social organization.

2 Kinds of Primates
1. Terrestrial monkeys and apes – those whose ecological adaptations are similar to our own.
2. Great apes – specifically chimpanzees and gorillas.

Human-Primate Similarities
1. Learning. Their behavior and social life are not rigidly programmed by genes. They learn throughout
their lives. Humans’ and primates’ ability to learn helps them to adapt and avoid fatal mistakes. Faced
with environmental change, they don’t have to wait for a genetic or psychological response.
Eg. In one group of Japanese macaques, a 3-year old monkey started washing dirt off sweet potatoes
before she ate them. First her mother, then her age peers, and finally the entire troop began washing
sweet potatoes too.

The direction of learning was reversed when members of another macaque troop learned to eat
wheat. After the dominant males had tried the new food, within four hours the practice had spread
throughout the troop.

Humans and primates’ ability to learn help them adapt and avoid fatal mistakes; faced with
environmental change, they don’t have to wait for a genetic or psychological response.

2. Tools. Humans are distinguished from animals as tool users, just as non-humans do.
Eg. In Galapagos Islands off western South Africa, there is a “woodpecker finch” (a song bird) that
selects twigs to dig out insects and grubs from tree bark.
Eg. Sea otters use rocks to break open mollusks which are important in their diet.
Eg. Beavers (semi-aquatic rodents) are famous for their dam construction.
Eg. Chimps also do “termiting”.
 3. Predation and Hunting.

4. Aggression and Resources.

Eg. Orangutans on the Indonesian islands of Kalimantan (Borneo) and Sumatra have suffered as a
result of human encroachment, particularly farming and timbering. In response they have developed a
pattern of extreme social antagonism that may further endanger their survival.

Human-Primate Differences
1. Sharing and cooperation. Humans appear to be most cooperative in the food quest and other survival
activities. On the other hand, meat sharing of chimps is done individually.
2. Mating and kinship.
Humans Primates
Invisible or unpredictable estrus or ovulation Visible
cycle.
Woman’s sexual receptivity or her readiness to Evident
conceive is not evident.
Maximize their reproductive success by mating
throughout the year.
Mating tends to be exclusive.
Practice exogamous marriage. Endogamous
Maintains lifelong ties with kins. Leave home when they become sexually
mature.