PLANT BIOLOGY

BASIC LEAF STRUCTURE

Outermost wax layer, protect against water loss and insect

invasion

Located in the upper portion of the leaf, The cells of this region are
chloroplast rich, to allow maximum photosynthesis.

located just superior to the stomata,

allows continuous channels for gas exchange

Veins contain xylem (top part of vein) for water

transport and phloem (lower part of vein) to take
away dissolved food.

Located underside of leaves, they control water loss and gas

Control the opening and closing of stomata
exchange Lower temperature and closure during night minimize
water loss
 PLANT WATER AND MINERAL
MOVEMENT
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers.
Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining 97–
99.5% is lost by transpiration
The water lost by transpiration is important in cooling sun-drenched leaves and stems
Transpired water has to be replaced by the intake of water at the roots. There is a continuous stream of water from the roots to the upper parts
of a plant
specialized water-conducting tissue- Xylem
Xylem contain two type of cells:- Tracheid and vessel element
Both are dead cell at maturity
Tracheid are taper at the ends and connect to one another to
form a continuous column
Vessel has thick, lignified secondary walls interrupted by areas of primary wall
These primary wall areas also include pits or pores that allow water to move laterally.
The vessel elements are attached end to end to form continuous columns
The ends of the vessel elements have perforations in them, allowing water to
move freely up the plant
When drawing the structure of primary xylem vessels, it is important to remember the following features:
•Vessel elements should be drawn as a continuous tube (tracheids will consist of interlinking tapered cells)
•The remnants of the fused end wall can be represented as indents (these forms perforated end plates)
•The xylem wall should contain gaps (pits), which enable the exchange of water molecules
•Lignin can be represented by either a spiral (coiled) or annular (rings) arrangement
 STOMATA AND GUARD CELL
Stomata open and close because of changes in the turgor pressure of the guard cells that surround them
guard cells are cylindrical and their cell wall thickness is uneven
Stomatal Closing
thickened area of the guard cell wall is oriented towards the stoma
when the cells take in water and swell, they bulge more to the outside-stoma open
Guard cell loses water-stoma close
COHESION–TENSION THEORY OF PLANT FLUID
MOVEMENT
ROOT AND FLUID MOVEMENT IN
PLANT

cells become a functional part of the plant

cells are enlarging in size, corresponding with the G1

phase of the cell cycle.

new undifferentiated cells are forming,

corresponding with the M phase of the cell cycle
Plants take up water and mineral ions from the soil via their roots and thus need a maximal surface area to optimise this uptake
•Some plants have a fibrous, highly branching root system which increases the surface area available for absorption
•Other plants have a main tap root with lateral branches, which can penetrate the soil to access deeper reservoirs of water

The epidermis of roots may have cellular extensions called root hairs, which further increases the surface area for absorption
•Materials absorbed by the root epidermis diffuse across the cortex towards a central stele, where the xylem is located
•The stele is surrounded by an endodermis layer that is impermeable to the passive flow of water and ions (Casparian strip)
•Water and minerals are pumped across this barrier by specialised cells, allowing the rate of uptake to be controlled
Water Uptake

Water will follow the mineral ions into the root via osmosis – moving towards the region with a higher solute concentration
•The rate of water uptake will be regulated by specialised water channels (aquaporins) on the root cell membrane

Once inside the root, water will move towards the xylem either via the cytoplasm (symplastic) or via the cell wall (apoplastic)
•In the symplastic pathway, water moves continuously through the cytoplasm of cells (connected via plasmodesmata)
•In the apoplastic pathway, water cannot cross the Casparian strip and is transferred to the cytoplasm of the endodermis
 MINERAL ION TRANSPORT
3 major process:-
Diffusion of mineral ions and mass flow of water in the soil that carries these ions
- Passive movement of mineral and bulk flow
The action of fungal hyphae- symbiotic relationship between some roots and fungi. Large numbers
of fungal filaments called hyphae form a cover over the surface of young roots. This creates an even
larger surface area for water and mineral ion absorption. The result of this mutualistic relationship is
referred to as a mycorrhiza

Active transport
PLANT ADAPTATIONS FOR
WATER CONSERVATION
 HALOPHYTE
Grow in water with high level of salinity
Source of biofuel because they do not compete with food crops for resources
Halophytes have an impressive list of adaptations

• Many become succulent by storing water, thus diluting the salt concentrations

• Several species, for example the mangrove, secrete salt through salt glands

• Some species are able to compartmentalize Na+ and Cl– in the vacuoles of their cells, thereby preventing NaCl
toxicity

• Sunken stomata on thickened leaves reduce water loss by creating a higher humidity near the stomata. The
thickened leaves often include a more developed cuticle to minimize water loss

• The surface area of the leaves is reduced