1.

Explain how the structure of xylem vessels is suited for their

Objectives
function.
2. Explain how the structure of the phloem is suited to its
function.
3. Discuss the role of the process of transpiration in plants;
Transpiration stream from roots to leaves to be included.
4. Describe the effect of external factors on transpiration;
Light intensity, temperature, humidity, and air movements
should be included.
5. Discuss adaptation in plants to conserve water.
6. Identify the products stored in plants and animals and the
sites of storage.
7. Discuss the importance of food storage in living organisms.
 Importance of Transport In Plants
● During daylight all the leaves of a plant are actively photosynthesising and therefore
need all the substances necessary to carry out this process in order to survive.
Transport in plants is thus related to photosynthesis as substances are transported to
and away from leaves.
● Water must be
transported from the soil
through the roots to the
leaf. Dissolved salts are
present in the water.

● Some of the
manufactured food is
transported away from
the leaves to be used
and/or stored in other
parts of the plant.
 Transport Vessels in Plants

The transport system of plants is much

simpler than that seen in animals.
There is no pump (heart) or
specialised transport medium
(blood). It is made up of two types of
transport vessels:

• Xylem vessels, which carry water

and minerals;
• Phloem tubes, which carry food
materials that the plant has made.
 Structure of Xylem Vessels
● Xylem vessels transport water from roots to leaves
for use in photosynthesis.
● Xylem vessels are long, very narrow, hollow tubes.
● They are formed from columns of elongated cells
joined end to end.
● The end walls of the cells have disappeared, so a
long, open tube is formed.
● The cells of xylem vessels are all dead (non-living )
and contain no cytoplasm or nuclei.
● The cell walls become thickened with tough lignin.

The relationship between the structure of the xylem

and its Function
● Being long, narrow and hollow with no end walls
cytoplasm or nuclei, water can flow continuously
through xylem vessels.
● Lignin is very strong and so xylem vessels help to Nb. Wood is composed almost
support the plant by keeping them upright. entirely of lignified xylem.
 Structure of Phloem Tubes

● Phloem sieve tubes transport organic food, mainly ● Each sieve tube element has a
sucrose and some amino acids, from leaves to all companion cell next to it that
other parts of the plant. contains a nucleus. The nucleus
controls the functioning of both
● These are long, narrow tubes that are formed from cells.
columns of elongated cells.

● Phloem tubes are also made up of cells joined end to

end. However, these end walls do not break down
completely, but become perforated with small
holes. These perforated end walls are called sieve
plates.

● Each cell is called a sieve tube element and it

contains living cytoplasm but no nucleus.

● The cell walls contain cellulose but do not contain

lignin.
Comparing the Structure of Xylem Vessels & Phloem Tubes

Xylem Phloem

Made of Dead Cells Living Cells

End wall Disappeared Perforated

Companion cell None Present

Transports Water & Minerals Food

Cell wall thickness Thick Thin

Cell wall material Lignin (rigid) Cellulose

Direction of flow Upwards Up & Down

Cytoplasm None Cytoplasm Living

 Vascular Bundles

● Vascular bundles
are made up of
bundles of xylem
vessels and
phloem tubes
close together.

● Vascular tissue
runs throughout
roots, stems
and leaves.
 Movement of Water Through a Plant
The movement of water through a plant can be
broken down into the following stages:

1. Absorption of water by the root hair cells.

2. Movement of water across the root cortex
to the xylem.
3. Movement of water up the xylem.
4. Movement of water across the leaf cells.
5. Movement of water from the leaves

Water moves through a flowering plant by a

combination of the following processes:

● root pressure
● transpiration, transpiration pull,
transpiration stream
● capillarity (adhesion, cohesion).
Movement of Water Through a Plant
 Movement of Water Through a Plant

1. Water enters the root hairs cells by

osmosis.
The soil particles are surrounded by a film of
water which contains some dissolved salts.
Inside the root cells, there are sugars and other
dissolved substances at a much higher
1
2
concentration. So water is continuously moving
into the root cells by osmosis.

2. Water moves across the cortex cells of the

roots by osmosis and then to the xylem.

Research : Root pressure

 Movement of Water Through a Plant
3. Movement of water up the xylem
● The water moving up the xylem is known as
transpiration stream./The transpiration stream is
the pathway taken by water in xylem vessels from
the roots to the leaves.
● Capillarity helps water move up the xylem vessels.
This is due to attraction between the water molecules
and the xylem walls which is called adhesion. Water
molecules also tend to stick together, which is known
as cohesion. Thus, water molecules stick together
and to walls of the xylem vessels and the water rises
up the tube, which is called capillarity.
● The narrower the tube, the higher the water will
rise. Xylem vessels are extremely narrow and the
attraction between the water molecules and the
xylem walls is great.
 Movement of Water Through a Plant
3. Movement of water up the xylem contd.
Water also moves up the xylem as a result of
transpiration pull. The loss of water by evaporation
in the upper areas of a plant creates a tension that
‘pulls’ water upwards. This is the transpiration pull.

4. Movement of water from the xylem vessels

in the leaf to the leaf cells by osmosis.

5. Movement of water from the leaf.

Water evaporates from the cells into the air space and
diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata.Transpiration is
the loss of water by evaporation from the surface of leaves.
Summary
4
4
5

5
 Transpiration
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from a plant
mainly through the stomata of leaves.

Importance of Transpiration

● Transpiration draws water up to leaves for use in

photosynthesis.
● Moving water carries dissolved mineral salts up to
the leaves.
● The Evaporation of water from the surface of
leaves cools the plant.

The rate at which a plant takes up water depends on

the rate at which it is lost from the plant, called the
transpiration rate. The faster the transpiration rate,
the faster the plant takes up water.
 Environmental Factors Affecting The Rate of Transpiration

Environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration include:

● Temperature

With high temperatures, as on a hot day, evaporation occurs rapidly. Transpiration

rate increases as temperature increases. Low temperatures cause water to
evaporate and water vapour to diffuse slowly so transpiration is slow.

● Humidity

With high humidity, the air is almost saturated with water vapour. So the
concentration gradient of water between the air spaces in the leaf and the outside
air is low and the rate of evaporation of water through the stomata is slow.
Transpiration decreases as humidity increases.
 Environmental Factors Affecting The Rate of Transpiration

Environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration include:

● Air movement (wind)/Wind speed

Air movement (wind) – In windy conditions, water vapour is carried rapidly

away from the leaves and the rate of transpiration is fast. During still conditions,
the water vapour remains around the leaves and transpiration is slow.
Transpiration increases as wind speed increases.

● Light intensity

In bright light, the stomata are fully open so water vapour can diffuse out
easily and transpiration is rapid. In dim light, the stomata almost close so
little water vapour can diffuse out and transpiration is slow.
 Adaptations of Plants to Conserve Water

● Xerophytes - Plants that live in places

where water is in short supply.

● Mesophytes - plants that live in areas

where water is readily available.

● Hydrophytes - plants that live in very

wet, freshwater environments such as
ponds, lakes and rivers.

● Halophytes are plants that live in water

with a high concentration of salt, such as
in salt marshes, swamps or areas close
to the sea.
 Adaptations of Plants to Conserve Water
To conserve water some plants show striking adaptations which:

● reduce the transpiration rate

● maximise water uptake from the environment.

Some of these adaptations include:

● Fine spine-like leaves to reduce the number of stomata and so

reduce transpiration
● Thickened stems or leaves capable of storing large amounts of
water.
● An extensive root system to absorb water quickly when it rains.
● Leaves have extra-thick waxy cuticles to reduce water loss.
● The ability to trap carbon dioxide at night so that the stomata can
be closed during the day
● Other features such as sunken stomata, rolled leaves and
interlocking hairs.
 Transport of Manufactured Food
● The soluble product of photosynthesis are sugars (mainly sucrose)
and amino acids and they are transported in the phloem tubes.

● The transport of organic food through a plant is called

translocation.

● This manufactured food is transported from the leaves (called the

source) to wherever it is needed (called the sink) for respiration
or storage. Sugar and other products, such as amino acids is thus
translocated from the leaf to the stems, roots, fruits, storage
organs and growing parts. Sugars in sugar sinks may be used in
respiration, stored or converted to other substances which are
either stored, e.g. starch, or used in growth, e.g. proteins.

● Substances are transported in the phloem in different directions:

downwards from leaves to roots, upwards from leaves to flowers,
fruits and buds and also from storage organs to new stems and
leaves.
 Transport of Manufactured Food
The pressure flow hypothesis helps to
explain how dissolved sugars move
through the phloem. The hypothesis states
that sugars flow from a sugar source to a
sugar sink. During the process, a pressure
gradient is created between the source
and the sink which causes the contents of
the phloem sieve tubes to move both
upwards and downwards.
Conduct additional research on the
mechanism of translocation/ pressure
flow hypothesis.

Simple sugars (eg. glucose) are made in

the leaves by photosynthesis. These are
converted to sucrose, for transport in
phloem tissue to the rest of the plant.
 Food Storage
Importance of Food Storage in Plants & Animals

1. To provide for periods of scarcity, like droughts and famines,

during the winter in temperate climates.

2. To overcome the need for continuous manufacture; during the

night, photosynthesis stops because there is no light.

3. To overcome the need for continuous food intake; animals

cannot eat continuously because other activities are also
important.

4. To provide for special functions (muscle cells need their own

store of food);
5. To produce reproductive structures (fruits, seeds and embryos
must store food).
 Food Storage in Plants

● The food made by a plant during

photosynthesis may be stored temporarily as
starch in the leaves. For longer periods of
time, other parts of the plant are used, such
as roots, stems, fruits and seeds.
 Food Storage in Humans
● Animals store mainly glycogen and fat. Animals store glucose
as glycogen in granules.

Fat

In mammals, excess fat is laid down for storage under the skin.
(Excess fat is stored in fat cells found in adipose tissue under the
skin and around organs). Animals that live in cold conditions have a
thick layer of fat (blubber) under the skin which serves both as an
energy store and provides insulation for the extreme cold.

Glycogen

As blood passes through the liver, the excess glucose (from a meal)
is changed to glycogen and stored. The liver is the main storage
organ for glycogen. Glycogen is also stored in the muscles where it
can be quickly accessed for muscle contraction. The liver also stores
minerals (iron and potassium) and the vitamins A, D and B12.