PLANTS

Prerequisite knowledge of the structure of the plant.

 Vascular plants have shoot system which consists of stems and leaves and root system
which consists of roots.
 Leaves are attached to stem nodes
 Axillary buds gives rise to branches
 Tissue systems: Dermal (Protection); Vascular Tissue (Transport); Ground Tissue
(Storage, Metabolism and Regeneration)
 Types of cells: Parenchyma (Unspecialized but mostly for metabolic functions of
synthesis and storage); Collenchyma ( Support for young, growing parts of the plants);
Sclerenchyma (Thick, lignified walls that help support mature, non growing parts of the
plants)
 Tracheids and Vessel elements are water conducting cells of the xylem and are dead at
functionality
 Sieve tube elements are living but highly modified cells that functions in the transport of
sugars through the phloem.
 Phloem Sugar Xylem Water

A. Growth and Development

 Meristems generate cells for primary and secondary growth
o In primary growth (which lengthens roots and shoots), root apical meristems is
located near the tip of the root where it generate cells for the growing root axis
and the root cap. For the shoot, apical meristem is located in the apical bud,
where it gives rise to alternating internodes and leaf bearing nodes.
o In secondary growth (which increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody
plants), the vascular cambium is a meristematic cylinder that produces
secondary xylem and phloem. Older layers of xylem (Heart wood) become
inactive while younger layers (sapwood) still conduct water. Cork cambium
gives rise to periderm (thick protective covering) this consists of the cork
cambium plus the cork cells it produces. (See page 752 for clarity)
o Root zones consists of root cap (Protection and mobility; produces mucigel
which aids in movement), zone of cell division, zone of elongation and zone of
maturation (cell differentiation).
 Growth, Morphogenesis and Cell Differentiation produce the plant body
o Growth (Increase in parameter such as cell size and cell division) vs
Development (Overall changes in which a plant goes through its life cycle)
o Morphogenesis is the development of body shape and organization.
o Cell differentiation is arising from differential gene activation, enables cells
within the plant to assume different functions despite having the same genome.
Positioning is a large factor for this.
o Phase changes are morphological changes in which internal or environmental
cues may cause a plant to switch from one developmental stage to another. An
example is juvenile leaves to mature leaves.

B. Nutrient Acquisition
 Various adaptations for acquiring resources are the key steps for the successful
evolution of vascular plants

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 o Leaves – Gather sunlight and CO2
o Stems – supporting structure for leaves and for long distance transport of water
and nutrients
o Roots – anchorage and water and mineral absorption
o Mycorrhizae – Symbiotic Fungi
o “Natural selection has played a wide role in producing the most optimizing plant
architecture for resource acquisition”

 Different mechanisms for transporting substances in short of long distances

o Selective permeability of the plasma membrane controls the movement of the
substances into the cells
o Active and passive transport both occur in plants
o Apoplast (everything outside the cell’s plasma membrane) and Symplast
(Cytosol and connecting plasmodesmata)
o Water movement depends on the water potential (this is a quantity
incorporating solute concentration and physical pressure). Uptake of water by
plants results in higher internal pressure the makes the plant cells turgid.
o Long distance transport occurs through bulk flow which is the movement of
liquid in response to a pressure gradient. Substances moves via the xylem and
phloem. (see page 781)

 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots
o Water and minerals from the soil -> Roots -> Vascular cylinder -> xylem sap
o Mechanism: Cohesion-tension hypothesis – movement of the xylem sap is
driven by a water potential difference created by the leaf end of the xylem by
the evaporation of water.

 Rate of transpiration is regulate by the stomata

o Transpiration – loss of water vapor
o Wilting – occurs when the water lost by transpiration > absorption of water
from the roots
o Stomata – is the pores for transpiration
 Guard cells widen or narrow the stomatal pores depending on
potassium. More potassium, Widening of pores
 Regulated by light, CO2, abscisic acid, and circadian rhythm
 Examples of adaptation of stomata because of arid environments is
CAM photosynthesis
 Sugars are transported from sources to sink via the phloem
o Mature leaves – sugar sources
o Growing organs – sugar sinks (see page 780)

 Plasmodesmata is highly dynamic

 Plants Require essential elements to complete their life cycle
o Macronutrients vs Micronutrients
o Mobile nutrient deficiency affects the older ones while Immobile nutrient
deficiency affects the younger ones
 Plant Nutrition involves the relationship with other organism

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 o Rhizobacteria
o Mycorrhizae
o Epiphytes

C. Gas Exchange System

 Respiration and Photosynthesis happens in plants
o Respiration happens 24 hours
o Photosynthesis occurs in daylight
o Waste gases from photosynthesis can be used for respiration and vice versa
 Plants have no specialized organs for gas exchange
o Each part of the plant takes care of its own gas exchange needs
o Roots, stems, and leaves respire at rates much lower than are
characteristics of animals and only at photosynthesis are large volume of
gases exchange
o The distance that gases must diffuse in even a large plant is not great. Each
living cell in the plant is located close to the surface. While obvious for
leaves, it is also true for stems. The only living cells in the stem are
organized in thin layers just beneath the bark. The cells in the interior are
dead and serve only to provide mechanical support.
o Most of the living cells in a plant have at least part of their surface exposed
to air. The loose packing of parenchyma cells in leaves, stems, and roots
provides an interconnecting system of air spaces.
o Gases diffuse a thousand times faster than water, once they reach the
intercellular air spaces, they diffuse rapidly through them.
o Oxygen and carbon dioxide also pass through the cell wall and plasma
membrane of the cell by diffusion. The diffusion of carbon dioxide may be
aided by aquaporin channels inserted in the plasma membranes.
 Stomata
o Opens when light strikes the leaf, and closes during the night
o Cause is change in the turgor. Higher turgidity opens the stoma because two
guard cells flanking each stoma, the outer walls bulge out, and force the
inner walls into a crescent shape. Lower turgidity results to lose turgidity of
the guard cells making the elastic inner walls regain their original shape. (
see video for better clarity)
o Opening stomata
 Uptake of K+ -> Increased osmotic pressure -> opens stoma
 Mechamism: Blue light is absorbed by phototropin ->
activation of the proton pump in the plasma membrane
(which is driven by ATP generated by light reactions of
photosynthesis) -> as H+ are pumped out of the cell, it
becomes negative -> this attracts K+ -> increasing osmotic
pressure
o Closing stomata
 Opening the stomata is essential for photosynthesis but is a risk for
losing water thus, the stomata closes.
 Abscisic acid is the hormone that triggers closing of the stomata

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  Mechanism: ABA binds to the receptors at the surface of
the plasma membrane of the GC -> Rise in pH and transfer
of Ca2+ from the vacuole to the cytosol -> Stimulates the
loss anions and also K+ -> reduces the osmotic pressure of
the cell and thus turgor -> stomata closes
 Woody stems and mature roots are sheathed in layers of dead cork cells
impregnated with suberin, a waxy, waterproof substance and also airproof. BUT
these cork are perforated by non suberized pores call lenticels specified for gas
exchange.

D. Waste Excretion System

 The gas exchange system also serves as the waste excretion system in plants
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide also pass through the cell wall and plasma membrane of
the cell by diffusion. The diffusion of carbon dioxide may be aided by aquaporin
channels inserted in the plasma membrane.

E. Reproduction Systems
 Involves an alternation of generation between sporophyte generation (2n) to a
gametophyte generation (1n)
 See structure and function of a flower
 Pollination -> Double Fertilization
o Double Fertilization is the process in which one sperm fertilized the egg
forming a zygote (2n) and another sperm combines with 2 polar nuclei
forming an endosperm (3n).
o This forms the fruit which contains the seeds inside which will germinate in
optimal conditions
o See diagram for better clarity
 Asexual reproduction
o This proliferate the plant quickly but there is less genetic variations
o Plants have evolved many mechanisms to avoid self-fertilization: dioecy
(male and female flowers on different individuals); nonsynchronous
production of male and female parts; and self incompatability

F. Control and Maintenance of Internal Systems

 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response
o Hormones or environment stimuli -> Reception -> Transduction (relays
proteins and second messengers) -> Response (Activation of cellular
responses)
 Plant Hormones help coordinate growth, development and responses to stimuli
Plant Hormone Major Responses
Auxin Cell elongation; Regulates branching and Organ Bending
Cytokinins Cell division; promotes later bud growth; slow organ death
Gibberelins Stem elongation; Seed breaks dormancy
Brassinosteroids Cell elongation and division
Abscisic acid Stomatal closure; Seed dormancy
Strigolactones Apical dominance; Seed germination; mycorrhizal associations
Ethylene Fruit ripening

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  Responses to light are critical
o Blue light photoreceptors – control hypocotyl elongation; stomatal opening;
phototropism
o Phytochromes regulates shade avoidance and the germination of many seed
types.
 Red light – on
 Far red light – off
o Short day plants (require a night longer than a critical length to flower) vs
long day plants (need a night length shorter to flower)
 Other stimuli
o Gravitotropism – response to gravity.
 Roots – Positive
 Stems - Negative
o Thigmotropism – response to touch
o Plants are sensitive to environmental stress

Environmental Major Responses

Stress
Drought ABA production
Flooding Formation of air tubes that helps roots survive oxygen
deprivation
Salt Avoiding osmotic water loss by producing solutes tolerated at
high concentrations
Heat Synthesis of heat shock proteins, which reduces protein
denaturation at high temp
Cold Adjusting membrane fluidity, avoiding osmotic water loss,
producing anti freeze proteins.

References:

Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson.

Gas Exchange in Plants (2011) Retrieved from http://www.biology-pages.info/G/GasExchange.html

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Questions:

1. Which of the following is in the correct order from the outermost to the innermost?
a. Cork cambium -> Sapwood -> Pith -> Heartwood
b. Cork cambium -> Sapwood -> Heartwood -> Pith
c. Cork cambium -> Pith -> Sapwood -> Heartwood
d. Sapwood -> Cork cambium -> Heartwood -> Pith

2. Which of the statement is correct

I. Phloem transports water
II. Xylem transports sugar
III. Tracheids and vessel elements are dead at functionality
IV. Sieve tube elements are living

a. I and II is correct
b. III and IV is correct
c. I and III is correct
d. II and IV is correct

3. What phenomena is caused by a plant to have different cell functions despite having same cell
genome?
a. Cell differentiation
b. Morphogenesis
c. Cell division
d. Cell elongation
e. Reproduction

4. Most of the growth of a plant body is the result of

a. Cell differentiation
b. Morphogenesis
c. Cell division
d. Cell elongation
e. Reproduction

5. Which of the following is derived from the ground tissue system?

a. root hairs
b. cuticle
c. periderm
d. pith
e. phloem

6. Which part of a plant absorbs most of the water and minerals taken up from the soil?
a. taproots
b. root hairs
c. the thick parts of the roots near the base of the stem
d. storage roots
e. sections of the root that have secondary xylem

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7. What would be a plant adaptation that increases exposure of a plant to light in a dense forest?
a. closing of the stomata
b. lateral buds
c. apical dominance
d. absence of petioles
e. intercalary meristems

8. Plants contain meristems whose only function is to

a. attract pollinators.
b. absorb ions.
c. photosynthesize.
d. divide.
e. produce flowers.

9. The best word to describe the growth of plants in general is

a. perennial.
b. weedy.
c. indeterminate.
d. derivative.
e. primary.
10. A plant has the following characteristics: a taproot system; several growth rings evident in a cross
section of the
stem, and a layer of bark around the outside. Which of the following best describes the plant?
a. herbaceous eudicot
b. woody eudicot
c. woody monocot
d. herbaceous monocot
e. woody annual

11. The following question is based on parts of a growing primary root.

Which of the following is the correct sequence from the growing tips of the root upward?

I. root cap
II. zone of elongation
III. zone of cell division
IV. zone of cell maturation
V. apical meristem

A) I, II, V, III, IV
B) III, V, I, II, IV
C) II, IV, I, V, III
D) IV, II, III, I, V
E) I, V, III, II, IV

12. Pores on the leaf surface that function in gas exchange are called
a. hairs.
b. xylem cells.
c. phloem cells

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 d. stomata.
e. sclereids.

13. As a youngster, you drive a nail in the trunk of a young tree that is 3 meters tall. The nail is about 1.5
meters from the ground. Fifteen years later, you return and discover the tree has grown to a height of
30 meters. The nail is now __________ meters above the ground.
a. 0.5
b. 1.5
c. 3.0
d. 15.0
e. 28.5

14. Suppose George Washington completely removed the bark from around the base of a cherry tree
but was stopped by his father before cutting the tree down. The leaves retained their normal
appearance for several weeks, but the tree eventually died. The tissue(s) that George left functional was
(were) the
a. phloem.
b. xylem.
c. cork cambium.
d. cortex.
e. companion and sieve-tube members.

15. Active transport involves all of the following except the

a. diffusion of solute through the lipid bilayer of a membrane.
b. pumping of solutes across the membrane.
c. hydrolysis of ATP.
d. transport of solute against a concentration gradient.
e. a specific transport protein in the membrane

16. Active transport of various materials in plants at the cellular level requires all of the following except
a. a proton gradient.
b. ATP.
c. membrane potential.
d. transport proteins
e. xylem membranes.

17. The amount and direction of movement of water in plants can always be predicted by measuring
which of the
following?
a. pressure potential
b. number of aquaporins
c. proton gradients
d. dissolved solutes
e. water potential (ψ)

18. Which of the following statements about xylem is incorrect?

a. It conducts material upward.
b. It conducts materials within dead cells.

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 c. It transports mainly sugars and amino acids.
d. It has a lower water potential than soil does.
e. No energy input from the plant is required for xylem transport.
19. Root hairs are most important to a plant because they
a. anchor a plant in the soil.
b. store starches.
c. increase the surface area for absorption.
d. provide a habitat for nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
e. contain xylem tissue.

20. What is the role of proton pumps in root hair cells?

a. establish ATP gradients
b. acquire minerals from the soil
c. pressurize xylem transport
d. eliminate excess electrons
e. A and D only

21. What is the main force by which most of the water within xylem vessels moves toward the top of a
tree?
a. active transport of ions into the stele
b. atmospheric pressure on roots
c. evaporation of water through stoma
d. the force of root pressure
e. osmosis in the root

22. Transpiration in plants requires all of the following except

a. adhesion of water molecules to cellulose.
b. cohesion between water molecules.
c. evaporation of water molecules.
d. active transport through xylem cells.

23. All of the following normally enter the plant through the roots except
a. carbon dioxide.
b. nitrogen.
c. potassium.
d. water.
e. calcium.

24. Photosynthesis begins to decline when leaves wilt because

a. chloroplasts within wilted cells are incapable of photosynthesis.
b. CO2 accumulates in the leaves and inhibits the enzymes needed for photosynthesis.
c. there is insufficient water for photolysis during the light reactions.
d. stomata close, preventing CO2 entry into the leaf.
e. Wilted cells cannot absorb the red and blue wavelengths of light.

25. The water lost during transpiration is an unfortunate side effect of the plantʹs exchange of gases.
However, the plant derives some benefit from this water loss in the form of
a. evaporative cooling.

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 b. mineral transport.
c. increased turgor.
d. A and B only
e. A, B, and C

26. Which of the following are true of most angiosperms?

a. a triploid endosperm within the seed
b. an ovary that becomes a fruit
c. a small (reduced) sporophyte
d. A and B only
e. A, B, and C

27. All of the following floral parts are directly involved in pollination or fertilization except the
a. stamen.
b. carpel.
c. petals.
d. sepals.
e. receptacle.

28. At the conclusion of meiosis in plants the end products are always four haploid
a. spores.
b. eggs.
c. sperm.
d. seeds.
e. gametes.

29. What is typically the result of double fertilization in angiosperms?

a. The endosperm develops into a diploid nutrient tissue.
b. A triploid zygote is formed.
c. Both a diploid embryo and triploid endosperm are formed.
d. Two embryos develop in every seed.
e. The fertilized antipodal cells develop into the seed coat.
30. All of the following could be considered advantages of asexual reproduction in plants except
a. success in a stable environment.
b. increased agricultural productivity.
c cloning an exceptional plant.
d. production of artificial seeds.
e. adaptation to change.

31. We know from the experiments of the past that plants bend toward light because
a. they need sunlight energy for photosynthesis.
b. the sun stimulates stem growth.
c. cell expansion is greater on the dark side of the stem.
d. auxin is inactive on the dark side of the stem.
e. phytochrome stimulates florigen production.

32. A plant seedling bends toward sunlight because

a. auxin migrates to the lower part of the stem due to gravity.

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 b. there is more auxin on the light side of the stem.
c. auxin is destroyed more quickly on the dark side of the stem.
d. auxin is found in greatest abundance on the dark side of the stem.
e. gibberellins produced at the stem tip cause phototropism.

33. The ripening of fruit and the dropping of leaves and fruit are principally controlled by
a. auxins
b. cytokinins
c. indole acetic acid
d. ethylene
e. carbon dioxide concentration (in air)

34. Which of the following statements about plant hormones is false?

a. The growth of plants in nature is probably regulated by a combination of growth-stimulating
and growth-inhibiting hormones.
b. Abscisic acid generally promotes growth.
c. Gibberellins stimulate cell enlargement.
d. Cytokinins promote cell division.
e. Ethylene contributes to the aging of plants.

35. A short-day plant will flower only when

a. days are shorter than nights.
b days are shorter than a certain critical value.
c. nights are shorter than a certain critical value.
d. nights are longer than a certain critical value.
e. days and nights are of equal length.

36. Plants that have their flowering inhibited by being exposed to bright lights at night are
a. day-neutral plants.
b. short-night plants.
c. devoid of phytochrome.
d. short-day plants.
e. long-day plants.

References:

Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson.

Prepared by: J.B.J