CHAPTER 2 LEAF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Leaf structure and Function

1. A leaf is the main organ of a plant which carries out photosynthesis.
2. The structure of a leaf can be divided into two parts, which are the external structure and the internal
structure.

The External Structure of a Leaf

1. Commonly, the external structure of a green leaf consists of lamina and petiole
2. Lamina is the flat, thin, smooth and green part of the leaf.
3. The broad and flattened shape has a large surface area to trap sunlight and to absorb carbon dioxide.
4. Lamina is also thin to allow gases involved in photosynthesis to diffuse efficiently in the leaf.
5. Petiole is the leaf stalk that connects the lamina to the stem of the plant.
6. The petiole stretches out into the lamina producing a network of middle veins to support the lamina.
7. Leaves are arranged in a mosaic pattern so that they do not overlap to absorb maximum light.

The Internal Structure of a Leaf Lamina

Parts of a Structure Function and adaptation for

leave photosynthesis
Waxy It is a waxy and transparent layer 1. The cuticle is waterproof
cuticle covering the surface of the upper (impermeable to water) to reduce loss
epidermis. of water by evaporation.
2. It is transparent to allow light to enter
the leaf.

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Upper 1. It is a single layer of cells which is
epidermis under the cuticle layer and has no
chloroplasts.
2. The cells are transparent /translucent
3. are closely-packed without intercellular
spaces.
1. It is transparen to allow sunlight to
penetrate the leaf.
2. Protect the underlying cells from
damage.
3. Prevent entry of m/o.

Palisade  Cells below upper epidermis 1. Absorb maximum sunlight to carry out
mesophyll  Consists of one or more layers of photosynthesis
cylindrical cells arranged 2. Respiratory gases can dissolve in the
perpendicular to the upper epidermis. film of water before diffusing into the
 The cells are closely packed but there cells.
are small air spaces between them.
 Contain many chloroplasts
 The cell walls are coated with a film of
water.

Spongy  Lies below the 1. Carries out photosynthesis.

mesophyll palisade layer. 2. Allows diffusion of carbon dioxide and
 Cells are oxygen.
irregular/spherical in shape and are 3. The moist surfaces allow gaseous
loosely packed with many intercellular exchange to take place.
spaces.
 Have fewer
chloroplast than palisade cells because
receive less light
 Large air spaces
between cells and are interconnected.
 The walls coated
with a film of water.

Vascular Consists of xylem and phloem. Xylem transport water and mineral ions to
bundle the leaf.
Phloem transport products of
photosynthesis away from the leaf.

Lower  consists of one layer of cells.
epidermis  No chloroplast except guard cells.
 Each stoma flanked by 2 guard cells
 More stomata in the lower epidermis
than in the upper epidermis.
1. Protect the leaf from damage
2. Guard cells control the opening and
closing of stomata
3. Stomata regulate the gaseous exchange
and water vapour between the leaf and
its surroundings.

Main Organ for Gaseous Exchange

The Necessity of Gaseous Exchange
1. Unlike animals that search for their own food, plants on the other hand synthesise their own food through
photosynthesis.
2.In order to carry out photosynthesis efficiently, plants need to exchange gases and absorb light.
3. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between plants and the surroundings occurs through
stomata.
4. Stomata are the pores located on the lower epidermis of the leaf . Each stoma is guarded by a pair of
guard cells that controls the opening and closing of the stoma by changing their shapes.
5.The guard cells contain chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis.

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 The Mechanism of Stomatal Opening and Closing
1.The mechanism of stomatal opening and closing depends on the conditions of the guard cells whether
turgid or flaccid.
2.The condition of the guard cells depends on the potassium ion (K+) uptake by the cells or the sucrose
concentration in the sap of the guard cells

The Opening of Stoma

Uptake of potassium ions by guard cell
• The potassium ions enter the guard cells.
• The solute potential in the guard cells increases.
• The water potential in the guard cells decreases.
• The water molecules from the epidermal cells
diffuse into the guard cells by osmosis.
• The guard cells become turgid and curve
outwards.
• The stoma opens
Sucrose concentration in the guard cell sap
• In the presence of light, photosynthesis occurs.
• The concentration of sucrose in the guard cells
becomes high.
• The water potential in the guard cells decreases.
• The water molecules from the epidermal cells
diffuse into the guard cells by osmosis.
• The guard cells become turgid and curve outwards.
• The stoma opens

The Closing of Stoma

Uptake of potassium ions by guard cell
• The potassium ions move out from the guard cells.
• The solute potential in the guard cells decreases.
• The water potential in the guard cells increases.
• The water molecules diffuse out from the guard
cells to the epidermal cells by osmosis.
• The guard cells become flaccid.
• The stoma closes.
Sucrose concentration in the guard cell sap
• In the absence of light, photosynthesis does not
occur.
• The sucrose concentration in the guard cells
becomes low.
• The water potential in the guard cells increases.
• The water molecules diffuse out from the guard
cells to the epidermal cells by osmosis.
• The guard cells become flaccid.
• The stoma closes

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The Effect of Water Deficiency in Plants on Stomatal Opening and Closing
1. Water from plants is lost in the form of water vapour to the surroundings through the stomata.
2. When stoma opens widely, the rate of water loss from the plants is high.
3. The opening and closing of the stoma is dependent on the turgor pressure of the guard cells.
Fresh plants Wilted plants

• When the plant obtains enough water, the guard

• When the plant lacks water, the guard cells become
cells become turgid.
flaccid.
• The inner cell wall of the guard cells is thick and
• The thin and more elastic outer cell wall causes the
less elastic as compared to the outer cell wall.
guard cells to lose turgidity and the stoma to close
• The thin and more elastic outer cell wall causes the (Figure 2.6).
guard cells to curve outwards and the stoma to open
(Figure 2.5).

Main Organ for Transpiration

1) In plants, water is lost through a process called transpiration.
2) Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through evaporation in plants.
3) This loss of water is replaced by the absorption of water from soil by the plant roots.
4) A large tree can absorb water at a rate of 1 dm3 ( 1 litre) min-1.
5) Only 1 % of this water is used by plant cells for photosynthesis and to remain turgid. The remaining
99% evaporates from the leaves and is lost to the atmosphere through transpiration.
6) About 90% of transpiration takes place through the stomata of the leaves. Transpiration also takes place
through the lenticels of woody stems. Lenticels are small pores in the stem which allow gaseous
changes.
7) During the day, a 15 m high tree can lose up to 220 litres of water per hour through transpiration.

8) The importance/necessity of transpiration:

a) helps in the absorption and transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to the different parts
of the plants. Transpiration creates a continuous force, lifting water and dissolved mineral salts up
the plant.
b) Produces a cooling effect in plants. As water evaporates from the leaves, it removes heat from plant
in the form of latent heat of the evaporation.
c) Give support by maintainng cell turgidity especially for non-woody plants.
9) This continuous stream of flowing water from the roots to leaves is called the transpiration stream.

The Environmental Factors that Affect the Rate of Transpiration

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1) The external conditions that affect the rate of transpiration are
a) light intensity (c ) relative air humidity
b) temperature (d) air movement
2) The rate of transpiration increases with an increase in temperature, light intensity, wing speed or a decrease in
humidity.
Light intensity 1) An increase in light intensity increases the rate of
transpiration.
2) Light stimulates the opening of the stomata.
3) As a result, the stomata open wider. Hence, more
water vapour evaporates through the stomata.
4) Light intensity is highest at 12.00 noon. The size of
the stomata is biggest at this time. Hence, the rate of
transpiration is the highest.

Temperature 1) An increase in temperature increases the rate of

transpiration.
2) An increase in temperature increases the rate of the
evaporation of water from the surfaces of the
mesophyll cells. The rate of diffusion of water through
the stomata also increases.

Air movement 1) As the water vapour that diffuses through the

stomata accumulates near the leaf surface, a faster air
movements helps to remove the water vapour.
2) Air movement increases the concentration gradient
between the water vapour in the leaf and that outside the
leaf. This increases the transpiration rate.
3) When the air is still, the transpiration rate decreases
or stops altogether.

Relative Air Humidity 1) High humidity surrounding the leaves reduces the
evaporation of water from the stomata.
2) This causes transpiration to slow down.
3) Conversely, a rise in temperature lowers the relative
humidity of the surrounding air, and this increases the
rate of transpiration.

Main Organ for Photosynthesis

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The Necessity of Photosynthesis
1. Plants are autotrophic organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis.
2. The product of photosynthesis, which is glucose, is used by other organisms to generate energy through
oxidation of food.
3. Energy is needed to carry out living processes such as growth and reproduction.

A Brief History of the Discovery of Photosynthesis

Year Scientist Discovery

1692 Van Helmont

He watered the plant, and covered the pot to make sure no outside dust
could get into the pot. After 5 years, the weight of tree had increased 72.6
kg, but the weight of soil had only decreased by merely 57 g. He concluded
that an increase in weight came from water and not from the soil.

1772 Joseph Priestly He concluded that the plant had changed the air in the container. He did not
know that it was oxygen released by the plant in the container.

1779 Ian Ingenhousz He discovered that a plant could only change the air in the container if
there was light. He also discovered that only the green plant parts of the
plant were able to do so. In other words, he discovered that the light and
chlorophyll both play a part in photosynthesis.

1782 Jean Senebieir He showed that plants only release oxygen when they are provided carbon
dioxide.
1842 Robert Meyer He suggested that during photosynthesis, light energy was converted to
chemical energy
1905 F.F. Blackman Phostosynthesis consists of two stages. One of the stages involved
photochemical reactions and required light, while the other stage involved

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 biochemical reactions that occurs in darkness.
1937 Robert Hill The isolated chloroplast could give out oxygen if light and a suitable
hydrogen acceptor were supplied.

In conclusion, scientists have shown that plants:

 Require carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (from the soil) to synthesise food in the presence of
light energy.
 Synthesise carbohydrates ( glucose ) and release oxygen during photosynthesis.
 Carry out photosynthesis in the green parts of plants which contain chloroplast.

Chloroplast Structure
1. A chloroplast contains chlorophyll to absorb sunlight and converts it into chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
2. A chloroplast consists of thylakoids, grana, stroma and lamellae

THYLAKOID • Disc-shaped sacs containing chlorophyll.

• In thylakoid membrane, there are photosynthetic pigments that trap sunlight.
• Light-dependent reaction occurs in the thylakoid.
GRANUM • A disc-shaped stack of thylakoids
• This arrangement increases the surface area for optimal photosynthesis.
• Contains green colour pigment, chlorophyll to absorb sunlight.
•The grana are linked or separated by membranes called lamella.

STROMA • Colourless fluid surrounding granum in the chloroplast.

( cytoplasm of • Site for light-independent reaction to take place which produces glucose.
chloroplast)

(The Changes of Leaf Colour in Four-Season Countries

The colours of leaves depend on the pigment molecules contained in them. Examples of the pigments are
chlorophyll, carotenoid and anthocyanin.
The chlorophyll pigment causes the leaf to appear green. In four-season countries, the leaves are green
during summer because the light intensity is very high. During autumn and winter, some plants stop making
chlorophylls. These chlorophylls are broken down into smaller molecules. Without chlorophyll, other
pigments such as carotenoid and anthocyanin will be produced and causing the colours of the leaves to
change into yellow and red.)

The Stages of Photosynthesis

1. Photosynthesis is divided into two stages, namely
a) the light-dependent reaction (light reaction), which requires light, occurs in the day time only.
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 b) the light-independent reaction (dark reaction), which does not require light and occurs in the day
and night time.

Mechanism of Photosynthesis
Involves the following reactions:

The Light-dependent Reaction (Light Reaction)

1. Light reaction occurs in the granum of the chloroplast.
2. Energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll to split the water molecules into
hydroxyl/hidroxide ions and hydrogen ions. This process is called photolysis 光解水 of water. (photo =
light, lysis = breaking).
Light energy
12H2O → 12 H+ + 12OH-
Chloroplast hydrogen ions hydroxyl ions
3. The absorbed energy also raises the energy level of chlorophyll and excites 激发 it to release electrons.
4. Each hydrogen ion receives an electron from chlorophyll and becomes a hydrogen atom.
24 H+ + 24 e → 24 H
The hydrogen atom are used in “dark reaction” to reduce CO2.
5. Hydroxide ions release their electrons to the chlorophyll to restore its neutrality. Hydroxyl groups are
formed, which then combined to form water and oxygen.

24OH- - 24 e → 24 OH
Hydroxyl group
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 24 OH → 12H2O + 6O2
Oxygen is released as a gas.

The Light-independent Reaction (Dark Reaction) (Calvin Cycle)

1. Dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
2. In the dark reaction, carbon dioxide which had diffused into leaves are combined with hydrogen formed
from the photolysis of water. This is a reduction process. CO2 is reduced.
6 CO2 + 24 H → 6 (C H2O) + 6 H2O
3. (C H2O) is the basic unit for the formation of glucose. Six units of (C H 2O) will combine to form a
molecule of glucose.
6 (C H2O) → C6H12O6
4. Glucose is immediately converted into starch. This is because glucose can increase the osmotic pressure
of the cells. Starch, on the other hand, is insoluble and has no osmotic effect.
5. Glucose also can be converted into cellulose, sucrose and lipids. When combined with nitrogen,
glucose is converted into protein.

6. The overall process of photosynthesis can be represented in the following equation:

sunlight
Equation in words: water + carbon dioxide → glucose + oxygen + water
chlorophyll

Equation in formula: sunlight

24H2O + 6 CO2 → C6H12O6 +6O2 + 18 H2O
chlorophyll
OR
sunlight
6H2O + 6 CO2 → C6H12O6 +6O2
chlorophyll

Comparison between Light Reaction and Dark Reaction

Similarities
 Both processes are catalysed by enzymes
 Both take place in the chloroplast
 Both occur during the day

Differences
Light Reaction Dark Reaction
Takes place in the grana Takes place in the stroma
Requires light Does not require light
Occurs during daytime Occurs during daytime and night
Involves photolysis of water Does not involves photolysis of water
Does not use the CO2 Uses CO2
Gives out oxygen Does not give out oxygen
No glucose is formed Glucose is formed

Environmental Factors that Affect the Rate of Photosynthesis

1. Photosynthesis requires CO2, water and sunlight.
2. Photosynthesis is catalysed by enzymes. The activeness of enzymes is affected by temperature.
3. Thus, the three main factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are
a) light intensity
b) concentration of carbon dioxide, [CO2]

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 c) temperature
4. Any factor affecting the rate of a metabolic reaction is called a limiting factor 限制因素。.
5. In photosynthesis, light intensity, concentration of CO2 or temperature can be a limiting factor
depending on which one is short in supply.

Light 1. Light energy is needed for photosynthesis to take place.

intensity 2. A higher light intensity means a greater supply of light energy.
光强度 3. If the temperature and [CO2] are fixed, an increase in the light intensity will
increase the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain point. At AB, light intensity is a
limiting factor.
4. After that, any further increase in light intensity will not increase the rate of p/s (the
graph levels off). Rate of p/s is constant/maximum. Light intensity is no longer a
limiting factor. Between BC, [CO2] and temperature are limiting factor.
5. The rate of p/s can be increased by increasing the [CO2].

Concentration 1. If the temperature and light intensity are kept constant, an increase in the [CO2] will
of carbon increase the rate of p/s up to a certain point.
dioxide 2. After that, any further increase in the [CO2] will not increase the rate of p/s
anymore.
3. This is because the light intensity is not enough to increase the rate of p/s although
the [CO2] keeps increasing. Hence, light intensity becomes a limiting factor.

Temperature 1. As p/s is an enzyme-catalysed process, changes in

temperature affects the rate of p/s.
2. The activeness of enzymes increases with increase
in temperature from 0oC to about 35 oC. Hence, the

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 rate of p/s also increases with the temperature.
3. The optimum temperature for most plants is
between 30 oC to 35 oC.
4. At temperature above 40 oC, the rate of p/s
decreases sharply as the enzyme become
denatured and the p/s process finally stops (drop to
zero).
5. At low light intensity, any increase in temperature
will not increase the rate of p/s. the rate of p/s is
very low.

Water – although water is needed for photosynthesis, it is seldom a limiting factor. This is because the
quantity of water used n p/s is extremely small compared to the amount of water absorbed by the plant.

The Effect of Different Light Intensities and Light Colours on the Rate of Photosynthesis
1. Light spectrum consists of seven colours in a certain sequence (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange
and red). Each colour has a different wavelength.
2. The rate of photosynthesis is the highest in red and blue light.
3. This is because all of the red light is absorbed by chlorophyll. The blue light is absorbed by
carotenoid pigments before being transferred to the chlorophyll.
4.These two lights have enough amount of energy to excite electrons in the light-dependent reaction.

Compensation Point

1) When the light intensity increases as sunrise approaches, the rate of photosynthesis increases, and the
releases of oxygen gradually increases, too.
2) Eventually, there will come to a point where all the released oxygen (by photosynthesis) for cell
respiration is being used up. All the released CO2 (by cell respiration) is used up for photosynthesis.
3) At this point of light intensity where there is no net exchange of oxygen and CO2, is called
compensation point.
4) At compensation point the rate of photosynthesis is the same as the rate of respiration.
5) There is no net gain or net loss in the sugar produced. Glucose produced in photosynthesis is used in the
respiration of plants.
6) It occurs in dim light( moderate light intensity )
7) If the photosynthesis rate and respiration rate remains at compensation point:
a) there would be no growth and development in green plants
b) the plants would not be able to stored any food, there would be no food available for the
heterotrophs.
c) As the oxygen in the air is used up but not replenished by photosynthesis, all oxygen-breathing living
organisms would die of suffocation.

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8) If the light intensity is increased beyond the compensation point, the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the
rate of respiration.
9) Plants must take in CO2 from the atmosphere and release the excess oxygen into the atmosphere.
10) For growth, reproduction and seed production to take place in plants, the rate of photosynthesis must
exceed the respiration rate so that the excess sugar can be used for growth and living process.
11) At the same time, the excess oxygen is released into the atmosphere to sustain living organisms.

Comparison Between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Similarities
1) Both processes involves a series of enzymes
2) Both processes occur in living cells
3) Both are necessary to sustain life.
4) Both are involved in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.

Differences
Photosynthesis
1) A process that synthesise glucose (anabolism)
2) Occurs in the chloroplast
3) Occurs in plant cells that contain chlorophyll
4) Uses CO2 and water to produce oxygen and
glucose.
5) Occurs in the presence of sunlight.
6) Light energy is absorbed and converted to
chemical energy in the organic compound produced
Respiration
A process that breaks down glucose (catabolism)
Occurs in mitochondria
Occurs in all living cells
Uses glucose and oxygen to produce CO2, water and
energy.
Occurs all the time (day and night)
Chemical energy in the glucose is released, then
converted and stored in ATP.

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