Biology Pata(3.04) – 28.9.

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Photosynthesis happens inside chloroplasts. In a typical plant, most chloroplasts are in

the cells (in the leaves). A leaf is a factory for making carbohydrates.
Leaves are therefore specially adapted to allow photosynthesis to take place as quickly
and efficiently as possible.
Leaves have several functions – Photosynthesis, Respiration, Transpiration and
temporary storage of starch.

External structure of a leaf – A leaf consists of a lamina or leaf blade, which is broad and
flat and joined to the rest of the plant by a leaf stalk or petiole. Leaf stalk or petiole
attach the leaf to the stem at a point called the node. The mid-rib is an extension of the
petiole, forming branch veins and a network of small veins. The veins contain tubes
which carry substances to and from the leaf. The angle formed between the upper side
of a leaf and the stem is called the axil and a bud is positioned there.

Internal structure of a leaf – Although a leaf looks thin, it is in fact made up of several
layers of cells.
Epidermal layer: The top and bottom of the leaf are covered with a layer of closely
fitting cells called the epidermis.
These cells do not contain chloroplasts. Their function is to protect the inner layer of
cells in a leaf. The cells of the upper epidermis often secrete a waxy substance, that lies
on top of them. It is called the cuticle, and it helps to stop water evaporating from the
leaf.
Stomata: In the lower epidermis, there are small openings called stomata(singular-
stoma). Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of sausage shaped guard cells which can
open and close the hole. Guard cells unlike other cells in epidermis do not contain
chloroplasts.

Mesophyll layer: The middle layers of the leaf are called the mesophyll layer (Meso
means middle and phyll means leaf).
These cells all contain chloroplasts. The cells near to the top of the leaf are arranged like
a fence or palisade layer.
The cells beneath them are rounder, and arranged quite loosely, with large air spaces
between them. They form the spongy layer.

Leaf vein: Running through the mesophyll are veins or vascular bundles.
Each vein contains large, thick-walled xylem vessels for carrying water from the roots to
the photosynthesizing cells.
There are also smaller, thin-walled phloem tubes for carrying away sucrose and other
substances that the leaf has made from the photosynthesizing cells to all parts of the
plant.
Leaves are ideally suited to photosynthesis. Most of the photosynthesis takes place in
the leaves because leaves are adapted to perform this function.
Adaptation of leaves:
1) Leaves are broad and flat to expose as large an area as possible to sunlight and CO2.
2) Leaves directly face the sun to expose as much of the leaf as possible to the sunlight
and carbon dioxide.
3) Leaves are thin to allow sunlight to penetrate to all cells; to allow carbon dioxide to
diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out as quickly as possible.

Leaves have stomata in their lower epidermis to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in and
oxygen to diffuse out. Most of the leaves have stomata on their lower epidermis to
prevent too much water loss. If there would have been stomata on the upper epidermis,
too much water would have been evaporated.
Leaves have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll present in the mesophyll layer to
absorb energy from sunlight, so that CO2 will combine with water to form carbohydrate.

Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves. The evaporation of water
from the above-ground parts of the plant is called transpiration. The flow of water
through the plant is called the transpiration stream.
The water diffuses through tiny holes found mainly on the bottom of the leaf. These
holes are known as stomata. Stomata can open and close by the help of the sausage-
shaped guard cells which surround the stomata.

The guard cells take in water by osmosis by the neighbouring epidermal cells. As a
result, the guard cells swell up and bend which allows the stoma between them to open.
The stoma closes by the reverse process: water is drawn out of the guard cells by
osmosis, so they straighten and close the stoma between them.
When the stoma is open, water vapour can escape from inside the plant, and oxygen &
carbon dioxide can diffuse in and out.
When plant cells are full of water, they are very firm. This is because the water pushes
against the strong cell wall. If all the plant’s cells are firm, then the plant will be well-
supported and stand upright.
Cells full of water are known as turgid cells. Turgidity is important for young plants.
If a plant loses water faster then it can be replaced, it wilts. Wilting helps protect the
plant from further water loss.

They have no chloroplasts in epidermal cells to allow sunlight to penetrate to the

mesophyll layer.
They have leaf veins within short distance within every mesophyll cell to supply water to
the photosynthesizing cells and to talk away sucrose and other organic substance from
the leaves to all parts of the plant.