 Form 2 Biology
 TRANSPORT IN
PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
 Transport in plants
 This is the movement of
water and mineral salts
from the soil to other parts
of the plant and food
materials from the leaves to
the rest of the plant.
 Most single –celled
organisms are very small
hence have a very high S.A
to volume ratio hence
substance rapidly get in and
out of the cell by simple
diffusion.eg mosses and
liverworts
 Multicellular organisms are
big hence have a small S.A
to volume ratio thus they
need a special transport
system to efficiently move
substances into and out of
the cells.
 In higher plants, the
transport function is carried
out by a specialized
transport system known as
the vascular bundle.
 It comprises of ;
(i)Xylem –transports water
and mineral salts from the
soil.
Page 1 of 45
(ii)Phloem –transports
dissolved food substances
such as sugars from the
leaves.
ROOTS
o Functions of roots
(i)For anchorage-hold the
plant firmly in the soil
(ii)Absorption of water and
mineral salts from the soil
(iii)As storage organs of
some plants e.g. carrots
(iv)As breathing roots
( gaseous exchange) in
some plants
Internal structure of a
root
o Piliferous layer
 This is a special epidermis
of young roots whose cells
give rise to root hairs.
 Its cells are thin walled to
allow passage of water and
mineral salts
 As the root tissues mature a
less permeable suberised
epidermis replaces the
piliferous layer
o Root cap
 It covers the apex of the
root.
 It consists of simple
parenchyma cells that
protect the growing part
 ( apical meristem) of the
root tip as it is pushed past
soil particles.
 Cells of root cap are
relatively impermeable to
water and solutes.
o NB Roots of aquatic
plants lack root caps
because they grow
suspended in water.
o Epidermis
 It’s the outermost layer of
cells that protect the inner
tissues.
 The layer is one cell thick
to reduce the distance over
which water and mineral
salts pass.
 Some epidermal cells are
modified to form root hairs.
o Cortex
 Tissue found between
epidermis and endodermis
 Made up of loosely packed,
thin walled parenchyma
cells
o Endodermis
 It’s a layer of surrounding
the vascular bundles.
 Its characterised by;
 Rectangular shaped cells
 Starch grains – hydrolysed
to release energy
 Many mitochondria
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 Root pressure is thought to
develop within the
endodermis.
 Casparian strip – has an
impervious deposit on the
radial and cross walls.
 Endodermis controls the
amount of water and
mineral salts entering into
the vascular bundles.
o Pericycle
 It’s a layer of cells found
between endodermis and
vascular bundles.
 Gives rise to lateral roots
o Xylem
 Comprises of vessel and
tracheid elements.
 It transports water and
mineral salts from the soil.
 Phloem –transports
dissolved food substances
such as sugars from the
leaves to the rest of the
plant.
 Comparison between
monocotyledonous root
and dicotyledonous root
o Dicotyledonous root
 xylem occupies the centre
 Xylem forms a star shape
 phloem is found between
the two rays of the star
 Pith absent

Monocotyledonous root
 Xylem and phloem are
arranged to form a ring
 Xylem tissue alternates
with the phloem tissue
 Pith present
o Root hairs
 they are modified
outgrowth of epidermal
cells
 They are numerous, long
and slender to provide a
large surface area through
which absorption of water
and mineral salts take place
 They have numerous
mitochondria to supply
energy for active transport
 They have a thin cell wall
which ensures rapid
movement of materials
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 Cell vacuole has high
solute concentration to
maintain a high osmotic
pressure to absorb water
 Cell vacuole is large to
store absorbed water and
salts
 Have short life span but are
continuously replaced by
new ones that develop
nearer to the tip.
o Stem
o Functions
 To support and expose the
leaves and flowers to the
environment
 To conduct water and
mineral salts from the roots
to the rest of the plant
 To conduct manufactured
foods from the leaves to
the rest of the plant
 Other functions
 Storage of food and water-
in potato stem tubers
 For gaseous exchange e.g.
lenticels
 Perennation –survival of
perennial and biennial
 plants from one year to the
next by vegetative means
 Substance in the stem are
transported within the
vascular tissue
Comparison between
monocotyledonous stem
and dicotyledonous stem
o Dicotyledonous stem
 Vascular bundles arranged
to form a ring
 Have a central pith
 Xylem located on the inside
while the phloem on the
outside
 Cambium present between
the xylem and phloem
 Monocotyledonous stem
 Vascular bundles arranged
randomly/scattered
 Cambium absent
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 NB most tissues in the root
and stem are similar
because these tissues are
continuous from the root
into the stem
 Common tissues to both
root and stem are;
o Epidermis
 Cells are elongated
 Outer walls are covered by
a waxy cuticle that;
 Prevents excessive loss of
water through evaporation
 Protects inner tissues from
infection and mechanical
injury
o Cortex
 Made up of various types of
cells i.e.
o (i)Collenchyma cells
 They are angular
 They have thick cellulose
cell walls to provide
support to the root
o (ii)Parenchyma cells
 Spherical in shape
 Have thin cell walls
 Cells are loosely packed
creating intercellular spaces
filled with air
 Cortex act as storage tissue
for water and food
 They may have chloroplasts
to carry out photosynthesis
hence called chlorenchyma
 (iii) Sclerenchyma
 Their walls are thickened
by deposition of lignin in a
process known as
lignifications
 It serves as a strengthening
tissue
o Pith
 It’s the central part of the
stem. It consists of the
parenchyma cells that store
water and food substances.
In some stems the pith may
be hollow.
o Absorption of water
 The soil particles are
usually surrounded by a
film of water
 Root hair cells absorb water
from the soil by osmosis.
The cell sap in the vacuole
of the root hair cell has
high concentration of salts
and sugars hence it’s
hypertonic to the water
found between the soil
particles.
Page 5 of 45
 Due to this concentration
gradient, water molecules
move by osmosis from the
soil through the semi-
permeable membrane of the
root hair cells into the cell
sap.
 The root hair cell sap
becomes more dilute
relative to the adjacent
cortex cells. As a result
water moves by osmosis
into the adjacent cortex
cells and their osmotic
pressure is lowered
relative to the inner cortex
cells, which draw water by
osmosis
 Water passes through
successive cortex cells and
through the endodermis
to the xylem by osmosis.
 The endodermis actively
pumps ions into the xylem
vessels thus enhancing
uptake of water into the
xylem vessels by osmosis
and creating root presure
 The root hair cells will take
up water as long as their
concentration of salts is
higher than that in the soil

o Active uptake of
mineral salts
 The soil water contains
dissolved mineral salts
which plants require for
their growth and proper
functioning.
 The concentration of cell
sap in root hairs is greater
than that in the soil hence
enter the root hairs against
the concentration gradient.
This process requires the
use of energy therefore
referred to as active
transport.
 Active transport involves
substances known as
carriers which combine
with mineral ions and then
carry them across the
plasma membrane into the
cell.
 After absorption, the
mineral salts move into the
xylem vessels at the centre
Page 6 of 45
of the root then carried up
the stem into the leaves.
o Factors that affect
the absorption of
mineral salts
 (i) Metabolic inhibitors-
these are chemical
substances that prevent
metabolic activities from
taking place.
 they prevent the release of
energy thus active transport
does not take place e.g.
cyanide
 (ii) Temperature-low
temperature reduces the
rate at which active
transport takes place.
Increase in temperature up
to the optimum speeds up
the rate of chemical
reaction. High temperatures
denature the enzymes.
 (iii) Oxygen concentration-
Oxygen is used in in
oxidation of substrates that
yield energy for use in the
active uptake of mineral
salts
o Transpiration
 It’s the process by which
plants lose water in the
form of water vapour in the
atmosphere.
 Loss of droplets of water
from the plant is called
guttation.
 Guttation occurs through
special glands found mostly
at points where the vein is
in contact with the edge of
the leaf. The glands are
called hydathodes. They are
located on the leaf margin
or apex.
 Guttation usually occurs in
plants that grow in wet
habitats.
o Role of leaf in
transpiration
 Water gets into the leaves
through the xylem tissue.
Water leaves the xylem and
enters the cells of spongy
mesophyll by osmosis.
 Water diffuses into the sub-
stomatal air spaces in the
form of vapour.
 The concentration of water
molecules is higher in the
air spaces than in the
atmosphere. Water diffuses
out through the stomata
into the atmosphere
 Movement of water
through a leaf
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Types of transpiration
 (a) Stomatal transpiration
 This is the loss of water in
the form of water vapour
through the stomata.
 It accounts for 80-90% of
the total transpiration in
plants.
 Most stomata occur on the
leaves but may also occur
on the epidermis of young
herbaceous stems.
o (b) Cuticular
transpiration
 This is the loss of water in
the form of water vapour
through the cuticle.
 In plants with thick cuticles
the loss is negligible.
o (c) Lenticular
transpiration
 This is the loss of water in
the form of water vapour
through the lenticels.
 Lenticels are areas with
loosely fitted cells on
woody stems.
 The loss of water is
negligible.
 Forces involved in
transportation of water and
mineral salts
o Transpiration pull
 Process by which water
moves up the xylem due to
evaporation of water in the
leaf.
 It enables a stream of water
to move from the roots up
the leaves
 Energy from the sun causes
evaporation of water
increasing the diffusion
gradient between the
atmosphere and the
mesophyll cells which leads
to water vapour diffusing
into the atmosphere.
 The mesophyll cells draw
water from the xylem. The
water from the xylem is
replaced by a continuous
column of water known as
transpiration stream
moving up the roots.
Page 8 of 45
o Cohesion and
adhesion forces
 Water molecules attract one
another in such a way that
they always stick together.
The forces that keep them
together are referred to as
cohesion force.
 Also water molecules are
attracted to the walls of the
container in which the
water is contained by a
force referred to as
adhesion force.
 The cohesive and adhesive
forces in very thin columns
can be very high and not
easily broken.
 These forces maintain a
continuous and an
uninterrupted water column
in the xylem vessels up the
trees.
 o Capillarity
 It’s the tendency of water to
rise in very narrow tubes.
 The lumen of xylem
tracheids and vessels is
very narrow and this
enables water to rise by
capillarity.
o Root pressure
 It’s the force that pushes
water absorbed from the
soil to move up the stem
from the root.
 The energy used to develop
root pressure originates
from the endodermal cells.
 Cells of endodermis
actively secrete mineral
salts into the xylem. The
osmotic pressure of the
xylem content is increased
thereby encouraging water
movement.
 When the stem of a plant is
cut, water oozes out from
the cut stem.
 Root pressure can only
raise water to a height of
about 1 metre hence if a
plant is growing in soil with
little water the maximum
height that the root pressure
will raise water will be less
than 1 metre.
Page 9 of 45
o Importance of
transpiration
 Replace water lost through
the leaves.
 Aid in transportation of
water and mineral salts
 Cools the plant.
 Helps in the removal of
excess water especially in
aquatic plants
 Causes wilting- this is
beneficial when a plant
cannot obtain enough water
to replace that lost by the
plant through transpiration
 Responsible for turgor in
plants
Factors affecting
transpiration rate
Structural factors
 They are related to the
morphology of the plant
e.g.
 Roots
 Plants with extensive root
system have a high rate of
transpiration than those
with few roots.
 Extensive roots absorb
more water hence more is
available in the sub-
stomatal spaces.
 Leaf size
 Large leaves have a large
surface area over which
 transpiration takes place its not exposed to moving
hence high rate of air hence reducing the rate
transpiration of transpiration
 Leaf structure  Leaf fall
 Cuticle  During periods of drought,
 A thick cuticle reduces the some plants such as broad-
rate of transpiration leafed deciduous trees shed
 The cuticle in most case is their leaves to reduce the
waxy-wax reflect away the surface area for water loss.
sunlight hence lower  In some species of grass the
temperatures in the leaf aerial shoot dries up to
 Wax is also water proof ground level.
hence reducing rate of  (e) Hairy leaves
transpiration  In some plant, leaves are
 Stomata covered with hairs or
o -Number of stomata- scales. These trap a layer of
the fewer the number still moist air on the surface
of stomata the lower of the leaves thus reducing
the rate of transpiration
transpiration  Environmental
o -Position of stomata- factors
the sun shines directly o Temperature
on the upper surface  High temperature increases
of leaves hence the capacity of the
increasing the rate of atmospheric air to hold
vapourization thus more water vapour.
high water loss  High temperature increases
 Stomata on the lower the internal temperature of
surface are sheltered from the leaf which in turn
the suns rays hence lower increases the latent heat of
water loss vapourization therefore
 -Sunken stomata-when the enhancing evaporation
stomata are sunken water from the leaf cells.
vapour accumulates in the o Humidity
sub-stomatal air spaces thus
Page 10 of 45
 It’s the amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere.
 The humidity difference
between the inside and the
outside of the leaf is known
as saturation deficit and it
determines the rate of water
loss from the leaf.
 In dry weather, the
saturation deficit if high
hence increasing rate of
transpiration
 In high humidity, the
saturation deficit if low
hence decreasing rate of
transpiration. Under such
conditions some plants
secrete droplets of water
through specialized pores
called hydathodes .
 This process of water loss
is called guttation and is
common in hydrophytes
( plants growing in wet
habitats)
o Wind
 Wind carries water vapour
as fast as it diffuses out of
the leaves through the
stomata.
 This prevents the air around
the leaves from being
saturated with water
vapour. This helps to
maintain a high diffusion
Page 11 of 45
gradient between the inside
and the outside of the leaf
 When the air is still, the
area around the leaf soon
becomes saturated with
water vapour. Diffusion of
water vapour from the leaf
surface is low leading to
low rate of transpiration
o Light intensity
 The stomata of most plants
open fully during daylight
hours when the light
intensity is high
 This brings the sub-
stomatal air into direct
contact with external
environment.
 The water vapour therefore
diffuses out at a higher rate
than in dim light when the
stomata are partially closed.
o Atmospheric
pressure
 The lower the atmospheric
pressure the higher the rate
of evaporation
 At high altitudes the
atmospheric pressure is
very low hence plants
growing there lose a lot of
water due to high rate of
transpiration
 Most of them have
adaptations to prevent
excessive water loss
o Availability of water
 When there is adequate
amount of water in the soil,
water is absorbed and
conducted to all the cells.
 The mesophyll cells in the
leaves become moist thus
more water will diffuse into
the inter-cellular spaces
increasing the diffusion
gradient. More water is lost
to the atmosphere through
transpiration
o Structure and  The hollow part (lumen)
function of xylem provides passage for
 Xylem comprises of substances
 -xylem vessels  Xylem walls have
 -tracheids perforations which form
 Xylem vessels simple pits
 They are hollow tubes  The pits on the xylem
 They are made of dead cells vessels permit the passage
placed end to end of water in and out of the
 Walls thickened with lignin lumen into the
to prevent them from neighbouring cells
collapsing as water is being  Tracheid elements
transported up the plant.  Have tapering or chisel-
 Patterns of thickening shaped ends
 Walls thickened with lignin
 Have tiny pores known as
pits or perforations
 The pits on the side walls
allow lateral water to the

Page 12 of 45
 cells surrounding the
xylem. This makes
tracheids less efficient in
conducting water than
vessels

 Phloem tissue is made up of

sieve tubes and companion
cells.
 NB Xylem vessels are more  Sieve tube – its long with
efficient in transport of perforated end walls which
water than tracheids are called sieve plates
because ;xylem vessels  Cytoplasmic strands /
cross walls between their Filaments run through sieve
cells have dissolved plates connecting adjacent
forming a continuous cells.
hollow tube while tracheids  At maturing sieve tube cells
have tapering ends whose lack nuclei and ribosome
cross walls remain  Mature sieve tube cells
perforated and this have few mitochondria
increases resistance  Companion cells – these
 Translocation cells have dense cytoplasm
 It’s the movement of and a prominent nucleus
manufactured food and other cell organelles.
substances from where they  Companion cell generate
are manufactured in the the energy needed in the
leaves to the rest of the sieve elements because it
plant. It takes place in the has mitochondria
phloem tissue in plants  Plasmodesmata – these are
Phloem tissue passages found on the

Page 13 of 45
 lateral walls. Substances
move through them from
the companion cells to the
sieve tube cells.
 Function of phloem
 Materials move from one
sieve tube element to
another through the sieve
pores in the sieve plates
between adjacent elements.
These materials are
transported in solution form
in the cytoplasm of the
sieve elements
 The organic products
translocated are; sugar,
amino acids and vitamins.
They are translocated to;
 (i) Growing and developing
regions of the plants such
as young shoots, leaves,
flowers, fruits and roots
 Storage organs or tissues
such as tubers, corms,
bulbs, rhizomes and seeds
 Secretory organs such as
nectar glands in some
insect pollinated plants e.g.
bananas
 Experiment; Ringing
experiment
 Make a ring through the
bark around the stem of a
young tree using a sharp
knife
Page 14 of 45
 Make a second ring 5cm
above the first ring and peel
off the bark between the
two rings
X
 Observe the experiment
over the next two months
 Discussion
 When the ring of bark is
removed, the phloem
beneath it is also removed.
After several weeks
swelling above the ring is
noted eg
X
 This swelling is due to
accumulation of food
substances that were being
transported from the leaves
but could not get across the
debarked part of the stem.
As a result, there is no
swelling on the lower part
of the ring.
 Transport in animals
 Circulatory system
 A circulatory system
transports the substances
and maintains a steep
concentration gradient at
the surfaces where
diffusion takes place.
 Its made up of a fluid, a
pumping organ and vessels
 There are two types of o Differences between
circulatory system: open open and closed
and closed circulatory circulatory system
systems
o Open circulatory Open Closed
system Blood flows Blood flows
 The transport fluid is under low under high
contained in the general pressure pressure
body cavity/ coelom/ Blood circulates Blood
sinuses. This type of system over a short circulates over
is common in invertebrates distance at a a long distance
especially arthropods. slower rate at a faster rate
 The transporting fluid in Fluid is not Blood
the body cavity is known as involved in the transports O2
haemocoel transport of and CO2
 Cavities are free spaces O2and CO2
between the body wall and Is less efficient More efficient
organs. The fluid in the at supplying at supplying O2
cavities is in contact with tissues and and nutrients to
body tissues. organs with the tissues
 The fluid distributes nutrients and
oxygen, nutrients and removing
hormones to tissues while nitrogenous
removing CO2 and wastes
nitrogenous wastes from Organisms with Animals with
the tissues. open circulatory closed
o Closed circulatory systems are circulatory
system generally less systems are
 The transporting fluid active more active
(blood) is conveyed in
special tubes referred to as o Transport in insects
blood vessels.  In a cockroach there is a
tubular heart just above the
alimentary canal. The heart

Page 15 of 45
 has 13 chambers, 3 in the
thorax and 10 in the
abdominal segments.
 The anterior segment is
joined to the aorta that
empties the blood into
sinuses of the head. Each
chamber contains a pair of
valves at the anterior part
which prevent back flow of
the blood.
 Each chamber has a pair of
lateral openings called
Ostia which are closed by
valves.
 The valves allow blood to
flow into the heart through
the Ostia but not out of it.
o Mammalian
circulatory system
 Mammals have a closed
circulatory system where a
powerful muscular heart
pumps blood into the
arteries.
 The arteries divide into
even much smaller vessels
called arterioles which in
turn divide into even much
Page 16 of 45
smaller vessels called
capillaries
 Capillaries spread out in a
network fashion in the
tissues.
 The capillaries eventually
reunite to form venules that
in turn form larger vessels
called veins. Veins take
blood back to the heart.
o Single circulatory
system
 This is where the blood
flows only once through the
heart for every complete
circuit hence the heart has
only one atrium a ventricle
e.g. fish
o Double circulatory
system
 Blood flows into the heart
twice for every complete
circulation i.e. blood from
the body tissues is pumped
to the lungs and then back
to the heart. This is called
pulmonary circulation.
 From the heart, blood is
then pumped to the rest of
the body organs. This is
called systemic
circulation.
 The double circulatory
system is found in birds,
mammals and also
crocodile (reptile). The
other reptiles and
amphibians have double
circulatory system but the
ventricle is not fully
divided into the left and
right ventricles.
 Therefore efficiency of
gaseous exchange is not
fully realized due to mixing
Page 17 of 45
of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
o Structure and
function of the heart
o External structure of
the heart
 The mammalian heart is
broad at the anterior and
narrower at the posterior
end. Its made up of two
auricles (left and right) and
two ventricles (left and
right)
 The coronary artery which
branches from the aorta
supplies O2 and nutrients to
the heart tissues.
 The two coronary veins
transport CO2 and the
metabolic wastes away
from the heart.
 The heart is covered by a
translucent membrane
known as the pericardium.
 Pericardium prevents the
heart from being
overstretched as it pumps
blood. It secretes
pericardial fluid which
reduces friction between
the heart and the adjacent
tissues when the heart
beats.
 At the anterior end of the
heart are vessels i.e. aorta
 and pulmonary artery
which take blood away
from the heart and vena
cava and pulmonary vein
which return blood to the
heart from the rest of the
body.
o Internal structure of
the heart
 The heart is a muscular
organ about the size of the
fist.
 It lies inside the chest
cavity between two lungs.
 Internally the heart is
surrounded by a tough
membrane called
pericardium which covers
and protects it.
 It’s divided into two sides
i.e. the left and the right
sides which are completely
separated by a wall called
septum.
Page 18 of 45
 Septum prevents the blood
on the right side mixing
with that on the left side.
Each side consists of a
small upper chamber called
atrium (plural atria) and a
larger lower chamber called
ventricle. This makes the
mammalian heart a 4
chambered organ
 The atria are also called
auricles and are thin walled
and receive blood into the
heart which they pump into
the ventricles. Ventricles
are thick walled and pump
blood out of the heart.
 The heart is made of special
muscles called cardiac
muscles. This muscle is
special in 2 ways:
-It can contract
continuously without
fatigue- the heart can beat
 for a life time without
taking a rest.
-Cardiac muscle is also
myogenic i.e. its
contractions are started by
the muscle itself and not by
nerves as the case with
other muscle tissue in the
body.
 Four flap like valves
control the direction of
blood flow inside the heart.
Two of these valves are
called atrio- ventricular
which allows the blood to
flow only from the atria to
the ventricles.
 The one found in the right
side of the heart is called
tricuspid valve because it
has three flaps.
 In the left side of the heart
is the bicuspid valve
because it has two flaps. It
is also called mitral valve.
 The other two valves found
in the heart are the semi –
lunar valves. They are
found at the base of the
aorta and pulmonary artery.
When open they allow
blood to move from the
ventricles into the arteries
and away from the heart.
 NB: -
Page 19 of 45
 Valves are attached to the
walls of the ventricle by
valve tendons or tendinous
cords (cordae tendinae).
The tendons allow the
valves to open but prevent
inversion of the flaps of the
valves when blood attempts
to flow back.
 The wall of the left
ventricle has thicker walls
muscles than that of the
right ventricle because the
left ventricle pumps blood a
further distance to all parts
of the body while the right
ventricle pumps the blood
to the lungs.
 Circulation of blood in
the heart
 The right atrium receives
blood coming from the
body tissues through the
vena cava. This blood has
very little oxygen dissolved
in it hence it is described as
deoxygenated blood. It is
rich in CO2 and appears
dull red in colour.
 The right atrium then
pumps the blood into the
right ventricle via the
tricuspid valve. When full
the right ventricle pumps
blood into the pulmonary
 artery. Semi- lunar valves
at the base of pulmonary
artery prevent back flow
into the right ventricle. At
the same time tricuspid
valve prevents any
backflow into right Atrium.
 Tendons (heart strings)
hold the valve in a closed
position preventing them
from turning into the
atrium.
 The pulmonary artery
carries the blood into the
lungs where it picks up O2
and gives up CO2. It is now
said to be oxygenated and
appears bright red in
colour. It goes to the left
atrium of the heart via the
pulmonary vein. This
portion of the circulatory
system that sends the blood
to the lungs from the heart
and back is called the
pulmonary circulation.
X
 The left atrium pumps
blood into the left ventricle
via the bicuspid valve. The
left ventricle pumps blood
to all parts of the body
except the lungs. This
blood leaves the left
ventricle through the aorta.
Page 20 of 45
Semi- lunar valves that
open into the aorta prevent
back flow of blood.
 The left ventricle walls are
much thicker than the right
ventricle walls in order to
prevent develop a high
enough pressure to pump
blood to all parts of the
body. The circulation of the
blood from the heart to the
tissues and back is called
systemic circulation.
 The mammalian heart
therefore acts as a double
pump. The left side sends
blood rich in O2 to the rest
of the body and the right
side sends blood poor in
oxygen to the lungs.
 The heart tissue itself
receives food nutrients and
O2 via a vessel known as
coronary artery which
branches from the aorta and
spreads through the heart
muscle.
 The function of the heart is
to receive and pump blood.
The heart receives blood
when its muscle relax and it
pumps the blood when the
muscles contract. These
two processes take place in
a repeated sequence or
 cycle known as heart or
cardiac cycle.
 Adaptations of
mammalian heart to its
functions
 It has valves which open to
allow blood to flow in one
direction and close when
blood tries to flow back.
 It has muscular walls which
contract to pump blood and
ensure its continuous flow.
 It has a septum which
separates oxygenated from
deoxygenated blood.
 It has an inbuilt system that
controls contraction and
relaxation of the muscles.
 It has 4 chambers which
store blood briefly before it
is pumped to the rest of the
body.
 Its muscles contract and
relax continuously without
fatigue.
 The heart beat
 The heartbeat can be felt as
a pulse in various parts of
the body where an artery is
close to the skin surface
such as wrist.
 A pulse is a series of waves
of dilation that pass along
the arteries caused by the
pressure of the blood
Page 21 of 45
pumped from the heart
through contractions of the
left ventricle.
 A complete cycle of a heart
beat takes less than one
second. The human
heartbeats at about 70-75
times/minute when one is at
rest.
 The heartbeat can increase
up to 200times per minute
during:
 Exercise
 Fever
 Emotional disturbances
(fear)
 An increased heartbeat
circulates blood with
oxygen and glucose needed
to produce energy for the
vigorous activity in the
muscle tissues faster and
takes away Carbon iv oxide
and other wastes away.
o Control of heartbeat
 Heartbeat is started by
collection of cells in the
wall of the right atrium
called pacemaker (Sino
atrio node) SAN) it is
controlled by nerve
messages which come from
a part of the brain called
medulla oblongata.
 The heart will continue to
beat even if the nerves
(vagus nerve) from the
brain are cut but it will only
beat at one rate.
 Nerve impulses from the
brain are needed to change
the rate of heartbeat.
 NB: Individuals who have
a heartbeat which is too
slow or faster can have it
regulated by the fitting of
an artificial pacemaker
which takes over from
normal pacemaker.
 One heart beat consists of a
systole and diastole phase
i.e.
o Diastole (relaxation)
 It refers to the phase when
the ventricles relax in order
to allow blood to flow in.
During this phase, the
ventricular volume increase
and the pressure decreases.
 When the right atrium
contracts the tricuspid valve
opens to allow
deoxygenated blood to flow
into the right ventricle.
 At the same time the left
atrium contracts and the
bicuspid valve opens to
allow oxygenated blood to
flow into the left ventricle.
Page 22 of 45
 The semi-lunar valves close
preventing blood from
flowing back into the
relaxed ventricles.
o Systole (contraction)
 It refers to the phase when
the ventricles contract to
force the blood into the
arteries while atria are
relaxed.
 When the left ventricle
muscles contract the
bicuspid valves close to
prevent blood from flowing
back into the relaxed atria.
 The volume of the
ventricles decreases while
the pressure increases
forcing blood to flow out of
the heart.
 Deoxygenated blood flows
through the semi lunar
valve through the
pulmonary artery to the
lungs while oxygenated
blood flows through the
semi lunar of the aorta and
into the tissues of the body.
 The sphygmomanometer is
used for measuring blood
pressure. Blood pressure is
obtained by placing systolic
pressure of the left ventricle
over the diastolic pressure
of the left ventricle i.e.
Average human blood pressure =
120mm Hg (systole)
80
mm Hg (Diastolic)
o Blood vessels
 The mammalian blood
vessels are arteries, veins
and capillaries.
 The walls of veins and
arteries consist of the
following three layers
 (i)inner lining of a single
layer of epithelial cells
called endothelium
 (ii)middle layer of smooth
muscles and elastic fibres.
Its this layer that brings
about dilation and
constrictions of blood
vessels
 (iii)outer layer made up of
fibrous connective tissue
 Arteries
 They take blood from the
heart to the body tissues
and organs. Due to the
pumping action of the
heart, blood from the heart
enters the arteries at high
pressure.
Page 23 of 45
o Properties of
arteries
 Thick muscular walls to
withstand and maintain
higher pressure of blood.
 An outer fibrous coat for
strength and protection
 A thick layer of muscle and
elastic fibres which contract
and relax to adjust their
diameter as blood flows
through them. Arteries have
an inner lining of cells
known as an endothelium.
 A narrow lumen to
maintain the pressure of
blood inside them.
 Most arteries are located
deep within our bodies for
protection against injury.
The size of the lumen in
arteries can be adjusted by
nerve control of muscles in
their walls e.g. the amount
of blood passing through
the arteries can be adjusted
during exercise so that
 more blood flows to the
legs and less blood to small
intestines. This ensures that
blood is properly utilized
by only the parts of the
body that need it most.
 Pumping of the blood can
be felt on an artery if
pressure is put on it with a
finger. This pressure makes
blood to flow in only one
direction.
 When the ventricles
contract, the muscular layer
of arteries stretch to reduce
resistance to blood flow.
When the ventricles relax
the muscular layer of
arteries contract
compressing the blood and
forcing it flow forward in
one direction.
 All arteries carry
oxygenated blood except
the pulmonary artery which
carries deoxygenated blood.
 Arteries branch out to form
narrower vessels called
arterioles, which branch
further within the tissues
into finer vessels called
capillaries.
 Some arteries are
specialized to perform
certain functions e.g.
Page 24 of 45
arteries of the lungs have
thin walls due to lower
pressure in pulmonary
circulation. Aorta and
pulmonary arteries have
cardiac muscles extending
to their bases.
 With age arteries change in
structure. In old age elastic
fibres have;
- Irregular thickening
-fat is deposited between
the cells
-calcification occurs
between arterial walls thus
making the walls brittle.
 Veins
 They carry blood under low
pressure from the tissues
towards the heart.
 They have thin walls which
are composed of a thin
outer fibrous coat, a thin
middle layer of muscle and
elastic fibres and an inner
layer of cells (endothelium)
 They have pocket valves at
intervals in their walls
 which allow blood to flow Closed valves prevent the
in one direction towards the back flow of blood.
heart. They carry
deoxygenated blood except
the pulmonary vein which
carries oxygenated blood.
 Portal veins have capillaries
at both ends. They are
unique veins that carry
blood from one organ to Structural differences between
another i.e. hepatic portal arteries and veins
vein which carries blood Arteries
from the small intestine to Veins
the liver.
 Most veins are found VEI
between the skeletal Have thick Have thin
muscles and may be visible. muscular walls and less
The skeletal muscles muscular
contract squeezing veins walls
and forcing blood to flow Have no valves Valve
towards the heart. except present at
 When breathing in the pulmonary intervals
pressure in the chest cavity artery throughout
reduces. The volume of the their length
heart increases and the have narrow Have wide
blood in the veins is sucked lumen lumen
up towards the heart.
 Valves are found in the
 Functional differences
heart, at the junction of
Arteries Veins
major arteries and the heart
Transport Carry blood
and also in the veins. The
blood away towards the
veins of the lower limbs
from the heart heart.
have more valves.
Carry Carry
 Open valves allow blood to
oxygenated deoxygenated
flow in one direction only.
Page 25 of 45
blood except blood except  They are narrow blood
pulmonary pulmonary vein. vessels whose walls are one
artery cell thick
Blood flows Blood flows
rapidly at high slowly at low
pressure pressure
Blood flows in Blood flows
pulses smoothly
 Capillaries have certain
 Blood pressure in the
characteristics which make
arteries is greater than in
them a region suitable for
veins for the following
exchange of substances
reasons
between blood and the
 Arteries
tissues.
 Receive blood directly from
o Characteristics of
the heart pumped under
capillaries
high pressure
 They are numerous in
 Have relatively narrower
number to increase their
lumen, which maintains
surface area for exchange
high pressure
of materials
 Have thick muscular wall,
 Have thin walls(one cell
which resists and generates
thick) to allow rapid
pressure
exchange of substances
 Veins
 They form a dense network
 Receives blood whose
in all the tissues in the
pressure has been reduced
body. This creates a large
by capillary resistance
surface area over which the
 Have relatively wider
exchange takes place.
lumen, which reduces
 They are narrow t for high
pressure
pressure build-up within
 Have thin less muscular
them. This ensures faster
wall, which reduces
movement of substances.
pressure
 Have sphincter muscles at
 Capillaries
the arterioles end, which

Page 26 of 45
 enables regulation of blood
flow
 The intensity of metabolism
determines the density of
Capillary network in the
tissues and organs e.g. there
is dense network of blood
capillaries in the lungs,
liver, kidney, skeletal
muscles etc
 The walls of the capillaries
are said to be permeable i.e.
allow the passage of
molecules through them.
 A fluid is formed which is
referred to as tissue fluid.
The cells obtain their
requirements through
diffusion from the tissue
fluid e.g. water, glucose,
mineral salts, and
hormones. The cells are
bathed by the tissue fluid
and they release waste
products into the tissue
fluid e.g. nitrogenous
waste, mineral salts, CO2
and heat.
 Capillaries unite to form
venules which unite further
to form veins.
 X
 Diseases and defects of
the circulatory system
Page 27 of 45
 Arteriosclerosis(atheroma
)
 This is the hardening of the
arteries. As the arteries age
the body reacts by
depositing cholesterol and
calcium in their walls. This
causes them to thicken and
harden and to become less
flexible or less elastic i.e.
they become sclerotic. This
forces the heart to work
harder in order to pump
blood efficiently
throughout the body.
 It also causes an increase in
the blood pressure. High
blood pressure can lead to a
stroke or a heart attack.
o Prevention
 Exercises
 Avoid alcohol and
smoking.
 Avoid fatty foods
o Treatment
 Take medication that
lowers blood pressure.
 Coronary thrombosis
 Thrombosis is the
formation of blood clots in
the blood vessels. Coronary
thrombosis refers to the
clotting of blood in a
coronary artery resulting in
a heart attack.
 Coronary arteries supply
the heart muscles with
oxygen and nutrients.
When a clot blocks blood
from reaching the tissues of
the heart, the tissues
experience shortage of
oxygen and nutrients
supply. CO2 and
nitrogenous wastes are not
efficiently removed. This
result in heart attack
 Symptoms
 Sharp pains especially on
the left side of the chest.
 Difficulty in breathing
 Irregular heartbeats and
swelling of the
feet.oedema.
 Cardiac cells die leading to
heart failure and death.
 Prevented in the same way
as arteriosclerosis
o Treatment
 Take medication to prevent
blood clot formation.
 Cerebral thrombosis
/stroke
 It occurs when a blood clot
is formed in the vessels of
the brain.
 A stroke is caused by high
blood pressure in the
capillaries and arteries of
the brain. Arteries
Page 28 of 45
supplying blood to the
brain have thinner walls
and the high blood pressure
can burst the capillaries
serving the brain tissues.
The brain cells in the
affected area die. Some
parts of the body especially
the left side maybe
paralyzed.
 Prevented same way as
arteriosclerosis
 Atherosclerosis
 It’s a condition similar to
arteriosclerosis but it is
caused when cholesterol,
fat and calcium are
deposited along the inner
walls of the arteries. This
reduces the diameter of
their lumen and causes high
blood pressure as the heart
is forced to pump harder.
Factors that increases risk of
atherosclerosis
 High level of blood
cholesterol
 Smoking
 Obesity
 Diabetes
 Sedentary lifestyle which
does not involve much
physical activity
 Varicose veins
 It refers to the prominently
swollen veins which may
appear below the knees or
at the back of the legs. This
condition is brought about
by failure of some valves in
veins to function. Blood
accumulates in the veins.
 Some pregnant women
develop this condition
albeit temporarily. Also
common in men soldiers
who carry out parade drills.
 Varicose veins can be
caused by standing or
sitting for a long time. To
prevent varicose veins, shift
your weight from one leg to
another and stretch your
limbs.
o Treatment
 Wear special firm stockings
every morning before
getting out of bed.
 Congenital heart defects
Page 29 of 45
 At birth, the blood
circulatory systems of the
mother and the foetus
become independent. The
pulmonary artery takes very
little blood to the lungs of
the foetus because they are
not used for gaseous
exchange
 Blood flows between the
right and left auricle
through an opening in the
wall between the two
auricles called foramen
ovale. The passage
normally seals after birth.
 When it fails to seal, lungs
are denied adequate blood
and gaseous exchange is
not efficient. Blood
transports less oxygen and
removes less co2 from the
tissues .The baby turns dark
and may die. This condition
can be surgically corrected
 Also when the valves
within the heart fail to close
adequately, the results a
backflow of blood. The
condition is said to be a
murmur of the heart. It’s
diagnosed by the sounds of
the heart as the valves
close. This condition can be
corrected surgically.
 Also the connecting vessel
between the pulmonary
artery and aorta (Ducts
arteriosus) may not be
sealed. The vessel normally
seals at birth. Blood flow to
the lungs is cut off and
enters the aorta hence blood
flow to the lungs is
inadequate.
 Gaseous exchange is
impaired and tissues lack
enough oxygen. The baby
may turn dark. This
condition can be corrected
surgical.
 Hypertension(High blood
pressure)
 Normal blood pressure
varies between 90/60 and
140/90mmHg
 It is caused by:
 Heavy drinking
 Smoking
 Taking large quantities of
salt in the food
 General body stress
 The heart of a hypertensive
person is overworked and
the person is prone to heart
failure
 Hypertension may lead to
bursting of arteries and
capillaries. If the blood
vessels in the brain burst, a
Page 30 of 45
stroke results and brain
cells die in the affected
area. Paralysis for some
parts of the body usually
accompanies stroke
 This disorder is more
common in individuals
aged over 40 years
o Control
 Having regular exercises
 Intake of less salt
 Avoiding excessive
drinking of alcohol.
 Avoid smoking.
 Avoiding general body
stress
 Structures and functions
of blood
 Blood is liquid which
transports materials in
mammals.
 It has 3 major functions i.e.
 A medium of transport
of ,materials to and from
other tissues
 Regulation of body
temperature
 Protection against disease
germs
 Mammalian blood forms up
to 10% of the body weight.
An average human adult
has 5-6 litres of blood in
the body
 o Composition of
blood
 Blood is composed of:
 Cellular components
which form 45% i.e.
 Red blood
cells(erythrocytes)
 White blood
cells(leucocytes)
 Blood
platelets(thrombocytes)
o Blood plasma
 Plasma makes up about
55% of the total volume of
blood
 It’s a pale yellow fluid
 90% of blood plasma is
made up of water and the
other remaining 10%
consists of a variety of
substances that are
dissolved in the water.
These substances are:
 Food substances e.g.
glucose, amino acids and
fatty acids.
 Waste substances like CO2
and urea
 Hormones like adrenaline
and insulin
 Enzymes and antibodies
 Blood plasma without
fibrinogen is called serum
Page 31 of 45
o Functions of blood
plasma
 Transport red blood cells
which contain
oxyhaemoglobin to the
tissues hence facilitate
transport of O2.
 Transports food nutrients
from the alimentary canal
to the liver and other
tissues.
 Transports metabolic
wastes such as CO2.
 Transports hormones to
target organs.
 Transports small amounts
of CO2 in the form of
carbonic acid or
bicarbonate to the lungs.
 Transports mineral ions or
salts such as chlorides.
 Transports antigens and
antibodies to the site where
they are required.
 Regulation of body
temperature by distributing
heat generated in the liver
to other parts of the body.
o Cellular components
o Red blood cells
(erythrocytes)
 They are biconcave in
shape i.e. thinner in the
 centre than around the
edge.
o Adaptations of red
blood cells to their
function
 They have a biconcave
shape to increase the
surface area over which O2
and CO2 diffuse
 Absence of nucleus
increases the space in
which hemoglobin is
packed.
 Has haemoglobin which
has a high affinity for
oxygen
 They are small in size
hence have a large surface
area to volume ratio for the
diffusion of oxygen.
 The small size enables
them to squeeze through
the narrow capillaries.
 They are pliable which
enables them to move
through capillaries
 Have enzyme carbonic
anhydrase which enables
them to transport carbon iv
oxide
 Have thin plasma
membrane, which allows
rapid diffusion of gases
 Red blood cells are
produced in the bone
Page 32 of 45
marrow of ribs, sternum
and vertebrae. In an embryo
RBC are produced in the
liver and the spleen.
 Since the mature RBC lack
a nucleus and other cell
organelles such as
mitochondria, they have a
short life span. They
survive for about 100-120
days.
 Old blood cells are
destroyed in the liver and
spleen. The iron component
of haemoglobin is released
for the formation of new
red blood cells
 There are about 5 million
red blood cells in every
cubic millimeter (mm3) of
human blood. However the
number of red blood cells
varies depending on any of
the following factors :
 Altitude- the higher the
altitude the more there will
be
 State of health of a person –
people with severe anaemia
or malaria have much fewer
red blood cells in their
blood.
o Functions of red
blood cells
 Transport of oxygen-this is
the main function of red
blood cells. They transport
O2 from the lungs to the
body tissues.
 The haemoglobin found in
these cells readily combines
with O2 when the blood
passes through the lungs to
form oxyhaemoglobin.
 When blood reaches a
region with low oxygen
levels like in the tissues, the
oxyhaemoglobin readily
gives up the oxygen it was
carrying, it then reverts
back to haemoglobin. The
cells take up the oxygen
while hemoglobin is free to
be used again to carry more
oxygen i.e.
Haemoglobin + Oxygen
lungs
Oxyhaemoglobin
 Under low oxygen
concentration e.g. in high
altitude areas the bone
marrow produces more
RBC. When one moves
from a low to a high
altitude area, more RBC are
manufactured to increase
the oxygen carrying
capacity of blood. In this
Page 33 of 45
way one becomes
acclimatized to the high
altitude. e.g. –Kenyan
athletes train in high
altitude areas like
Nyahururu and Eldoret to
increase the O2 carrying
capacity by increasing the
number of their RBC.
 Foetal haemoglobin – it’s a
pigment found in foetus.
 It has a high affinity for O2
than the mother’s
haemoglobin. This enables
the foetus haemoglobin to
obtain enough O2 from the
mother’s blood even at low
O2 concentration
 After birth RBC containing
foetal haemoglobin are
destroyed in large numbers.
The large number of RBC
destroyed causes a lot of
pigment in the blood hence
the baby maybe slightly
yellow, jaundiced due to
the pigment – this occurs in
the first two weeks of birth.
 Myoglobin – it is a pigment
found in the muscles and it
has high affinity for O2 than
haemoglobin. Thus
oxyhaemoglobin readily
release the o2 to myoglobin
 which then releases o2 to
the cells in muscles.
 Haemoglobin can combine
even more readily with
(carbon ii oxide) gas than
with O2 to form
carboxyhaemoglobin
 However
carboxyhaemoglobin does
not split to release
haemoglobin. This prevents
adequate O2 from being
supplied. This makes
carbon ii Oxide a
dangerous gas because a
person who has inhaled
even small quantity of it
especially in a room with
poor ventilation can die of
suffocation
 Sources of carbon ii
Oxide include:-
 Burning charcoal
stoves(jikos)
 Exhaust fumes from
vehicles
 Transport of carbon IV
oxide (CO2)
 About 95% of CO2 is
transported by RBC. Most
of the CO2 from the tissues
enter the RBC where an
enzyme called carbonic
anhydrase speeds up the
dissolving of CO2 to form
Page 34 of 45
carbonic acid This acid
dissociates to form
hydrogen ions(H+) and
hydrogen carbonate (HCO3)
ions.
 CO 2 + H2O Carbonic
H2CO3
Anhydrase (carbonic acid)
 The hydrogen carbonate
ions leave the RBC and
enter the plasma where they
are eventually transported
to lungs
 In the lungs hydrogen
carbonate ions are
converted back to CO2
which is released to the air
when breathing out
 White blood cells
(leucocytes)
 They are larger than RBC
colourless and are fewer
than in number. There are
about 6000 per cm3 of
blood. This number
increases during infections
 They have a nucleus but
reduce in the case of HIV
infection.
 They are formed in the
bone marrow of long bones
and lymph nodes. Their
function is to protect the
body against pathogenic
 micro-organisms such as  They can squeeze through
bacteria, protozoa, viruses capillaries walls in order to
etc reach infected tissues. They
 Types of white blood cells are made in the bone
 Granulocyte marrow
 Agranulocytes
 They have large rounded
nuclei. Their cytoplasm is
 also non-granular
 Types of agranulocytes
 Monocytes


 They are formed in the
 bone marrow. They
 They are also called  destroy micro-organism
phagocytes or polymorphs such as bacteria by
 They have a large lobed engulfing them
nucleus and cytoplasm  Lymphocytes
containing granules hence
the name granulocytes
 They can change their

shapes as they actively seek
 They are formed in the
and engulf diseases causing
lymph nodes and produce
germs in a process called
antibodies that protect the
phagocytosis hence the
body from infections in the
name phagocytes
following ways:-
 Some white blood cells
 Antibodies which are anti-
may die in the course of
toxic neutralize the toxins
phagocytosis. The dead
(antigens)produced by the
phagocytes, together with
pathogenic organisms
dead micro-organisms and
damaged tissues form pus
Page 35 of 45
 Some antibodies such as
agglutinins cause clumping
together of micro-organism.
 This stops the micro-
organism from multiplying
and eventually they die.
They are then ingested by
phagocytes.
 Lysins destroy micro-
organisms by digesting
their cell membrane or
walls
 Opsonins are anti bodies
which adhere to the outer
surfaces of micro-
organisms thus making it
easy for phagocytes to
ingest them Opsonins are
only produced during
infection
 Platelets (thrombocytes)
 They are very small and
have no nucleus. They are
fragments of RBC and they
are made in the bone
marrow.
 They are approximately
250,000 platelets per mm3
of blood. They live for
about 7 days.
 Platelets produce an
enzyme known as
thromboplastin which plays
a key role in blood clotting.
 Blood clotting
Page 36 of 45
 Blood clot is a seal that
forms to close blood
vessels that are cut or
damaged. This has 2
functions:
 Stops further bleeding at
the wound and therefore
prevent excessive blood
loss.
 Prevents entry of harmful
bacteria into the body
through the damaged tissue.
 Process of blood clotting
 When the blood vessels are
damaged, the damaged
tissue and platelets release
an enzyme called
thromboplastin
(thrombokinase).
 Thromboplastin initiates
the process of blood
clotting by neutralizing the
anticoagulants factor
known as heparin which
occurs naturally in blood.
 Thromboplastin activates
the conversion of
prothrombin (blood
protein) to thrombin in the
presence of calcium ions.
Vitamin K is required in the
formation of prothrombin
 Thrombin activates
conversion of soluble
fibrinogen which is an
 inactive protein to insoluble  The ABC of humans has
fibrin which forms a special types of protein
meshwork of fibres on the called antigens. There are
cut surface to trap RBC to two types of antigens i.e.
form a clot. antigen A and antigen B
 Blood platelets  Antigens determine the
blood type or blood group
of a person.
 A person with only antigen
Thromboplastin/ A on their RBC is said to
Thrombokinase (Enzyme) belong to blood group A.
people with antigen B
 Sometimes both antigens A
& B are found on the RBC
Prothrombin of the individual. In such a
Vitamin K case a person is said to
belong to blood group AB.
 In other people the blood
Ca2+ has no antigens on the RBC
such people have blood
Thrombin group O i.e.

Antigen present on RBC

BLOOD GROUP
AA
BB
Fibrinogen A&AB
NONO

 Fibrin  In addition to the antigens
o BLOOD GROUPS on the RBC, blood plasma
 Human blood can be contains other types of
grouped using the ABC proteins called antibodies.
system and Rhesus factor. These are complementary
o THE ABO SYSTEM to the antigens A & B
Page 37 of 45
 Antibodies are named a and  It’s the process of putting
b respectively. Antibodies donated blood into a
and antigens do not receipt. A blood donor is
correspond to each other someone who voluntarily
e.g. goes to a hospital or heath
 A person with antigen A centre to give blood. The
will have antibody b in the donor should be a healthy
plasma. individual between 18- 65
 A person with antigen B years.
will have antibody a in the  Blood is taken from the
plasma. donor through a vein in the
 If both antigens are present arm and passed into a bag
as in blood type AB, then containing anti – clotting
no antibodies will be substances. The blood is
present in the plasma. kept I bank under suitable
 If none of the antigens is conditions to be given to a
present then both antibodies patient who needs it (within
are present e.g. in blood I month) because RBC will
group O e.g. have died after I month.
 A blood transfusion may be
Bloo Antigen Antibod necessary in situations such
d s y as:
group  When a person loses too
A A B mush blood due to an injury
B B A that may result from motor
AB A&B None accident, war e.t.c.
O None A&b  When a person becomes
 NB The presence of an anaemic due to diseases
antigen and its such as malaria
corresponding antibody in  When a woman loses too
the blood of an individual, much blood after child
would lead to clumping of birth.
RBC. This is referred to  When the blood of the
agglutination donor and recipient mix
 BLOOD TRANSFUSION freely without agglutination
Page 38 of 45
 the blood from the two
individuals is said to be
compatible. The blood from
two individuals is said to be
incompatible if
agglutination occurs when
the two blood are mixed.
 TABLE SHOWING
BLOOD TRANSFUSION
IN HUMANS
DONOR
RECIPI A B AB O antigens.
ENT A  X X 
B X X 
A 
B a blood bank or transfused
O X X X 
 From the table above it
shows that a person with
blood group O can donate
blood to receipts of all the 4
blood groups. This is
because the type O blood
lacks antigens on the RBC
that could be agglutinated
by the antibodies from the
receipts plasma. Therefore
referred to as universal
donor.
 Individual with blood group
AB can receive blood from
all the 4 blood groups
because AB has no
antibodies to agglutinate
the receipts blood hence
Page 39 of 45
referred to as universal
recipient
 Precautions before
transfusion
 The recipient must be given
compatible blood i.e. blood
received by recipient,
should not agglutinate.
Compatibility of blood is
determined by A & B
antigens and rhesus
 After somebody has
donated blood, it’s first
screened before it is kept in
into a recipient.
 During screening doctors
test blood for:
 Presence of any infective
micro- organisms e.g. HIV
if blood is infected, it’s
normally thrown away.
 After somebody has
donated blood he/she
receives a blood donor card
bearing the name of donor
and hi/her blood type.
 RHESUS FACTOR
 The RBC may also have
another antigen on their
membrane known as
Rhesus factor.
 Individuals with Rhesus
antigens on the membrane
 of RBC are said to be
Rhesus positive (Rh+)
while individuals without
the Rhesus antigens are
said to be Rhesus negative
(Rh-)
 When a Rh- woman
marries a Rh + man the
woman will conceive a Rh+
foetus. The Rh+ antigens of
the foetus pass across the
placenta into the mother’s
bloodstream during the last
month of pregnancy. The
mother responds by
producing Rh antibodies
which cross the placenta
into the foetal circulation.
The Rhesus antibodies
destroy some of the RBC of
the foetus.
 The first born child has a
higher chance of survival
because the destruction of
RBC is minimal. But in
subsequent pregnancies
massive destruction of RBC
occurs leading to the death
of foetus. This condition of
is referred to as
erythroblastosis foetalis or
haemolytic disease of the
new born.
 The mother can be treated
with a Rhesus globulin
Page 40 of 45
which prevents her from
producing antibodies
against the foetal antigens.
This will protect the RBC
of the foetus in subsequent
pregnancies.
 Also the baby is transfused
with Rh – blood after birth
due to the extensive
breakdown of RBC
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 Animals particularly
vertebrates have an
additional transport system
besides the blood system.
 This is known as lymphatic
system and it supplies all
the regions of the body just
like the blood system.
 The lymphatic system is
made of narrow, thin
walled tubes known as
lymph vessels which
branch to form lymph
capillaries in which a fluid
known as lymph is
transported.
 LYMPH
 This is a fluid similar to
blood plasma except that it
contains less protein.
 It’s formed as a result of
ultra- filtration of blood
from the narrow blood
capillaries.
 As blood circulates it
reaches the body tissues
through the blood
capillaries that form a
network throughout the
tissues. The pumping force
from the heart together with
the narrow lumens of the
capillaries exert a high
pressure that forces the
fluid part of the blood to
filter out of the capillary
walls into the surrounding
tissues.
 This filtrate consists of all
the constituents of blood
plasma except the blood
cells proteins. This is
because the blood cells and
proteins are too large to
filter out of the capillary
walls. The fluid is known
as tissue fluid or
intercellular fluid.
 Once formed the tissue
fluid bathes the cells of the
tissues supplying them with
O2, food and other useful
substances.
 The cells absorb these
substances and pass out
CO2 and other waste
products in exchange.
 Most of the tissue fluid then
return to the blood system
Page 41 of 45
through the venule end of
the blood at the capillary.
 The excess tissue fluid
drains into the lymph
vessels where it is known
as lymph.
 Lymph vessels have a
swelling along their length
called lymph nodes. They
contain lymphocytes which
defend the body against
infection by producing
antibodies that kill bacteria.
 Also in the lymph nodes
there are phagocytes that
engulf bacteria
X
 IMMUNE RESPONSES
 The micro- organisms that
cause diseases are called
pathogens.
 The production of
antibodies by special cells
that inactivate foreign
substances is called the
immune response
 The ability of the body to
defend against infection by
producing antibodies or
cells that destroy pathogens
is called immunity.
 The immune system
includes all the parts of the
body that are involved in
the recognition and
 destruction of foreign
substances. Its made up of:
 Bone marrow which
produces white blood cells
 White blood cells
especially phagocytes and
lymphocytes
 Various tissues of the
lymphatic system such as
lymph nodes, tonsils,
thymus and spleen which
accommodate lymphocytes.
 TYPES OF IMMUNITY
 They are classified into 2
major groups’ i.e.
 Innate(inborn)/inherited
 Acquired
(1) Innate immune
responses
 Refers to natural a natural
body defense like the skin,
sebum and mucus and
sickle cell anaemia
 This type of immunity is
dependent on genetic
constitution of an
individual e.g. blacks are
Page 42 of 45
generally less susceptible to
malaria than whites.
(2) Acquired immunity
(a) Natural acquired
immunity
 This occurs when the body
naturally overcomes an
nfection e.g.
 (i) Natural active
immunity – this is the type
of resistance which is built-
up in a person after
suffering and then
recovering from a disease.
The person develops
specific antibodies against
future attack of these same
pathogens. E.g. when a
patient recovers from
chicken pox, measles he
develops immunity against
these diseases. A patient
can not suffer from re-
infection
 (ii) Natural passive
immunity- it’s the
resistance which is
inherited i.e. passed on
from parents to offspring
via placenta or onto a new
born baby through
colostrum.
 (b) Artificial acquired
immunity
 This is the immunity
acquired when the
antibodies are artificially
introduced into the body or
weakened pathogens are
introduced in the body.
 Its divided into:
 (i) Artificial active
immunity
 its developed by
introducing a weakened
dose of a micro- organism
into a healthy person to
stimulate the immune
system to produce
antibodies and anti- toxins.
 The process of weakening
the disease causing micro-
organism is known
attenuation.
 The weakened micro-
organisms such as bacteria
and viruses are given in the
form of a vaccine.
 The immunity developed
lasts for a certain period of
time e.g. immunity against
cholera last 6 months while
that for small pox lasts
several years.
(ii) Artificial passive
immunity
 This is the immunity that
comes from using
antibodies produced in one
Page 43 of 45
organism to protect another
organism from a specific
disease.ie the immunity
acquired when preformed
antibodies are artificially
introduced into the body of
a patient. This antibodies
are called antisera eg anti
tetanus, antirabies and
antivenom antisera
 In this type of immunity
antibodies are administered
to the body when it cannot
form its own antibodies this
is common during a disease
outbreak.
 The immunization is
provided in the form of
anti- serum.
 An anti- serum is a serum
containing antibodies. It is
administered in the case of
tetanus, diphtheria, rabies
and cholera. Immunity
acquired this way lasts for a
short time.
 VACCINATION
 ROLE
 Protects individuals from
infections e.g. small pox,
tuberculosis (TB) e.t.c.
Prevents the spread of
diseases
(3) A vaccine is a
weakened or dead form
 of a disease causing (5) At times the body’s
micro- organisms natural defense system
vaccines are may over- react against
administered orally or by even harmless
infection. substances such as dust,
(4) The immunization pollen, certain food,
programme is carried out insect stings and bites
nation wide by the such substances are
Kenya expanded referred to as allergens
programme of and they provoke the
immunization (KEPI) cells to produce and
release chemicals such
Name Causa Age Meth as histamine which
of tive when od of causes inflammation
disease agent adminis vacci itchiness and pain.
tered natio (6) Allergic reactions may
n cause skin rashes
Tuberc Bacter At birth injecti itching, sneezing,
ulosis ium on vomiting, coughing and
(TB) swelling of the body.
Poliom Virus At birth, Oral (7) A severe condition
yelitis 6 10, 14 inocul called anaphylaxis
(polio) weeks ation sometimes occurs in
Diphth Bacter 6,10, 14 injecti which the blood vessels
eria ium weeks on get dilated and this lower
Whoop Bacter 6 & 14 injecti the blood pressure to the
ing ium weeks on extent of causing death.
cough This is how the bee
Measle Virus 9 injecti stings can cause death.
s months on (8) Doctor usually prescribe
an anti- histamine
treatment to counteract
a. ALLERGIC the effect of histamine.
REACTIONS (9) ORGAN
TRANSPLANT
Page 44 of 45
(10) Surgeons can replace (15) A substance called
damaged tissues of interferon is also used to
organs using similar suppress rejection of
organs from other grafts. In organ
persons or animals e.g. transplants sophisticated
the pig in transplant mechanic used to keep
operations. the organs to be
(11) It has also been transplanted and he
possible to transplant patient alive
kidneys, liver, spleen,
reproduction organs or
tissues transplanted onto
larger parts of recipients
are called grafts.
(12) In some cases grafts
may be reject by the
receipt but in most cases
grafts involving identical
twins or those from the
same individual are not
rejected.
(13) The grafts may be
rejected because the
body of the host
recognizes the new
tissues or organ as
foreign to it.
(14) Some transplant of
the heart, kidney, cornea
of the eye, lungs and
bone marrow have been
carried out by using
drugs that suppress the
immune response of the
host.
Page 45 of 45