Factors

Affecting
Cereals &
Field Crop
Production
Environmen
tal Factors
 Environmental Factors

All living organisms depend on much in an

extravagant and adverse nature's product known as
environment. This environment is composed of
interrelated factors that may influence the growth,
characteristics, appearance of living organisms. These
factors may classify as biotic or living organisms such
as bacteria, fungi, viruses etc. and abiotic factor a non
– living organisms such as soil, rainfall, wind, relative
humidity, sunlight, etc.
As these factors greatly influence the overall
production. Knowing with these resolves significantly
in addressing the production lost by managing these
factors active and efficiently.
 Environmental Factors

Climatic
Requirement
of
Cereals and Field
Crops
 Climatic Requirement

Crop requires conducive environment enough to

function and perform, changing this required
environment may result to low productivity. Plant
needs exact quality of factors such as light, water,
temperature and soil etc. to essentially develop for its
intended purpose. Alteration, lacking or over supply of
this factors has also adverse effect on plant.
It is important to note that the climatic requirement
has a significant influence on the whole aspect of all
living organisms (plant). Climate is one of the
modifiers for production. It determines most what crop
best suited in a particular place.
 Climatic Requirement

Living organisms are the product of a set of

complicated conditions in nature which we call
environment. Each environment made of many factors.
These factors classified as biotic and abiotic factors
which are equally important in plant growth and
development.
Climate is one of these many elements belong to
the abiotic factor. Climate mostly determines what
could be best suited and cultivated in a particular
region. It varies from place to place due topography,
location and other factors. These include rainfall, solar
radiation and relative humidity. For instance, temperate
crops could not strive in a lower temperature area; it is
because it is not suited for its recommended amount of
 Climatic Requirement
A prevailing average weather condition of a place
as determined by temperature and meteorological
changes over a year called climate, while on the other
hand, the weather defined as a general condition of the
atmosphere at a particular time, the place with regards
to the temperature, cloudiness, etc.
The following are the climatic factors that influence
the growth and development of crops:
1. Light
2. Temperature
3. Rainfall or water
4. Air
5. Relative humidity
6. Location and site
 Light
Sun is the source of light for the photosynthetic
activity of the plant, although there are alternatives
such incandescent and fluorescent bulbs can also use.
Light intensity - this refers to the amount of
received by the plant. It can be measure as to foot-
candle. It estimated that the value between 2.8
and 10nm is required to reduce CO2 to
carbohydrates. Plant species differ in their
responses to light intensity. For example, soybean leaf
is only two- thirds as efficient as corn leaf in fixing
carbon at full sunlight. Shade tolerant plants are
saturated more rapidly than sun-loving species.
Only about 47% of sun’s energy reaches the earth’s
surface
 Light

Light duration – this refers to the length of

exposure to light (daylength). Responses of the
plant to light often called photoperiodism. Some
reactions of plants are Long Day Plant (LDP),
Short Day Plant (SDP) and Neutral Day Plant
(NDP). This classification based on the flowering habit
of plants as affected by daylength. LDP will flower
only when exposed or subjected to long light
exposure, and opposite to it is the SDP. DNP will
be flowering regardless of day length. Both LDP
and SDP are photosensitive while DNP in non –
photosensitive.
 Light

Light quality – this refers to the wavelength of the

electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from
10-10 to 1010 microns. The visible spectrum is
within the range of ±108. This range is where the
growth processes where affected. The visible spectrum is
composed of violet, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red. High photosynthetic activity is
on red and in on the blue-violet band. The
visible spectrum is a small fraction of the total
range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiant
energy is a unique range converted by plants
through photosynthesis to chemical energy.
These long and short wavelengths have a
profound influence on plant growth. Some of the solar
 Temperature

Temperature refers to the amount of heat (either

cold, warm or heat) received by the plant during its
growth stage. Temperature is very critical in seed
germination, breaking seed dormancy, flowering and
other growth processes. It is also related to the rate of
translocation of photosynthesis. In relatively high
temperature the translocation is faster than at low
temperature. Slow translocation process is one of the
reasons why maturity delayed at low temperature.
Generally, a plant has a temperature range of 5 to 54 °C
to survive. Below and above this range, plants will die.
The optimum temperature for plant growth is 20 - 25°C.
 Temperature
Temperature range
✓ 13.2-24.6 ⁰C in highlands
✓ Baguio (1,200 m asl elevation)
✓ 23.3-30.05 ⁰C in lowlands
Monthly average temp.
• lowest in January (22.5 ⁰C)
• highest in May (28.2 ⁰C)

3 Cardinal Temperature affecting plant processes

1. Minimum temperature • below which velocity of reaction
becomes zero
2. Optimum temperature • reaction velocity is at maximum
3. Maximum temperature • above which reaction velocity
becomes zero
 Water
The plant parts are composed of about 90 to 95%
on a fresh weight basis. Hence, an inadequate amount of
water results in the reduction of yields and quality of
crops. Water maintains the turgidity of the cell and
influences the opening and closing of stomata.
Inadequate water supply will tend to wholly or partially
close the stomata, resulting in the late entry of CO2 into
the cell, thereby reducing photosynthesis.
Water is also a carrier of soil nutrients into the
plant system. During transpiration, it is also given off to
the atmosphere carrying the excess heat and thereby
cooling the plant in the process. Water is also essential
for proper land preparation, efficient utilization of
fertilizer, germination od seeds, and establishment of
 Water

Water is supplied to
the plants through rain or
irrigations. Rainfall is the
primary water source in
the soil. The average
annual rainfall in the
country is 2553mm with
Luzon having a yearly
average of 2724mm; the
Visayas has 2391.7mm
and Mindanao 2349.8
mm.
 Water
There are two (2) seasons in the Philippines the wet
and dry seasons. The climate in the country divided into
several types. However, the classification proposed by
Coronas in 1920 is preferred because it is simple and
easy to remember. Corona classification divides the
climate into four types:
Type 1 – two pronounced seasons: dry from Nov. to Apr
and wet, the rest rest of the year. The dry season lasts
for seven months & less than 50mm precipitation.
This type prevails on the western part of the
island of Luzon, Mindanao, Negros and Palawan.
Type 2 – No dry season, with a very pronounced
maximum rain period
from Nov. to Jan. this prevails in Catanduanes,
Sorsogon, the
eastern part of Albay, the eastern and northern part
 Water
Type 3 – seasons not very pronounced,
relatively
dry from Nov. to Apr and relatively
wet for the
rest of the year. This season
experience in the western part of the
Cagayan Valley, Isabela, Nueva Ecija,
the eastern portion of the Mt. Province,
Eastern Negros, central and southern
Cebu, part of the Northern Mindanao,
and most of the eastern Palawan.
TypeIsland,
climate are the Batanes 4 – rainfall more orLuzon,
northeastern less evenly
southwestern part ofdistributed
CamarinesorNorte,
not very pronounced
the western part of
maximum
Camarines Sur and Albay, rain period
Quezon, Easternand no dry season.
Mindanao, west
part of Marinduque,Areas with this
west Leyte, type ofCebu, Bohol, and
northern
most central and southern Mindanao.
 Air
Air
The components of air, are water, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur and other elements as well as
suspended particles of dust and other pollutants. Mild
moving air is necessary for elective pollination and
replenishment of CO2 while a sharp air (wind) may be
disastrous to plants during the pollination.

Wind – area near coast/lakes experience daytime wind or sea or

lake breeze
- Normal wind speed in the Phil- 7.2 kph
- tropical cyclone (63-118 kph)– June to December
– July –Dec typhoon months
- ¾ of the Phil is within tropical cyclone belt
- Southern Phil – relatively typhoon-free
 Air
Effects of strong winds
a. Crop lodging
b. Subsequent yield reduction
c. Grin shattering
d. Affects transpiration
e. Straight, upright, curved growth
f. Sterility due to pollen loss
g. Reduced CO2 levels esp.
in enclosed spaces
h. Disease spores dispersal
 Air

Oxygen – is required in root respiration for the release of

energy. This energy, in turn, utilized in growth processes
such as germination, adsorption, translocation,
metabolism, etc.

Carbon dioxide – it is one of the raw materials of

photosynthesis. Amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by
leaves of the plants depends on the closing and opening
of the stomata and the amount of CO2 surrounding the
leaves.

Relative Humidity - is the amount of water vapour in the

air which will affect the drying or storing of seeds. It
also affects the transpiration and other growth and
 Air

Crop Climatic Requirements

 Environmental Factors

Soil Requirement
of
Cereals and Field
Crops
 Soil
Soil is defined as an evolving natural body created throughout its
mineral and organic component and anchorage of living
forms in which also plants grow. Soil ingredients depend on
climate, organisms and other factors. It also links earth's air,
water and land; it even impacts climate change
The collection of natural bodies occupying parts of the earth's
surface that support plants is also known as soil. It also has
properties due to the integrated effect of climate and living
matter acting upon parent material, as conditioned by relief,
over some time.
Soil relation to production is just as vital as food for humans.
Soil sustain life, without soils we would be hungry, homeless
and naked. Healthy and productive land ensures quality
produce. As the soil has different characteristics, it should be
essential to understand these features for us to tailor our
 Soil
Soil
A portion of the earth's surface capable of sustaining plant
growth. Productive land is one which is fertile and can enable
plants to produce a high yield. However, fertile soil may not
always be productive, depending on whether the nutrients are
available for plant use or not. Ground as a factor of growth can
be divide into:
1. Physical Properties – this affect availability of nutrients in a
given soil. Primarily, it involves soil pH and cation exchange
capacity (CEC).
a. Soil Color – the soil can be black, grey, brown, yellow, red
or white. Fertile soil is generally dark; i.e. black or
grey.
Factors that influence by soil color:
– Organic content
 Soil
b. Soil texture – this refers to the size of soil particles, sand,
silt and clay
in a given soil. Soil texture is the single most important
physical property of the soil.
Knowing the soil texture alone will provide information
about:
a. water flow potential,
b. water holding capacity,
c. fertility potential,
d. suitability for many urban uses like bearing
capacity
Soil texture can be classified as follows:
1. Gravelly – very coarse particles 3. Silt or loam
– fine particle
2. Sandy – coarse 4. Clay – excellent
particles
 Soil
c. Soil Structure – refers to the arrangement of soil particles.
Has something to do with the water and organic
matter content.
The structure influence:
1. water movement
2. heat transfer
3. aeration
4. porosity

Kind of soil structure:

◼ Granular
◼ Platy
◼ Sub-angular Blocky
◼ Prismatic Good structure promotes healthy soil

Good structure promotes healthy soil

 Soil
d. Pore space - is very important for providing aeration and
paths for water to flow and be stored.
1. Macropores – Pores larger than 0.08 mm. Allow the
movement of air, water, and plant roots.
2. Micropores – Pores smaller than 0.08 mm. Usually
water filled in field conditions
e. Bulk density – refers to the compactness of looseness of a
given soil. It it is determine by many pores space which
influences the water holding capacity. An ideal bulk
density of a soil is 1.3g/cc.
 Soil
2. Chemical Properties of the Soil – this affects the availability
of the nutrients in a given soil. Primarily it involves :
a. Soil pH – this is one of the most important chemical
properties of ` the soil. It is the degree of acidity and
alkalinity of the soil. It is defined as the negative
logarithms of the hydrogen ion concentration. A pH
value below 7.0 is acidic while above 7.0 is alkaline.
Neutral value has a pH of 7.0.
Under extremely acidic condition (pH4.0) the
availability of basic cation such as Ca, Mg, K and Na
decrease while the concentration of Al, Mn, and
Fe may increase to toxic levels. These conditions
are unfavorable for plant growth. Similarly, stable
alkaline soils (pH 8.5) are not suited for crop production.
The state interferes with the growth of crops and reduces
yield.
 Soil
Plants differ in their pH requirements. However, most of the
plants grow well in the soil above pH5. As a general rule, the
soil should be lime when its pH falls below. Soil pH is the
single most important chemical property of the soil (like soil
texture is to the physical properties)
Knowing the pH of the soil will quickly allow you to
determine if the soil is suitable for plant growth and what
nutrients will be most limiting.
 Soil
b. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) – this refers to the total
amount of exchangeable cation that the soil can absorb.
It usually expressed in milliequivalent (me/100g) of soil.
Generally, the higher CEC values are traditionally higher in
clay soils than in sandy soils.
A high CEC value (>25) is a good indicator that a soil
has a high clay and or organic matter content and can hold a
lot of cations. Soil with low CEC value is a good indicator that
a soil is sandy with little or no organic matter that cannot hold
many cations.
 Environmental Factors

Biotic Factors
Affecting
Cereals and Field
Crops Production
 Biotic Factors
Weeds
It is defined as a plant out of place or growing where it not
wanted according to W.S. Blatchley 1912. When the man started
to grow crops, the concepts of a species being unwanted,
undesirable or out of place came about. Thus, the idea of weed is
human-made.
Weeds have three classifications.
1. Grass – has narrow, elongated leaves with parallel
veins. - stems are called culms - leaves are
composed of leaf sheaths and leaf blade -
ligule, a membranous, hairy outgrowth between
leaf sheaths and the leaf blade is present.
2. Sedges – Stem usually solid and triangular. - Three-
ranked leaf arrangement. Each new leaf arises
one-third of the way around the stem from
the one below. - Basal portion fused to form a
tube around the stem.
 Biotic Factors

Advantages/Benefits from Weeds

✓ Alternate source of food for human
✓ An alternative source of feed for animals
✓ Source of useful compounds like growth regulators,
natural pesticides
✓ Some possess medicinal properties
✓ Enrich the soil upon decomposition
✓ Prevents soil erosion
✓ A home for the beneficial organism
✓ Source of genes for crop improvement
✓ Add aesthetic value/beautification
 Biotic Factors

Disadvantages of Weeds
✓ Ability to reduce crop yields when allowed to grow with
the crop during the sensitive growth stages
✓ Reduce the quality of farm products when contaminated
with weeds ✓ Reduce the quality of land
✓ Clog irrigation canal
✓ Alternate host for other pests
✓ Cause human ailment
✓ Toxic to livestock
✓ Compete with pollinators
 Biotic Factors
CROP-WEED COMPETITION
➢ Competition occurs when two or more plants make
demands for the same resources of the environment
over the immediate supply or when the resources
supplied in the limited amount.
➢ If there is a sufficient amount of the said resources,
competition for such support will not take place.
➢ Competition occurs as crops and weeds growing close to
one another; the supply of the single necessary factors
falls below the demand for both.
 Biotic Factors
Crop and weeds compete for the following factors.
1. Water - Plants vary in their water needs for optimum
growth, but that weeds are more efficient in water
utilization. The efficiency in water utilization
expressed whether in gm of water utilized per gm
dry matter produced, or one gram of water to create a
certain amount of dry matter. Approximates the
competitive ability of the species:
➢ Rice requires 682 gm of water to produce 1 g
dry matter.
➢ Corn needs 371.1 to have 1 g dry matter.
➢ Portulaca, a very succulent weed, requires only
253 g.
2. Nutrients - When weeds are present, the addition of
fertilizer resulted in a low yield.
➢ When weeds are removed, crop benefited
 Biotic Factors

3. Light - There is enough light energy from the sun for both
weeds and crops, but their close physical association
lead to crowding or shading that limit the amount
of light that one species can trap. In most cases, the
weeds grow faster than the crops.
Ex. Echinochloa in transplanted rice. The rice seedlings
have a head start over the weed, but in one or two
weeks, the weeds outgrow the crop. Species that can
form canopy faster can be more competitive.

4. Space - another factor which plant and weeds compete in

area. Planting density is an essential aspect of
establishing your crop. Before they compete for the
abovementioned factors competition for space occurs
first.
 Biotic Factors
Disease
- defines as “any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or
an environmental factor which interferes with the
manufacture, translocation or utilization of food,
mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the affected
plant changes in appearance and yields less than a normal
healthy plant of the same variety” (Agrios, 1978).
-“any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results
from continuous irritation by a pathogen or an
environmental factor and leads to the development of
symptoms” (Agrios, 1998).
The Disease Triangle:
Disease development requires the presence of:
i. a susceptible plant
ii. the virulent pathogen
 Biotic Factors
Disease
- defines as “any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or
an environmental factor which interferes with the
manufacture, translocation or utilization of food,
mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the affected
plant changes in appearance and yields less than a normal
healthy plant of the same variety” (Agrios, 1978).
-“any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results
from continuous irritation by a pathogen or an
environmental factor and leads to the development of
symptoms” (Agrios, 1998).
Disease development requires the presence of the ff
factors:
i. a susceptible plant
ii. the virulent pathogen
iii. favorable environment
 Biotic Factors
Pathogen – any agent (biotic or abiotic) that causes a disease. It
is define to a living organism, such as a fungus, or
bacterium, that causes disease.
1. Bacteria – a prokaryotic microorganism that has the
largest group among the pathogens; it has no well-
defined nucleus and nuclear membrane—a typically
one-celled organism is having a unit membrane
and rigid cell wall that reproduce asexually by binary
fission.
Symptoms caused by Bacteria
a. Leaf spot- bacteria in sub-stomatal cavities and
parenchyma cells of leaves causing localized lesions.
b. Soft rot – bacteria produce hydrolytic enzymes that
degrade the middle lamella and cell walls of
the host resulting in soft, slimy, water decay.
c. Blight- is extensive necrosis due to rapid growth and
 Biotic Factors
Symptoms caused by Bacteria
d. Gall – due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of
meristematic and parenchymatous tissues.
e. Canker – phloem and parenchyma tissues become
sunken, dry up
and die.
f. Wilting – a result of vascular disorders; bacteria
multiply and block
the normal flow of water.
g. scab
h. chlorosis
i. Streak-
 Biotic Factors
2. Virus - is a sub-microscopic or ultramicroscopic organism
and an obligate parasite. It can multiply only
intracellularly. Its nucleic acid either RNA or DNA
surrounded by a protein coat. The virus comes in
various shapes, either isometric or polyhedral.
Symptoms caused by viruses:
1. Mosaic
2. ring spot
3. excessive branching-witches’ broom
4. vein clearing
5. colour breaking
6. stunting
7. chlorosis
8. leaf curling
 Biotic Factors
3. Fungi – is a eukaryotic organism which is non-
chlorophyll-bearing, it has filamentous branches with
vegetative structure (mycelium). It depends upon
another living plant for food. It has a specialized
structure called appressoria use for attachment and penetration
to an intact host. Haustoria is used by the fungus to take
food for them to grow.
Some common fungus caused diseases in cereals and
field crops.
a. Brown spot of corn – caused by Physoderma
maydis
b. Corn smut – caused by Ustilago maydis
c. Peanut rust/Corn Rust – caused by Puccinia
polysora
d. Root rot of sweet potato – caused by Ceratocystis
fimbriata
 Biotic Factors
4. Rodents
Rodents are the most notorious pests of different
commodities in the fields as well as when these
commodities are stored. Several crops like vegetables,
oilseeds, cereals, etc., at early stages in the area, are
eaten and contaminated by rats. Rodents are also playing a vital
role in the transmission of public health diseases like
plague, leptospirosis etc. to humans and other animals.
The dominant rodent pest species in the Philippines are:
➢ R. tanezumi (synonym: Rattus rattus mindanensis) in
Luzon and the Visayas.
➢ R. argentiventer is dominant specie in the islands of
Mindanao and Mindoro.
➢ Rattus norvegicus and R. exulans generally are of
minor concern, except in the islands of
 Biotic Factors
5. Insect Pests
Insects characteristics that may differ to anthropods
1. Insect body has three distinct regions: HEAD,
THORAX and ABDOMEN
2. One pair of antennae
3. There are three pairs of legs (a few insects are legless,
and some larvae possess additional leg like
appendages (such as prolegs) on the abdominal;
segments.
4. Most of the time insect has one or two pairs of wings,
borne by the second and the third of the three
thoracic segments.
5. The postural appendages of the head typically
consisting of mandibles, a pair of maxillae,
labrum and labium.
 Abiotic Factors
Non-Parasitic Agents of Plant Diseases (Abiotic)
1. Freezing injury – is a situation where ice crystals form within
the cells (intracellularly. It also happens between cells
(intercellularly) damage the cell membrane and
eventually kill the cells of an organism.
2. Chilling injury- occurs at low temperatures that are slightly
above freezing (pitting and water-soaking)
3. Sunscald – prolonged exposure to high temperature and
bright sunlight, exhibit lightcoloured, blistered and water-
soaked
4. Heat necrosis of potato - grown in light soils where it is hot
and dry, yellow or brown discolouration in the vascular
system of affecter tuber
5. Blackheart disease of potato - Oxygen is insufficient so that
oxygen that is available in the internal tissues of potato use up
faster than it can supply. The tissue suffocates and becomes
 Abiotic Factors
Non-Parasitic Agents of Plant Diseases (Abiotic)
6. Strong wind and heavy rains- ripped, torn or water-soaked and
predisposed to infections.
7. Lightning injury – black and burned poles
8. Air Pollutants any factor mediated by the atmosphere that
causes an unwanted effect mainly gases and
particulates (soot, dust and ashes) produced from
factories, smelting and refining plants, automobile
exhaust and other man related activities.