UNIT I

BASICS OF METEOROLOGY
 Defining Meteorology

“Meteoro” means ‘above the earth’s surface’ (atmosphere) “logy”

means ‘indicating science’. Branch of science dealing with that of
atmosphere is known as meteorology.
Lower atmosphere extending up to 20km from earth’s surface is
where frequent physical process takes place.
In other words, the physical state of the atmosphere at a given
place and time is referred to as “weather”.

The study of weather is called ‘meteorology’. It is often quoted

as the “physics of atmosphere
 Weather and Climate
• Weather: Physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and
given time. E.g. Cloudy day

•Climate: Long term regime of atmospheric variables of a given

place or area. Eg. Cold season
 Agricultural meteorology
1. A branch of applied meteorology which investigates the
physical conditions of the environment of growing plants or
animal organisms
2. An applied science which deals with the relationship between
weather/climatic conditions and agricultural production.
3. A science concerned with the application of meteorology to the
measurement and analysis of the physical environment in
agricultural systems. The word ‘Agro meteorology’ is the
abbreviated form of agricultural meteorology.
4. To study the interaction between meteorological and
hydrological factors on the one hand and agriculture in the
widest sense, including horticulture, animal husbandry and
forestry on the other (WMO).
 IMPORTANCE TO CROP PRODUCTION

1. Helps in planning cropping patterns/systems.

2. Selection of sowing dates for optimum crop yields.
3. Cost effective ploughing, harrowing, weeding etc.
4. Reducing losses of applied chemicals and fertilizers.
5. Judicious irrigation to crops.
6. Efficient harvesting of all crops.
7. Reducing or eliminating outbreak of pests and diseases.
8. Efficient management of soils which are formed out of
weather action.
9. Managing weather abnormalities like cyclones, heavy rainfall,
floods, drought etc. This can be achieved by
• (a) Protection: When rain is predicted- avoid irrigation. But,
when frost is predicted- apply irrigation.
• (b) Avoidance: Avoid fertilizer and chemical sprays when rain
is predicted
• (c) Mitigation: Use shelter belts against cold and heat.

10. Effective environmental protection.

11. Avoiding or minimizing losses due to forest fires.

 Weather Elements
• Solar radiation
• temperature
• Pressure
• Wind
• Humidity
• Rainfall
• Evaporation etc. are highly variable.
• These change constantly sometimes from hour to hour and at
other times from day to day.
• The aspects involved if are for larger areas like a zone, a
state, a country is described by normal.
• The climatic normals are generally worked out for a period of
30 years.
 Light
• Light is the visible portion of the solar spectrum with wavelength
range is from 0.39 to 0.76μ.
• Light is one of the important climatic factors for many vital
functions of the plant. It is essential for the synthesis of the most
important pigment i.e. Chlorophyll which absorbs the radiant
energy and converts it into potential energy of carbohydrate. The
carbohydrate thus formed is the connecting link between solar
energy and living world.
• In addition, it regulates the important physiological functions.
The characteristics of light viz. intensity, quality, duration and
direction are important for crops.
 Energy balance or heat balance
• The net radiation is the difference between total incoming and
outgoing radiations and is a measure of the energy available at
the ground surface.
• It is the energy available at the earth’s surface to drive the
processes of evaporation, air and soil heat fluxes as well as
other smaller energy consuming processes such as
photosynthesis and respiration.
• The net radiation over crop is as follows.
• Rn = G + H + LE + PS + M
Rn is net radiation, G is surface soil heat flux, H is sensible
heat flux, LE is latent heat flux, PS and M are energy fixed in
plants by photosynthesis and energy involved in respiration,
respectively .
 Temperature
• It is defined as the measure of the average speed of atoms and
molecules.
Heat
• Aggregate internal energy of motion of all molecules of a
body.
• Amount of energy transferred from one object to another
because of the temperature between them.
• When two objects are brought into thermal contact, heat will
flow between them until they come into equilibrium with each
other.
• Heat transfer occurs by conduction or by thermal radiation.
 
 Heat Units
• It is a measure of relative warmth of growing season of a given
length.
• Indicated as Growing Degree Days (GDD).
• Growing degrees (GDs) is defined as the mean daily temperature
above a certain threshold base temperature accumulated on a daily
basis over a period of time.
• A heat unit is the departure from the mean daily temperature
above the minimum threshold temperature.
Heat Units = ((Maximum Temp. + Minimum Temp.)/2) –
Threshold Temp
• The minimum threshold temperature is the temperature below
which no growth takes place.
• Usually ranges from 4.5 to 12.5 ºC for different crops (Most
commonly used value is 6.0ºC)
 HEAT INJURIES
• There are two general types of heat injury
a. Injury from direct heat causes the cells of the plant to collapse and
the plant to topple over and die.
b. Indirect injury causes disturbances in the plant's meta- bolic
processes, such as the denaturation of proteins.
• ‘Thermal death point’ – the temperature at which the plant cell
gets killed when the temperature ranges from 50-60°C.
• This varies with plant species. The aquatic and shade loving plants
are killed at comparatively lower temperature (40°C).
Role of temperature in crop production
1. Influence on distribution of crop plants and vegetation.
2. Surface air temperature influences all stages of crop during its
growth development and reproductive phase.
3. Air temperature affects leaf production, expansion and
flowering.
4. The diffusion rates of gases and liquid changes with
temperature.
5. Solubility of different substances is dependent on temperature.
6. Biochemical reactions in crops (double or more with each
10°C rise) are influenced by air temperature.
7. Equilibrium of various systems and compounds is a function
of temperature.
8. Temperature affects the stability of enzymatic systems in the
plants.
9. Most of the higher plants grow between 0°C – 60°C however,
maximum dry matter is produced between 20 and 30°C
10. At high temperature and high humidity, most of the crop plants
are affected by pests and diseases.
11. High night temperature increases respiration and metabolism.
12. A short duration crop becomes medium duration or long
duration crop depending upon its environmental temperature under
which it is grown.
13. Most of the crops have upper and lower limits of temperature
below or above which, they may not come up and an optimum
temperature when the crop growth is maximum. These are known
as cardinal temperatures and different crops have different
temperatures.
 Soil temperature
The sown seeds, plant roots and micro organisms live in the
soil.
Effects of soil temperature on plant growth
•Soil temperature affects the germination and growth of crops
•Soil temperature has a profound influence on root and shoot growth,
and nutrient uptake by crops.
•Low soil temperature reduces water intake of water by roots.
•Extreme soil temperatures injures plant and its growth is effected.
•Nutrient transformation and nutrient availability are controlled by
soil temperature and soil moisture.
• Soil temperature varies with time and depth, and is determined
by the radiation reaching the soil surface, the quality of the
surface thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the soil.
• At a constant moisture content, a decrease in temperature
results in a decrease in water and nutrient uptake.
• At low temperatures, transport from the root to the shoot and
vice versa is reduced.
 Factors controlling soil temperature

• Soil moisture
• Soil colour
• Slope of the land
• Vegetative cover
• General soil tilth. 
Aeration can be used to control soil temperature, regulate soil
moisture, improve drainage, stimulate microbial activity and
improve overall soil tilth
 Humidity
• The amount of water vapour that is present in atmosphere is
known as atmospheric moisture or humidity.
Specific humidity
• Weight of water vapour per unit weight of moist air. It is
expressed as grams of water vapour per kilogram of air (g/kg).
 Relative Humidity
• The ratio between the amount of water vapour present in a given
volume of air and the amount of water vapour required for
saturation under fixed temperature and pressure.
• There are no units and this is expressed as percentage.
• In other terms it is the ratio of the air’s water vapour content to its
maximum water vapour capacity at a given temperature expressed
in percentage.
• The relative humidity gives only the degree of saturation of air.
• The relative humidity of saturated air is 100 per cent.
 Precipitation
• Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such
as rainfall, snow, hail, fog and dew.
• Rainfall one of the most important factor influences the
vegetation of a place.
• Total precipitation in amount and distribution greatly affects the
choice of a cultivated species in a place.
• In heavy and evenly distributed rainfall areas, crops like rice in
plains and tea, coffee and rubber in Western Ghats are grown.
• Low and uneven distribution of rainfall is common in dryland
farming where drought resistance crops like pearl millet,
sorghum and minor millets are grown.
• In desert areas grasses and shrubs are common where hot desert
climate exists
• Though the rainfall has major influence on yield of crops,
yields are not always directly proportional to the amount of
precipitation as excess above optimum reduces the yields.
• Distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall to
have longer growing period especially in drylands.
 Wind velocity
• The basic function of wind is to carry moisture and heat.
• The moving wind not only supplies moisture and heat, also
supplies fresh CO2 for the photosynthesis.
• Wind movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for more crops.
• When wind speed is enormous then there is mechanical damage
of the crops (i.e.) it removes leaves and twigs and damages crops
like banana, sugarcane.
• Wind dispersal of pollen and seeds is natural and necessary for
certain crops.
• Causes soil erosion.
• Helps in cleaning produce to farmers.
• Increases evaporation.
• Spread of pest and diseases
SOIL PLANT ATMOSPHERIC CONTINUUM
• Soil plant water relationships relate to the properties of soil
and plant that affect the movement, retention and use of
water.
• Soil serves as the storage reservoir for water.
• Plants extract daily water requirements for proper growth
and development.
• As plants continue to use water, the available supply decline
and diminishes unless more water is added by rainfall or
irrigation.
 SPAC
• The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum (SPAC) is the
pathway for water moving from soil through plants to
the atmosphere.
• Continuum in the description highlights the continuous nature
of water connection through the pathway.
• The low water potential of the atmosphere, and relatively
higher (i.e. less negative) water potential inside leaves, leads
to a diffusion gradient across the stomatal pores of leaves,
drawing water out of the leaves as vapour. 
• As water vapour transpires out of the leaf, further water molecules
evaporate off the surface of mesophyll cells to replace the lost
molecules since water leaves is maintained at saturation vapour
pressure.
• Water lost at the surface of cells is replaced by water from
the xylem which due to the cohesion-tension properties of water in
the xylem of plants pulls additional water molecules through the
xylem from the roots toward the leaf
Soil – Plant – Atmosphere continuum

Plants create “unbroken” column of water driven by plant

transpiration
SPAC
 The Process

•The movement of water from the soil, into the roots, through the
xylem and from the leaf into the atmosphere, occurs because of a
series of water potential gradients.

•The system that involves the soil, the plant’s roots, the xylem, the
leaf and the atmosphere, is called the soil-plant-atmosphere
continuum (SPAC), which is a pathway for the movement of water
from the soil into the atmosphere.

•Water flows from soil to roots through xylem, mesophyll and wall
cells, and it evaporates through stomata, into the atmosphere.
• The value of the water potential is higher (less negative) in the
soil and decreases along the transpiration pathway.
• The water potential values in the different elements of the system
(saturated and unsaturated soil, plant’s roots, plant’s xylem,
plant’s leaves, atmosphere) are determining a series of water
potential gradients that are the driving forces for water movement.

Water potential
Refers to the ability of water to move in soil
More water in soil = More water potential
At saturation, potential is near 0 (zero)
As soil dries, values become more negative
Water is held more tightly by soil
 Soil water potential

The SWP potential is defined as the potential energy of water in soil

The total SWP (ψt) is determined by a variety of forces acting on the
soil water, including gravitational (ψg), matric (capillary and
adsorptive, ψm), osmotic (ψo) and hydrostatic (ψh).

ψt = ψg + ψm + ψo + ψh

The gravitational potential is determined by the elevation of the

soil water with respect to the chosen reference elevation, which is
usually the soil surface.
The matric potential is determined by the forces exerted by the
soil matrix (soil particles) on water, which are capillary and
adsorptive forces.
 The osmotic potential is given by the presence of solutes in the
soil solution, which decrease the potential energy of water.
 The hydrostatic potential (also called pressure potential) is
determined by a pressure exerted by overlaying water over a point
of interest in the soil.
• Usually the SWP is expressed as a negative number because it
represents the energy required to transfer the soil water to the
reference state described above.
• The term “suction” and “tension” are definitions developed to
avoid using the negative sign and to represent the SWP as positive
numbers.
• However, in this review, the negative sign will be retained and
the property will be called water potential.
 TYPES OF SOIL WATER

1. Hygroscopic water - water held tightly to the surface of

soil particles by adsorption forces.
2. Capillary water - water held by the forces of surface
tension and continuous films around soil particles and in the
capillary spaces. It is held between 1/3 to 31 atm. However
between 15-31 atm, the movement of water is very slow and
beyond 15 atm, it is not available to plants.
3. Gravitational water - water that moves freely in
response to gravity and drains out of the soil. This water is
held in the soil at tension of one third of atm (1/3 atm).
Out of the three forms, only capillary and to some extent
gravitational water is available to plants. Hygroscopic water
is not available to plants.
 Terminologies
•Saturation capacity: when all the soil pores are filled with
water, the soil is said to be under saturation capacity or maximum
water holding capacity. The tension of water at this point is
almost zero.
•Field capacity: This situation exists 2-3 days after the soil is
wetted by rainfall or irrigation. The soil moisture tension is
around 1/3 atm.
•Permanent Wilting Point (PWP): It is the moisture content at
which plants can not obtain enough moisture to meet
transpiration requirement and remain wilted. The soil moisture
tension at PWP is 15 atm.
•Available water: Soil moisture between FC and PWP is
referred as available water.
 Pattern of Water Removal
Plants will use water near the surface first
As surface dries, plant roots grow deeper.

Measuring Soil Water

Four methods:
- gravimetric measurements
- potentiometers
- resistance blocks
- neutron probes (mainly research)
 Gravimetric method
Measures soil water content by weight
Water content = moist wt – dry wt
dry wt
Example: soil sample at field capacity 162 grams
dry sample 135 grams
water content = 162g – 135g = .20
135g
 Volume Basis
Volumetric water content =
gravimetric water content x soil bulk density
water density
From previous gravimetric example .
If bulk density of soil is 1.4 grams per cubic cm, and we know
density of water is 1.0 g/cc
Volumetric water content =

.20 x 1.4g/cc = .28

1.0 g/cc
 Soil Depth Basis
Measures “inches of water” per foot of soil
- Uses volumetric water content
- Simple calculation . . .
Inches water per foot =
12 inches x volumetric water content
Continue from previous example . . .
Inches water per foot soil =
12 inches x .28 = 3.36
Or simply stated
Each foot of soil depth contains 3.36 inches of water assuming
constant soil conditions
 Practical Measuring Devices
Gravimetric method not very practical management
More useful and practical are . . .
- 1. Potentiometers (tensiometers):
 Measure soil moisture potential at given levels
 Water exiting tube creates vacuum
 Measured by gauge/instrument
 Function best at higher potentials
2. Resistance Blocks (gypsum blocks):
 Measure resistance of electrical flow between two electrodes
embedded in block buried in soil
 moist soil with ions of salts in solution carry electrical flow
 WATER RETENTION
 Medium-textured soils have the highest available water-
holding capacity e.g. Silt Loam
 Organic matter influences water-holding capacity-Increases
amount of available water
Water requirement of crop
• Water balance method: This method indicates the inflow and
outflowof water over larger areas over long period.
• WR=ET+ Surface ruoff+ subsurface drainage+ change in soil
water content
 Water evaporation in the leaf affects
the xylem
• The tensions needed to pull water
through the xylem are the result of
evaporation of water from leaves.
• Transpiration pull, which causes water
to move up the xylem
 Water evaporation in the leaf affects
the xylem
• So, negative pressure exists in leaves- cause surface tension on
the water
• As more water is lost to the atmosphere – the remaining water is
drawn into the cell wall
• As more water is removed from the wall the pressure of the
water becomes more –ve
This induces a motive force to pull water up the xylem
 Water movement from leaf to
atmosphere
After water has evaporated from
the cell surface of the intercellular
air space diffusion takes over.
•So: the path of water
– Xylem
– Cell wall of mesophyll cells

– Evaporated into air spaces

of leaf
– Diffusion occurs – water
vapor then leaves via
stomatal pore
– Goes down a concentration
gradient.
 Water Vapor diffuses quickly in air

• Diffusion of water out of the leaf is very fast

• Transpiration from the leaf depends on two factors:
– Difference in water vapor concentration between leaf air
spaces and the atmosphere
– The diffusional resistance of the pathway from leaf to
atmosphere
• The diffusional resistance of the pathway from leaf to
atmosphere
• The resistance associated with diffusion through the stomatal pore.
– Leaf stomatal resistance (rs)
• Resistance due to a layer of unstirred air next to the leaf surface
– Boundary layer resistance
 Boundary layer resistance
• Thickness of the layer is determined
by wind speed.
• Still air – layer may be so thick that
water is effectively stopped from
leaving the leaf

• Windy conditions – moving air

reduces the thickness of the
boundary layer at the leaf surface

• The size and shape of leaves

influence air flow – but the stomata
itself play the most critical role leaf
transpiration
• The boundary layer around a leaf is thick in still air, and
constitutes a major resistance to the flux of H2O from the leaf.
A slight increase in wind speed will reduce the boundary
layer, and increase transpiration.