Department of Agronomy

Elements of agro-meteorology

AGC111 & AGC111F

Prof CS Mutengwa
&
Mr Mthoko
 Agro-meteorology

• Principles and applications of climate studies

in agriculture
 Purpose of the Course / Module
• To introduce all students of agriculture to agro-meteorology.
•
• An understanding of the principles of agro-meteorology is
basic to all forms of agriculture.

• The course forms a foundation for most crop production

courses.

• When applied correctly, the meteorological skills learnt in this

course should help farmers to make the most efficient and
sustainable use of their physical environment.

• Application of principles of agro-meteorology also helps

farmers to improve both the quantity and quality of their
yields.
 Learning Outcomes and Associated Assessment
criteria

Exit level Outcomes

Demonstrate an understanding of the importance of climate as a

critical factor in agriculture

Identify and explain the underlying physical principles in agro-

meteorology

Identify and understand the purpose, and the ability to install and
operate meteorological instruments

Be able to analyse and interpret weather data

 Content Outline
• Agricultural climatology
– Interactions in plant ecology

• Climate and weather

– Definitions of climate and weather
– Agricultural intensification
– Climatic boundaries
– Sources of information on climate

• The water factor

– Natural forms of water
• Atmospheric moisture
– Humidity, Absolute humidity, Vapour pressure, Saturation vapour pressure,
Saturation deficit, Dewpoint, Relative humidity
• Humidity measurement
 Content Outline……………………cntd
• Evaporation from a free water surface
– Hydrological cycle
– Evapotranspiration
– Measurement of evaporation using evaporation pans

• Rainfall and seasonal distribution

– Nature of rainfall
• Rain formation, and different types of rainfall
• Reliability of rainfall
• Measurement of rainfall
• Plants and water use
– Transpiration ratio and water use efficiency
Content Outline……………………cntd
• Temperature
– Temperature and plant growth
– Temperature and crop distribution
• Classification of agro-ecological regions according to Ehlers
– Measurement of temperature
• Radiation
– The effect of light on plants
– Agronomic importance of light
• Wind
• Intergration of climatic data
– Koopen classification
– Thornthwaite classification
– Agro-ecological classification
Agro-meteorology.................................. contd

• Practical work
– Operation and maintenance of meteorological equipment.
– Elementary analysis of weather data.

• Teaching-Learning Methods

– Mostly lectures
– Group work encouraged, especially for the development of
oral/communication skills.
– A few practicals and field visits will be done to encourage
learners to apply and/or see the knowledge acquired in
application.
Agro-meteorology........................... ..contd
• Assessment Methods
Formative and summative assessment.
•
• Semester mark calculated as follows:
• Practical reports = 30%
• Tests = 60%
• Assignments = 10%
•
• A three (3) hour final written examination to contribute
50% of the final mark
•
• Final mark = {Semester Mark (%) + Exam Mark (%)}/2
 LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION
 LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION
• Objectives

• After completion of this lesson the student must be able

to:

• 1. Explain in his/her own words the meaning and

agricultural significance of all terms such as;
– agricultural climatology,
– Crop Ecology,
– Ecological crop Geography.

• 2. State the relationship between agricultural climatology

and other fields of agricultural science.
• Agronomy - the art and science of field crop
production,

• OR,- the art and science of handling the crop

and soil so as to produce the highest possible
quantity and quality of produce from each unit
of land, soil, water and light.

• The soil, water, light, wind, temperature and

topography are factors of environment.

• Environmental factors do not act independently,

but influence each other. eg, climate and
topography influence soil type.
• Agricultural science evolved through man’s
attempt to make a living from the land, which
meant that he had to use plants for food.

• Man had to learn how to manage crops and

produce food from them. Important issues
were;
– Effect of the environment on crops,
– ways of changing the environment to suit
different crops,
– Growing of those crops which are most suited to
particular environmental conditions and needs.
 Interactions between plants and environmental
factors
• Plants are products of the environment, though they
also have an effect on a large number of different
factors which make up the environment.

• Plants therefore interact with environment.

• Ecology - the study of relations between plants and
their environment.
– The word is derived from the Greek words ‘’Oikos’’
meaning house and ‘’Logos ‘’ meaning study of plants in
relation to their environment .

• Crop ecology - is the study of cultivated crop plants

in relation to their environment .
 Crop ecology …………..cntd

• What are the environmental factors that

influence the growth, adaptation, distribution
and production of crop plants?
4 major groups of factors that influence the growth,
adaption, distribution and production of crop plants
• CLIMATIC FACTORS • PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
– limitations of the plant
and the way in which it
• EDAPHIC FACFORS
responds to the
– The soil, rocks and environment
minerals from which the
soil was derived, fertility,
ability to hold water and • BIOTIC FACTORS
all properties of the soil – The influence of all other
which can influence living organisms
plant growth
Interactions between plants and environmental factors

climate

plant

Biotic factors soil

• Ecological Crop Geography – the influence of
environmental and social factors on field crop
production.
– Social factors include economic, political, historical and
technological forces.

• Agricultural meteorology is a study of the influence

of the weather and climate on crop and animal
production.

• A good understanding of the influence of weather

and climate simplifies choice of agricultural
practices and farming systems that are suited to
different climatic conditions.
• Attention will be directed at the climatic factors
which influence agriculture, and more particularly
the production of crop plants. Focus will be on the
following factors:

– HUMIDITY OF THE AIR

– RAINFALL

– TEMPERATURE

– RADIATION AND DAYLENGTH

– WIND

– EVAPORATION
• The agronomist must come to terms with the
natural controlling factors, including climate of
the area where he/she is called upon to serve.

– S/he must know what these factors are, and how

they interact with each other.
 Lesson 2

CLIMATE AND WEATHER

 CLIMATE AND WEATHER

• Objectives
– Be able to define and explain the meaning and
agricultural significance of all terms in this lesson.

– Be able to discuss the sources of information on

climate and how this information can be applied in
agriculture.

– Be able to calculate the rainfall of a place on a map

by means of interpolation.
• Define the following terms:

• 1. Climate

• 2. Weather
• Climate - the conditions of rainfall, temperature,
humidity, wind, solar radiation ,etc., which generally
prevail in that region .

• OR: Climate is a description of the weather of a

place over a long period of time, such as 30 years.

• Weather - sum total of atmospheric conditions over

a short period of time, or the existing conditions.

– The above elements of the climate and weather constitute the

ingredients of the various types of climate and weather.
• The climate of a place is described in terms of
averages
– What is the challenge that can be encountered when
choosing a farming system in an area where climate is
only described using averages?

– Apart from man, climate is the main factor which

controls agriculture and the degree of agricultural
intensification which can be maintained.

– Climate is therefore a major factor in the study of crop

ecology.
 Agricultural intensification
• Agricultural intensification - the amount of money
and labour invested per unit area of land in a
given time.

– Intensive agriculture may therefore be capital or labour

intensive, or both.

• The degree agricultural intensification is

determined by the potential (capacity) of the land
to produce. What does this statement mean to
you?
 Which type of agriculture (intensive or extensive) is
associated with the following?

High levels of production per Low levels of production per

unit area of land unit area of land

a high element of risk, A low level of risk,

Maximum use of inputs Minimum use of inputs per
unit area of land

very low yields or returns High returns

Production under Production under very
unfavourable conditions favourable conditions,
• Intensive agriculture is characterised by the following;

– High levels of production per unit area of land, under very

favourable conditions,
– A low level of risk,
– Maximum use of inputs which is associated with very high yields
or returns
– Give some egs of intensive agriculture!

• Extensive agriculture is characterised by the following;

– Low levels of production per unit area of land, under

unfavourable conditions,
– a high element of risk,
– Use of low inputs per unit area of land, which is associated with
low returns.
– Give some egs of extensive agriculture!
Climatic Boundaries
• Expressions for climatic description depend upon size
of the area to which the description applies.

• Macroclimates
– climates of relatively large parts of the earth’s surface
obtained by weather records and gross appraisal of the
natural vegetation.
– Descriptions of macroclimate (e.g. Koppen and
Thornthwaite classifications) are of much more
significance to geographers rather than agriculturists .
– The broad descriptions do, however, have application in
the delineation of agro-ecological boundaries.

• Microclimates
– weather conditions of a very small area.
– Generally refers to climate near the ground but, often
small zones are under consideration, e.g. the climate
around a leaf or plant, or even a single stomata.
• Local climate:
– the climate of a volume of space intermediate between
that of macro –and microclimate,
• e.g. the weather conditions within a field, orchard or pasture.

– local and microclimates are influenced by aspect,

vegetation, and even irrigation

– The agriculturist is mainly concerned with the local climate

when planning farming systems and prescribing particular
farming practices;
• Eg fertilization rates, plant population density, disease control
measures, method of tillage etc, are influenced by local climate.

– The agriculturalist has to assess the limitations imposed by

the climate over relatively small areas, which comprises
the local climates within which they operate .
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON CLIMATE
• The most important climatic elements as far as the
agriculturist is concerned are moisture (water),
temperature, light and wind.

• To the South African agronomist, the two most limiting

factors are moisture and temperature.
– Other factors which seriously limit agricultural production are
soil quality and managerial ability.

• When detailed climatic information of an area is not

available, the agronomist should compile such information
for themselves.

• There are five main sources of information on climate:

1. Reports and Publications
– Various reports and publications are generated on a
regular basis by various institutions such as:
• the Institute of Climate, Water and Soil of the ARC,
• South African Weather Service (www.weathersa.co.za/)
• World meteorological organisation (WMO)
(https://public.wmo.int/en).
– Newsletters, Journal articles, books, etc

• Rainfall maps
– depict variation in amount of rain received in different
places by means of isohyets
– Isohyets are lines on the map linking points that receive
the same amount of rain.
– Sometimes colour is used to demarcate zones receiving
approximately the same amount of rain.
Isohytes
Colour is also used to demarcate zones receiving the
same amount of rainfall
• Isotherms

• Lines on a map linking points with the same temperature

• They are of little use to the agriculturist because all

temperatures on these maps are reduced to theoretical
values, which would pertain to sea-level.

• This is done to eliminate the complications induced by

mountains and other relief forms which would otherwise
make the maps too complicated.
– The temperature of the atmosphere declines by about 2 ⁰C per
300 m increase in altitude

• Isotherms are used by geographers to interpret the world

wide effects of latitude and land water distribution.
 Interpolation using rainfall maps

• This involves use of Isohyets to determine the

amount of rainfall received in a point on the map
that is between two isohyets.

• The efficiency of interpolation in estimating

rainfall received in a particular area can be
limited by topography.
– topography can exert a pronounced effect on the
occurrence of orographic or relief rain over a
relatively short distance.
 Exercise in Interpolation
6 70 8
0 0
Find the rainfall at point X 0 0

A B

30

Shortest distance between isohyets =70 mm

Increase in rainfall from a to b (800-600) = 200 mm

Increase in rainfall per mm distance on map (200/70) = 2,857 mm

Distance from 600 mm isohyte to X =30 mm

Increase in rainfall from 600 mm isohyets to X (2,857 x 30) = 85, 7 mm

Rainfall at X (600+85.7) = 685, 7 mm

Exercise in Interpolation
5
9 5
0 75 0
0

A B

25

What is the amount of rainfall at point X?

Solution
– Shortest distance between isohyets =75 mm

Decrease in rainfall from a to b (900-550)= 350 mm

Increase in rainfall per mm distance on map

(350/75) = 4.67 mm

Distance from 550 mm isohyets to X =25 mm

Increase in rainfall from 550 mm isohyet to X

(4.67 x 25) = 116.75 mm

Rainfall at X (550+116.75) = 666.75mm

• The efficiency of interpolation in estimating
rainfall received in a particular area can be
limited by topography.

• topography can exert a pronounced effect on the

occurrence of orographic or relief rain over a
relatively short distance.

• What causes orographic rainfall?

2. Computerized Records
– A lot of information is stored on the internet in
computers in the form of various types of databases.
– South African Weather Service
(www.weathersa.co.za/)
– World meteorological organisation (WMO)
(https://public.wmo.int/en).
• 3. Local Records

• Climatological data can be obtained directly by using

meteorological equipment.

• Commercial farms and research institutes typically have

their own weather stations, eg Fort Hare Farm. Make sure
you see the weather station before you use the information.

• Instruments must be placed in a level, preferably grassed,

enclosed camp, at least 10 x 10 meters in size and freely
exposed to the weather elements.
 Local Records................cntd
– Each instrument must be set up in accordance with
recognized requirements, as stipulated by national
and international regulations
• eg world meteorological organisation (WMO).

– For example, a stevenson screen must be:

• At least 15 meters away from the nearest building,
• 1.65 m from the fence,
• mounted about 1 meter above the soil surface,
• mounted with the door opening due South to prevent the
sun from shining directly on the instruments when
readings are taken early in the morning.
4. Natural Vegetation

– Climate is determined on the basis of the degree of

vegetal cover, and composition of vegetation

– Deductions that are made based on vegetal cover are

only meaningful when agricultural malpractice has
not impaired the balance between the naturally
occurring plants and the environment.
• eg, overgrazing in a humid area can result in reduced cover
and a species composition which is characteristic of an arid
or semi- arid climate.
Tropical rainforest

African Savanna
5. Soil type
– Soils are a product of climate, parent material
and natural vegetation.
• the soil therefore bears an imprint of the climate that
exists in that area, and can give an indication of the
climate which prevailed during its formation.

– eg, a high pH and the presence of lime in the soil indicates

that the soil has not been well leached i.e. the rainfall in
these parts must be relatively low.

– What does a low soil pH (acidic soil condition) indicate

about the rainfall of a given area?
 Soil type ….. cntd
• Under very high rainfall conditions (e.g. rainfall > 1 000 mm),
basic plant nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and
potassium are washed away from soil colloids, and are
replaced by hydrogen and aluminium

• The soil immediately becomes acid, with higher

concentrations of hydrogen and aluminium
– Aluminium (Al) ions sometimes rise to toxic levels that impair
root growth.

– acid soils are also usually characterized by Fe and Mn plant

toxicities
 Lesson 3

THE WATER FACTOR

 Lesson objectives
• After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

– 1) List the forms of water in the atmosphere.

– 2) Define the terms in which atmospheric humidity may

be expressed.

– 3) Explain the relation between temperature and relative

humidity.

– 4) Calculate relative humidity, vapour pressure deficit and

vapour pressure gradient, when given the necessary
data.
• Where do we find water on earth, and in
what forms does it occur?
Natural Forms of Water

• The four natural forms of water are;

– (a) Atmospheric moisture,

– (b) Soil water ,

– (c) Water that is part of living organisms, e.g.

plants and animals, and

– (d) Water found in rivers, lakes and oceans.

 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
• Atmospheric moisture may be subdivided into
four groups, which are;
– (i) Water vapour or humidity,
– (ii)Rain,
– (iii) Hail,
– (iv) Snow.

• Humidity
• Humidity of the atmosphere is of importance to
the agriculturist.
– Why do you think it is important?
 Importance of humidity to the
agriculturist
– It exerts a strong influence on the water demand of
crops,
– Influences the development of certain pathogens,
– Indicates the likelihood of occurrence of rain.

• The agronomist should therefore have a

knowledge of the humidity of his area and its
expected seasonal variation.
 Humidity
• Atmospheric humidity may be expressed in terms of
absolute humidity, relative humidity, saturation
deficit, vapour pressure or vapour pressure deficit.

• (i) Absolute Humidity

• The density of water vapour in the atmosphere,
expressed in g/m3 .

• Since the density of a perfect gas at a given

temperature is proportional to its partial pressure,
absolute humidity can be expressed in terms of
partial pressure of the water vapour, also called the
vapour pressure.
• (ii) Vapour pressure:
• Refers to the vapour pressure exerted by water
vapour particles in the air.

• In a vessel containing a mixture of gases or

vapour, which do not react chemically with each
other, each constituent exerts the same pressure
as it would if it alone occupied the vessel.

• Therefore, the pressure of water vapour in the air

is exerted independently of the pressure of the
other gases.
 Vapour pressure.............cntd
• The independent pressure applied by water vapour is termed “partial
pressure”, expressed in kilo Pascals (kPa).

• In older work, gas pressures were expressed in terms of atmospheres,

mm Hg and bars .
– mm Hg refers to millimetre of mercury, ie, pressure generated by a column
of mercury one millimetre high
– A bar is about equal to the atmospheric pressure at sea level and defined
as 100000 pascals (100 kPa)

• 1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg (millimeter of mercury)

• = 101.33 kPa
• 1 bar = 100kPa
• 1000m bar = 100 kPa
• 1 atmosphere = 1013.3 m bar
• 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
 iii) Saturation vapour pressure
• It is the maximum amount of water vapour that air can
hold at a given temperature.

• Saturation vapour pressure increases as the

temperature is raised.
– The rate of increase is not arithmetic (e.g. 2,4,6,8) but rather
geometric (eg. 2, 4, 8, 16).
– Saturation vapour pressure increases at an ever increasing
rate as the temperature increases.
• eg, when the temperature is raised from 0 to 100C, saturation
vapour pressure increases from 0.61 to 1.23 kPa. (an increase of
0.62 kPa)
• On the other hand, when the temperature is raised from 40 to
500C,this 100C rise will cause the saturation vapour pressure to be
increased by 4.96 kPa .
• The increase from 40 to 500C is 8 times greater than the increase
from 0 to 100C.
Illustration of the relationship between temperature and saturation vapour pressure

Saturation vapour
Pressure (KPa)

Temperature (0C)
• (iv) Saturation deficit (vapour pressure deficit)

• The difference between the actual vapour pressure and

the saturation vapour pressure at a given temperature

• vapour pressure deficit = Sat. vap. Pressure – actual

vapour pressure.
•
• Gives an indication of the evaporative power of the air

– water vapor has a tendency to move from areas of high

vapor pressure to low vapor pressure
– Under which of the following conditions should we expect
plants to loose a lot of water into the atmosphere?
• When saturation deficit is low or high?
 Calculation of vapour pressure deficit

• You are given the following information;

– actual vapour pressure = 30 Kpa

– Sat. vap. Pressure = 150 Kpa

What is the saturation deficit?

(v) Dewpoint
• Dewpoint is the temperature at which air with a
given moisture content becomes saturated.

• It is the temperature at which the saturation

vapour pressure equals the actual vapour
pressure.

• What is the vapour pressure deficit at this

temperature?

• If the dewpoint is known, the vapour pressure

may be obtained from tables.
 Dewpoint......................................cntd
• If the air is cooled below its dewpoint, condensation can
occur.

• When condensation nuclei are absent (e.g minute water

droplets or dust particles), condensation often takes
place at temperatures that are appreciably lower than
dewpoint.
– The air then becomes supersaturated.

• This is not a state of equilibrium and condensation will

occur immediately on the introduction of condensation
nuclei.

• Below 00̊C the term frost temperature or frost point is

often used instead of dewpoint.
• Define the following: frost temperature/frost
point
• This is when the dewpoint is below 00̊C.
 (vi) Relative Humidity (RH)

• Relative humidity refers to the ratio of actual

vapour pressure to the saturation vapour
pressure at the same temperature.
•
RH = X 100%
Relative Humidity (RH).....................................cntd

• RH is usually expressed as a percentage instead

of a fraction (Ratio x 100).

• The relative humidity gives the percentage

saturation of the air; it does not give an
indication of water content.

• When the RH is low, then the actual vapour

pressure is small relative to the saturation
vapour pressure of the air.
 Calculation of relative humidity
• You are given the following information for a
specified temperature;

– actual vapour pressure = 30 Kpa

– Sat. vap. Pressure = 150 Kpa

What is the relative humidity of the atmosphere?

Relative humidity........................cntd
• The same relative humidity (RH) may refer to widely different
vapour pressures when temperatures vary.

• A saturated atmosphere at 30 ̊C has a vapour pressure of 4, 24 kPa

and its RH is 100%.

• If this air contained only half the amount of water vapour, the RH
would be 50%.

• The RH could also be reduced to 50% by rising the temperature

from 30 to 43 ̊C. (the Saturation vapour pressure at 43 ̊ C= 8. 48
kPa).

• It is therefore clear that RH does not give an indication of the

moisture content of air.
Relative humidity........................cntd

• The rate of evaporation is greatly influenced by

the vapour pressure gradient.

• RH does not indicate the vapour pressure

gradient.

• In the following example, the vapour pressure

gradients between two bodies of air and water
are shown.
•
20 ̊C 30 ̊C
• Saturation Vapour Pressure above free water
• (Vapour pressure at RH=100%) (kPa) 2.33 4.24

• Vapour pressure of air at RH = 50%

• (50% of sat. Vapour. Pressure) (kPa) 1.165 2.12
• Gradient in Vapour Pressure 1.165 2.12

• In both cases, the differences in relative humidity is 50%,

though there are differences in vapour pressure gradients at
the different temperatures.
 Lesson 4

HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
 Objectives

• 1. To familiarize with some of the more widely used

methods to determine the vapour content of the
atmosphere.

• 2. The student must be able to use the instruments,

know their shortcomings, and precautions to be
taken when using them.
• The moisture content of the air can be measured
by various methods, two of which will be
discussed:

• 1. The thermodynamic techniques and

• 2. the mechanical method.

• Other methods that are often used are the

condensation method (dewpoint), absorption
method, diffusion method, and the infra-red
absorption method.
 1. Thermodynamic method
• Involves use of psychrometers, which operate on the same
basic principle.

• (a) Stationary psychrometer

• Makes use of two thermometers, which are:

• Wet thermometer or wet bulb thermometer ,

– its bulb is covered with a muslin wick, which is soaked in water

• Dry bulb thermometer.

– an ordinary thermometer, perfectly dry

• The temperature of the wet bulb is generally lower than that

of the dry bulb, because of evaporation of water from the
wet bulb.
 Stationary psychrometer......................cntd
• The amount of water vapour in the air directly
influences the amount of evaporation from the wick.

• The drier the air the more intense will be the

evaporation, and the greater the difference in
temperature between the two thermometers.

• The difference in temperature between the wet and

dry bulb thermometers can be used to indicate relative
humidity, saturation deficit or vapour pressure, all of
which can be read-off from standard tables.
Stationary psychrometer......................cntd
 (b) Assman psychrometer
• The Assman psychrometer is used for more accurate
determinations because it takes into account the
influence of wind on the rate of evaporation.

• It consists of a wet and dry bulb thermometer

mounted in a tube and exposed to a small clockwork
fan which provides a constant ventilation of (+/-) 4
meters per second over the bulb for the duration of
determination.

• Usually about 4 minutes are required for

equilibration, before a reading can be taken.
Assman psychrometer
Sling psychrometer
 (c) Sling psychrometers

• Contain the wet and dry bulb thermometers,

which are rigidly mounted in a frame which freely
revolves around an axle attached to a handle at
one end.

• An appropriate draught can be maintained by

twirling the framed thermometers for about 4
minutes at appropriately 2 turns per second, after
which the readings are taken.
Sling psychrometer
 Limitations of psychrometers

• Errors of determination by means of

psychrometers can result from;

– the bulb being exposed to radiation,

– dirty muslin wicks,
– encrusted bulb,
– and insufficient ventilation.
 2. The Mechanical Method
• HYGROGRAPHS are used to record humidity both
automatically and continuously.

• Variation in humidity with time is inscribed on a

sheet of graph paper, which is usually mounted on
a drum operated by a clockwork mechanism.

• (i) The wet and dry bulb bi-metal thermograph

– operates on the same principle as the wet and dry bulb
thermometer, except that differential temperatures are
recorded by means of bimetal spirals that are
individually connected to an inked stylus through a
system of levers.
The wet and dry bulb bi-metal thermograph......cntd

• One of the bimetals is kept moist by means of a

wick.

• The depression in temperature due to evaporation

is used to assess the relative humidity with the aid
of a hygrometric table.

• However, these are no longer commonly in use.

The hair hygrometer
(ii) The hair hygrometer

• It is based on the principle that hair, which has

been defatted with ethyl alcohol, is sensitive to
changes in humidity.
– human and horse’s hair is commonly used.

• It stretches when the air becomes wetter, and

contracts when the air gets drier.

• A spool of hair is vertically suspended between

two cross arms.
 The hair hygrometer......................CNTD

• The lower arm is attached to a lever under slight

tension so that small alterations in hair length are
suitably magnified.

• The far end of the lever is equipped with an inked pen

which inscribes a record of humidity on graph paper
mounted on a drum operated by a clock work
mechanism.

• One reads off relative humidity on the graph paper

The hair hygrometer
 The hair hygrometer........................cntd
• Care has to be taken to keep the hairs free of dust by
periodically washing them with distilled water.

• After each cleaning operation the instrument must be

recalibrated with the aid of a psychrometer, or by
soaking the hair spool with distilled water and setting
the reading at 95%.

• A hair hygrometer is often mounted together with a

bimetal thermograph to provide a record of both
humidity and air temperature.

• In this case the dual-purpose instrument is called a

thermohygrograph.
Thermohygrograph
 Lesson 5

EVAPORATION FROM A FREE

WATER SURFACE
 Objectives

• (1) To be able to describe the hydrological cycle

• (2) To define evapotranspiration (ET), potential

evapotranspiration (PET) and F-ratio.

• (3) To explain the use of evaporation pans in the

estimation of crop water requirements.
 EVAPORATION FROM A FREE WATER SURFACE

• The hydrological cycle gives us an understanding of

why evaporation from a free water surface is
important in measuring plant water requirements.

• The water on earth is continually changing from one

state to another, such that it is perpetually being re-
used (re-cycled).
 The hydrological cycle
• The continuous circulation of water on earth is known
as the hydrological cycle.

• It represents a balance between the amounts of water

received and the amounts lost by the soil surface layer.

• Precipitation and evapotranspiration are the two

most important elements determining the balance of
moisture in the soil surface layer.

• Which of the above factors represents a gain, and

which one represents a loss of soil moisture?
– When looking at the hydrological cycle, which
process represents a gain, and which one
represents a loss of soil moisture?
– Precipitation and evapotrnspiration respectively.
The hydrological cycle
 The hydrological cycle...............cntd
• Water evaporates from lakes, rivers, the sea, and from
water on plants (dew) and the soil surface.

• Some water is taken up by plants from the soil, passes

through the plants and out of the leaves
– What is the name of this process?

• When the water vapour rises, it can condense to form

clouds.
• Precipitation from the atmosphere will cause rain, snow, &
dew.
• When the soil is saturated with rain water, excess moisture
percolates downwards to the ground water supplies (This is
water which is beyond the reach of plant roots in wells and
underground streams).
• Evapotranspiration - combined loss of water by
evaporation (i.e. dew and soil surface surrounding
the plants) and transpiration from the plants.

• The amount of water that is lost in a given

situation changes from time to time.

• What are the factors that determine the amount

of water that is lost through evapotranspiration?
 Factors that influence rate of evapotranspiration
• 1) The evaporative demand of the atmosphere (i.e. the
drying power of the air).
– When the air is dry (there is a steep vapour pressure gradient),
more water vapour will lost through evapotranspiration

• 2) The nature of the crop and stage of growth.

– Short (young) crops usually loose less water from their leaves
than is lost from a tall crop. However, the nature of the crop has
a much smaller influence on water requirement than the
atmospheric factors.

• 3) The quantity of water in the soil available to the plant.

– When the soil is too dry, little water is lost from the plant or the
soil its self.
• Evaporation from a free water surface integrates the
factors which determine the water requirements of
plants.

• When a crop is adequately supplied with water,

evapotranspiration is mainly determined by the
evaporative demand of the atmosphere.

• Potential evapotranspiration (PET) - the maximum

amount of water lost to the atmosphere by
evaporation and transpiration when the crop is
adequately supplied with water.
• The PET is used to indicate the water requirements
of the crop.

• PET is difficult to determine because the crop must

be kept at field capacity to be able to measure it.

• It can be estimated from measures of evaporation

from an evaporation pan.

• The actual evapotranspiration is usually less than

PET because the crop is not usually maintained at
field capacity.
 Measurement of evaporation

• Evaporation pans commonly used are:

• i) Symons tank - a 1.80 m square tank, 0.60 m deep

and sunk into the ground to a depth of 525 mm.

• ii) U.S Weather Bureau Class A pan

– It is a circular pan,
– 1.22 m in diameter,
– wholly exposed above the ground (254 mm high)
– and mounted on a wooden frame which permits ventilation
under the pan.
The American Class A evaporation pan
 The U.S .W.B Class A pan..............................cntd

• Evaporation from the pan (Eo) can be used to estimate the

irrigation requirements of crops at various stages of growth.
•
• The relationship between (PET) for a particular crop and the
Evaporation from the pan (Eo) must be determined first, for
the various stages of crop growth.

• This involves the determination of ratios of PET/Eo from the

time of planting to the time the crop completely covers the
ground.

• Ideally these ratios must be determined for each area in

which pan data is used to estimate crop water requirements,
e.g. before full cover is attained, the PET/ Eo = 0.3.
 The U.S .W.B Class A pan..............................cntd

• After full cover PET/Eo =1.0

• The potential water requirement can be assessed

by multiplying the quantity of water evaporated
from the pan (Eo) by the appropriate correction
factor (f = PET/Eo).

• A typical relationship between f-factor and time

may be:
Example of Seasonal variation in PET/EO
 Example
• f = 0.5
• Eo = 5 mm

• What is the water requirement of the crops?

• 5 mm X 0.5 = 2.5 mm
• PET/Eo = 0.2

• Eo = 10 mm

• What is the amount of water that must be

applied through irrigation?

• 10 mm X 0.2 = 2 mm
 Lesson 6

RAINFALL AND SEASONAL

DISTRIBUTION
• OBJECTIVES:

• The objective of the following four lessons is

to know how to evaluate the rainfall of a
region, that is, the various types of rain and
statistics of rainfall.
 Rainfall
• Total rainfall is the first statistic to be looked at.

• In South African agriculture, rainfall is of overriding

importance in determining what crops to grow and yield
targets to aim for.
•
• The lower limit of annual rainfall required for assured crop
production under dryland conditions is 500 mm.

• Sometimes values ranging from 500 mm to 625 mm are

regarded as minimal.
•
• However, annual rainfall figures have little meaning unless
they are interpreted in the light of the factors which
determine their effectiveness.
• Effectiveness of rainfall refers to the ability of
a rainfall shower to supply the water
requirements of a crop.

• What are the factors that influence the

effectiveness of a rainfall shower?
• Factors affecting effectiveness of rainfall
– seasonal distribution,
– reliability of predicting rain at a given time, and,
– the nature of the rainfall.
•
• Rainfall records of a particular place which have
been recorded for 30 consecutive years are termed
“Rainfall Normals”.

• This is long enough to give an accurate average

rainfall for the particular place.
• Data from stations of 5 to 30 years duration
are termed “Rainfall averages”, which are less
accurate.
•
– The 5 years recorded may have been very wet
years, in which case the average rainfall is going to
be above what one can expect in the long term.
• Do areas that receive the same average amount of annual rainfall
have similar effectiveness of rainfall, and therefore production
potential?

• What is the distinction between rainfall averages and rainfall

normals? Furthermore, indicate why rainfall averages are less
accurate. (3)

• Data from stations for periods ranging from 5 to 30 years duration

are termed “rainfall averages”. (1) On the other hand, rainfall
records of a particular place which have been recorded for 30
consecutive years are termed “rainfall Normals”(1). Rainfall
averages are less accurate because the data may have been
recorded during a period that the rainfall was either above or
below the normal that can be expected (1).
 SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION
• This refers to both the time of year when the rain
comes, and the relative uniformity of its
distribution during the growing season.

• These are important factors in determining the

effectiveness of precipitation.

• A much lower annual rainfall is required for assured

crop production if all of it is concentrated in the
growing season.
– This should be contrasted with a situation where much
rain is recorded at times when it cannot be utilized by the
crop.
 SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION..........cntd
• This principle can be illustrated by making comparisons of
areas receiving almost equal amounts of annual rainfall.

• A striking comparison can be made between the wheat

producing areas of South Australia with the former Ciskei.

• South Australia - good harvests of winter wheat are made

with an annual rainfall of only 300 mm, mainly because;
– all of it coincides with the growing period of the crop.

– the rain comes at a time when the water demand is low, i.e. in the
winter.

– most of this rain comes in the form of gentle showers which are
well distributed over the growing season.
• Former Ciskei –receives approximately 550 mm per
annum. Rainfall not very effective for the wheat crop
because:

– About 70% of it occurs during the hot summer months;

• 165 mm is received in winter
– rates of evapotranspiration will be very high in summer;
– Rain mostly occurs in the form of thundershowers of high
intensity, with resultant heavy losses due to runoff.

– To grow winter wheat, the summer rainfall must be

conserved in the soil for use during the growth of crop.

– The efficiency of rainfall is therefore very low in this case.

• Practically no part of South Africa receives enough
rain to satisfy crop requirements at all times.

• The length of the growing season is mostly

determined by seasonal distribution of rain than by
limiting temperatures.
– Climate change effects on length of growing season?

• In the USA and Europe, length of the growing

season is determined by temperature.
– the moisture in spring is adequate but not until
temperatures rise do plants begin to grow.
• In Southern Africa, length of the growing
season is generally determined by the
commencement of the first good spring rains.

• With the exception of the South-Western Cape,

rains generally commence earlier in the Eastern
parts of the country and progressively later in
the West.

• Hence, the duration of the growing season,

which is terminated by the first killing frost, is
longer in the East, and progressively shorter
towards the West.
Seasonal distribution of rainfall in SA
Rainfall Seasonality Across SA. R.E. Schulze et al, 1997, "South
African Atlas Of Agro-hydrology and Climatology
• Another aspect of seasonal distribution of rain is
the occurrence of expected dry spells.

• In the maize growing areas of the country, the

critical stage of development (tasselling)
frequently coincides with a drought in January.

• In areas where such mid-seasonal droughts are

frequently experienced, agronomic practice
must be adjusted accordingly.
• How can the following agronomic practices
be adjusted to cater for the occurrence of
expected mid-season dry spells or droughts?

– date of planting,

– rate of fertilization,

– plant population per hectare.

• Most of South Africa receives its rain during
the summer

• However, the further one proceeds from the

Northern interior (which receives about 90%
of its total precipitation during the summer)
to the coast, and especially southwards, the
greater is the quota of winter rainfall.
Seasonal distribution of rainfall in SA
• It is important to know the portion of total
rainfall which is not readily available to
summer crops for a summer cropping
program, and conversely, the portion of
annual rainfall which is not readily available to
winter crops for a winter cropping program.
 Schedule of Activities

• Prac Session 1 – 25/03/2019 Monday : Tutorial groups 1 -7

• Test 1 – 26/03 (Tuesday) – to cover UNITS 5, 6, 7 & 8 ONLY.

• Prac Session 2 – 28/03/2019: Biochemistry group

• Prac Session 3 – 15/04/2019 : Education 1330 hrs to 1500

hrs; and the rest of the Tutorial groups.
 Lessons 7 & 8

NATURE OF RAINFALL
 OBJECTIVES:

• To familiarize with the concept of the duration,

intensity and quantity of rainfall.

• To assess these factors as they relate to the

efficiency of rainfall for agricultural planning.
•
• NB: Effectiveness of rainfall is also affected by the
nature of precipitation i.e. its duration, intensity
and quantity per rainfall shower.
• Quantity of rainfall
• Refers to the amount of rainfall received after a
rainfall shower.

• Showers of less than 5 mm are generally regarded

as ineffective for crops.
– However, some types of natural vegetation adapted to
arid zones can derive benefit from showers as light or
even lighter than this.

– For instance, the prickly pear will benefit since a portion

of its root system is placed close to the surface and can
therefore utilize even small amounts of rain.
 Intensity of rainfall
• Gives an indication of the amount of rainfall received
in a given time period.

• When the intensity of rain exceeds the rate of

infiltration, such as is frequently the case during
thunderstorms, runoff and soil erosion result.
– Most showers in the summer rainfall areas of South Africa
occur in this form.
•
• A measure of rainfall intensity in a given area can be
expressed as follows:
•
• Intensity =
•

• A better indication of intensity is given by a

frequency distribution of the quantity of rain
per shower
Intensity of rainfall in Umtata (van Wyk, 1967)
 Duration of rainfall:
• Refers to the time that it takes for a rainfall shower to
last.

• It is intimately tied to intensity.

• Generally, a high intensity rain is of short duration and

vice versa.
• If moderate intensity rain lasts for a long time, the soil
becomes saturated and can no longer absorb rain.

– This will result in run off, causing erosion.

• Such a shower will not be effective.

• Very low intensity rain is generally more effective
because it can infiltrate the soil and become
available in the root zone of the crop.

• If low intensity rainfall is of a very long duration, it

can also be more effective because of greater
quantity.
 Rain formation

• Can you explain how rain is

formed.
 Rain formation
• Water evaporating from the ocean and land masses rises and
condenses in the upper layers of the atmosphere to form
clouds.

• Condensation can only occur if two conditions are met.

– The moist air must be cooled to a temperature below its dewpoint
temperature
– Foreign particles must be present to provide a surface on which
liquid water or ice may form.
– What is the name of these foreign particles?
•
• Enormous amounts of water are suspended in the form of
clouds.
– A large cumulus cloud may contain upto a hundred thousand tons
of water and ice.
 Rain formation.......................cntd
• These droplets and crystals are continually tending to
settle out but the turbulence in the cloud keeps them
continuously in motion.

• A few of these drops freeze to form ice crystals, which

grow in size as more droplets are attracted to the crystals
which act as a nucleus.

• These large crystals can break up into numerous ice

splinters and fine hail, which in turn again act as further
nuclei.

• Coagulation of these particles causes them to become

too heavy to be suspended in the cloud and they
precipitate out as snow, which melts into rain when they
pass the freezing level into warmer air.
Rain formation
Rain formation.......................cntd
• In tropical regions the cloud temperatures are
generally too high to permit freezing.

• Under these conditions, the fine droplets in a

cloud can coalesce, and when they are too heavy
to be suspended by the currents circulating in the
cloud, they fall, sweeping up further droplets
during their descent.

• These are the conditions under which violent

rainstorms so characteristic of tropics can
develop.
 Types of rain

• Which different types of rainfall are you

familiar with?
Types of rain
•
• Rainfall can be divided into three types
•
• Convectional Rain

• Orographic or relief Rain

• Convergent, Frontal or Cyclonic Rain

•
• The same basic principle is involved during formation of
the above types of rainfall
•
Types of rain..................................cntd
• Moisture laden air is caused to rise and while
rising, it cools down in two ways:
•
• (i) It gets to zones where pressure is
progressively reduced, causing it to expand.
– When the air expands it cools down.
– This process is called adiabatic cooling.

• (ii) Rising air comes into contact with cooler air

and is itself cooled down by the colder air of
the upper atmosphere.
• The temperature of the atmosphere declines
by about 2 ⁰C per 300 m increase in altitude
– This is called the lapse rate
•
• Lapse rate =
• For rain to form the moisture laden air must
be cooled to its dewpoint and condensation
nuclei must be present.

• If these two conditions are met, condensation

will occur, where the water vapour is
converted to liquid water or ice and the base
of a cloud is formed.
• Condensation is a process which emits heat (latent heat)
which in turn warms up the surrounding air, which causes it
to expand and thus causes it to rise further, cool down and
condense.

• When water evaporates solar energy is used to convert the

liquid or solid (ice) into gas.

• An equivalent amount of energy, in the form of heat, is

released when condensation occurs, that is when water
vapour is converted into liquid or ice crystals in a cloud.

• This stored up energy in water vapour is known as latent

heat.
• heat heat
• Evaporation Solid ---------> Liquid ---------> Gas
• Condensation Gas ----------> Liquid ----------> Solid
heat heat
• The basic difference in the three types of rain
consists of;
– what starts the air to rise,
– the momentum with which it rises
– and the nature of the resulting rain.
Diagrammatic representation of convectional rainfall
 Convectional Rain
• Air is heated by radiation, causing it to expand and to
rise. This is a common occurrence on hot days during
summer in South Africa.

• The very high temperatures can cause very strong

vertical air currents. When this moist air reaches the
dewpoint clouds are formed.

• Strong vertical conventional currents of up to 100

km per hour may occur causing the droplets of
condensed water vapour to be flung upward to great
heights producing cumulus or nimbus clouds.
 Convectional Rain.....................................cntd
• Such clouds may have their bases at 1500 m above
the surface of the earth yet tower to heights in
excess of 6000 m.

• In such clouds the conditions resemble those of a

vigorously boiling liquid which accounts for the
characteristic shape of cumulus cloud formations.

• When the upward currents are exceptionally violent,

the moisture particles can be flung aloft with a great
velocity to cause a funnel shaped protuberance from
the top of a thundercloud giving it the appearance of
an anvil.
 Convectional Rain...............................cntd

• Rainfall that results under these conditions,

comes in short heavy showers over limited areas
generally during the afternoon following a hot
summer day (i.e. high intensity, short duration).
•
• Is this type of rainfall effective or not; explain
why?

• A further disadvantage of this type of rain is that it

is often associated with hail.
•
• Hail is formed when the upward currents in the
thunder cloud return hailstones to the upper parts
of the cloud a number of times.

• A jacket of fresh ice is formed around the stone

with each cycle, the cycling process lasts until the
weight of the stone exceeds the upward force of
the air currents.

• When the hailstone is split open it reveals a number

of concentric rings.

• Each ring of ice represents a single cycle in the

process of hail formation
Hailstones
 Convectional Rain.....................................cntd
• Certain parts of the country are characterized by
high hail risk - hail belts.

• An agronomist must make an appraisal of the hail

risk in his area since it may influence his choice of
crops.

• Tobacco, for example, is very susceptible to hail

damage.

• It may even be necessary to take out hail

insurance to cover crops that may be damaged by
hail.
Orographic Rain

• Precipitation which occurs as a result of high relief

(mountains, plateaus and escarpments) is termed
orographic rain.

• Rising ground deflects air upward.

• When such air contains a sufficient quantity of water

vapour, clouds are formed and precipitation occurs on
the windward side of the mountain whereas a rain
shadow is cast on the leeward side.

• This type of rain is most common along coastal

mountain ranges.
 Orographic Rain..................cntd
• When the mountains are particularly steep and a sharp
drop occurs to the leeward side, the rain shadow may
be so severe that a desert can result.

• Air moving down the leeward side is warmed by

adiabatic heating, and, apart from having lost much of
its water, its relative humidity is decreased drastically
under these conditions.
– What causes a adiabatic heating as the air mass descends on
the leeward side?

– Why does humidity decrease as the air descends on the

leeward side?
• Because of low relative humidity of the
descending air mass, the chances of rain are
greatly reduced on the leeward side.
•
• The nature of orographic rain varies with the
type of cloud giving rise to the precipitation.

• The cloud type in turn is determined by the

stability of the air.
 Orographic Rain..................cntd

• When the upward movement of air is resisted, it

tends to remain in its original position, that is to
say, it is non-buoyant or stable.

• Normally air is most stable when a layer of warm

air overlies a cold dry layer and a temperature
inversion is said to exist.

– Remember that temperature decreases with an increase

in altitude

• Since the dense air is lying under lighter air in such

conditions, upward movement is retarded and little
rain can result.
 Orographic Rain..................cntd
• When stable, or non-buoyant, air is forced
upwards over a mountain, the resulting clouds
are of the stratus type and rainfall under these
conditions is generally light.

• On the other hand, unstable (buoyant) air that

gives rise to cumulus clouds can cause heavy
showers of high intensity on the windward side
of mountains.
 Orographic rainfall

Stratus clouds
Warm air

Cumulus clouds
Diagrammatic representation of orographic rainfall
 Orographic Rain..................cntd

• Orographic rains can therefore come either in

the form of short intense rain, or gentle
protracted showers.

• In general, they are of the steady, prolonged

type and are therefore more effective.

• What limits the usefulness of Orographic rains

for farming purposes?
• Orographic rains are generally reliable but their
usefulness is reduced by the following;

– they come in very limited areas (windward side of

the mountain).

– areas receiving this type of rain are often so

mountainous that production is not only difficult due
to the steepness of the terrain, but also hazardous
unless strict measures are taken against soil erosion.
 Convergent, Frontal or Cyclonic Rain
•

• Whenever surface winds converge, the warmer

air mass is lifted and cooled, very often to the
point at which precipitation can occur.

•
 Convergent, Frontal or Cyclonic Rain.....cntd

• The advancing cold dense air tends to drive a

wedge under the warmer, lighter air causing it to
glide upwards over the sloping surface of the
colder air, with the result that condensation take
place and rain may fall.
Diagramatic representation of convergent rain
• The advancing cold surface of air is called a
front.

• Frontal precipitation is the most common type

of rain occurring in South Africa.
•
• When an area of low atmospheric pressure is
entirely surrounded by denser air, the colder air
advances towards the centre of the low
pressure system from all sides.

• Hence a circular front is created.

• Due to the rotation of the earth, the air moving
towards the centre of the low pressure system is
deflected so that it rotates around the centre,
setting the warm air in motion causing the latter
to rise in vertical spirals that form a cyclone.

• A cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates

around strong centers of low pressure. This is
usually characterized by inward spiraling winds
that rotate counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere of the Earth.
• During the summer in South Africa, moist
equatorial air is occasionally drawn in from the
North West and gives rise to extensive rain over a
large part of the country.
•
• When a high pressure system is surrounded by a
low pressure zone, air moves from the land to the
sea and there is little chance of rain.

• In this case an anticyclone develops.

– This is frequently the case during the winter in the

interior of South Africa
• An anticyclone can only cause rain when a high
pressure system over the sea forces air inland.

• This situation causes the South Eastern trade winds to

blow air inland from the Indian Ocean where it picks
up some moisture from the warm Mozambique
current causing widespread rains in the summer
rainfall areas of the country.
•
• Frontal or cyclonic rain can vary from low intensity
protracted showers to extremely high intensity
showers depending on the degree of difference in
temperature between the air masses.
 Lesson 9

RELIABILITY OF RAINFALL
 OBJECTIVES

• To familiarize the student with the concept of

“Reliability of Rainfall”- an important statistic
of rainfall.

• To give the student exercise in the calculation

of Reliability of Rainfall.
 Reliability of Rainfall
• Reliability of precipitation refers to the accuracy
with which one can predict rain, both with regard
to amount and time of occurrence.
•
– has a profound bearing on the farming system that
will be chosen.

• Rainfall normals are of little significance by

themselves.

• One also needs to know the degree of variation

one can expect from year to year.
• Questions:
•
• What does reliable or reliability mean?
•
• What does frequency mean?
•
• Reliability of rainfall is expressed as a percentage
frequency of years in which the rainfall exceeds
a predetermined percentage of the “normal”.

• For example, if one were to take 90% of the

“normal” rainfall for a region as the criterion for
planning, and the rainfall exceeded this amount 3
years out of 4, then the percentage frequency of
this event would be 75%.

• South African rainfall is very variable, and one

cannot therefore set too high a standard with
respect to deviation from the norm when
planning farming systems or practices.
• We are therefore forced to take this extreme
variability of our rainfall into consideration, and
set our sights lower when planning dryland
agriculture.

• It is advisable to plan on the basis of an expected

80 or 85% of the “normal”, because we get at
least 80 to 85% of the expected quantity (normal)
75-80% of the time.
• When comparing the frequency of years in which
various parts of the country that receive 80% or
more of normal annual rainfall, another
characteristic of our rainfall is revealed.

• There appears to be a positive and linear

relationship between amount of rainfall and
reliability.

• For example, George-Knysna, which receives 1000

mm or more, receives less than 80% of its normal
rainfall only 5% of the time, (i.e. in only one year in
twenty).
• In the Eastern parts of KwaZulu-Natal, this
percentage of relatively dry years is also low,
that is, 10%.

• The former Transkei, which is slightly less

humid, has a slightly higher percentage (13%).

• In the Karoo, this percentage increases to

31%, whereas in the Western Cape, which
receives less than 250 mm, the abnormally dry
years occur 35% of the time.
• Hence, with the exception of the South
Western Cape that receives its rain in winter,
the reliability of rainfall declines from East to
West in the country, in accordance with a
corresponding decline in precipitation.
• The former Transkei is suited to dryland
production of crops.

• Only 10% of the former Transkei receives less

than 750 mm annually, the average for the whole
area being 815 mm.

• At least 85% of the normal rainfall is received in 3

out of 4 years , ie, one should plan practices on
the basis of an expected 690 mm of rainfall in
this area.
• But of this 690 mm, 75-80% comes during the
growing season, i.e., 550 mm, the rest coming in
winter.

• The latter value must therefore be compared with

the water requirement, in order to assess the
extent to which the water needs of a summer
crop can be expected to be satisfied by the rain
received.

– water requirement is estimated from the amount of

evaporation from a free water surface in a class A pan
• When a similar analysis is performed for the
former Ciskei, it is evident that most of this
area is not suited to the dryland production of
crops.

• Average rainfall from the former Ciskei dryland

cropping areas is 570 mm.

• Question:

• How much rain can one plan on for a summer

cropping programme in the former Ciskei?
 RELIABILITY OF RAINFALL
• It is not sufficient to know only the average rainfall of
an area.

• One also needs to know how reliable the rainfall is ,i.e.,

one must know the accuracy with which rainfall can be
predicted with regard to the time of occurrence of rain
and the amount of rain to be expected.
•
• Time of occurrence
– how closely can one predict the time that the rain will
come during the season?

• Amount
– how closely can one predict the amount of rain one will
receive?
• The concept of rainfall reliability can be
explained as follows:

• Consider two farms (A and B) where rainfall

had been recorded for 10 years.

• Both farms have the same average rainfall as

shown in the next table.
year FARM A FARM B
Rainfall Years Years Rainfall Years Years
(mm) Rainfall≥ Rainfall≥ (mm) Rainfall≥ Rainfall≥
mean 85% of mean 85% of
mean mean
425 mm 425 mm
1950 500 X X 600 X
1951 500 X 400
1952 400 350
1953 450 800
1954 600 X 450
1955 550 X 700
1956 480 300
1957 520 X 250
1958 470 450
1959 530 x 700
Total 5000 Freq=6/10 Freq=9/10 5000 Freq=4/10 Freq=6/10
mean 500 500
• One can measure the reliability in a number of
ways. One way is to assess the range (spread) of the
variables.

• In case A rainfall ranged from 400 to 600 mm whilst,

in B the rainfall ranged from 250 to 800 mm.
•
• The range in A =?

• The range in =B ?

• Obviously the range at B is much greater than in A.

•
• Q. How much greater is the range in B than in A?
• Although the above mentioned method gives
one an indication of the variability of rainfall,
it is not a good method.

• The agriculturist wishes to know how much

rain he can expect, because he wishes to know
which crops (if any) he can plant.

• Some crops can survive drought better than

others, for example, Sorghum is more drought
tolerant than maize, whilst millet is even more
tolerant than sorghum.
• However, the yields one can expect from
millet are low, even when the rains are good,
with the result that it would be better to plant
sorghum if the rainfall in the area was high
enough for sorghum.

• With even better rains one can grow maize

which usually pays more than sorghum.

• When the water relations are very favourable,

one could grow potatoes which pay much
better than maize, and so on.
• When rainfall is too low for even the most
drought tolerant crops, one should utilize the
land for grazing only.
•
• It is clear, therefore, that an agriculturist must
know how much rain he can expect to receive
before she/he can plan a farming system.

• A better method of estimating reliability of

rain for agricultural purposes is to determine
the percentage of years one can expect
average rainfall or more than average rain.
• Q. Use the Table to indicate the years in which
rainfall on each farm was equal to or greater
than (≥) average rain.
•
• Mark the years with an X in the appropriate
columns.
•
• Q. During how many years was the rainfall ≥
average in A and B?
year FARM A FARM B
Rainfall Years Years Rainfall Years Years
(mm) Rainfall≥ Rainfall≥ (mm) Rainfall≥ Rainfall≥
mean 85% of mean 85% of
mean mean

1950 500 x x 600 x x

1951 500 x x 400
1952 400 350
1953 450 x 800 x x
1954 600 x x 450 x
1955 550 x x 700 x x
1956 480 x 300
1957 520 x x 250
1958 470 x 450 x
1959 530 X x 700 x x
Total 5000 60% 90% 5000 40% 60%
mean 500 500
• What is the reliability of rainfall at farm A and farm
B.

• 90% of the time we expect to receive 425 mm of

rainfall or more at Farm A.

• 60% of the time we expect to receive 425 mm of

rainfall or more at Farm B.

• Which farm has more reliable rainfall?

• These are the number of years during which at least
500 mm were received.

• These data are best expressed as the percentage

frequency of years.

• % Frequency = No. times an event occurs

• No. times an event can occur

• Thus if something happens every time it possibly can

happen, the % frequency is 100%.
• Q. If you spin a coin what is the percentage
frequency with which you will get heads in the
long term, i.e. 100 or 200 spins?

• Q. What is the % frequency of years in which

rainfall > mean in farm A and B?
• Q. Can one plan agriculture effectively if one
only knows the % frequency of years during
which one expects average rain or more?
•
• Q. Say you devise a plan which will succeed if
one gets 500 mm rain. What % years will plan
succeed in farm A and in farm B?

• It is clear therefore that one needs to be

correct in your predicted quantity of rainfall
often enough to let the plan succeed.
•
• Q. Should we expect to be correct in our
predicted quantity all the time? If not, why
not?
•
• Q. How often should we estimate the
expected rainfall correctly in order to draw
up a plan which will work adequately?
• Say one wishes to determine the quantity of rain one
can expect with sufficient frequency to compile a
workable farming system.

• Choose a quantity that occurs more often than the

mean and determine whether this quantity or more
can be expected at least 75% or 80% of the time.

• If expected amount is less than 75% of the time, one

must choose an even lower quantity until one arrives
at a value which occurs sufficiently frequently .

• For example, calculate 85% of the mean and enter the

number of years in the table during which this
threshold value (this value or greater value) occurs.
• Q. What is the % of years during which rainfall
> 85% of the mean in A and B?

• Estimate a quantity which can be used to plan

farm B.
• In practice, one requires at least 30 years of
rain data which are then statistically analyzed
to determine probable rainfall at the 80%
level.
• Relationship between reliability and amount
of rainfall received in an area

• There appears to be a positive and linear

relationship between amount of rainfall
received in a region and the reliability of the
rainfall received there.

• Draw a figure illustrating this relationship.

 Lessons 11

Plants and water use

 Definitions
• Hydrophytes
– Plants that grow in water, or very wet habitats, eg, water
lily, water spinach, water lettuce, paddy rice

• Mesophytes
– Plants that grow in conditions that are not very wet or
dry. They have water requirements that are intermediate
between those of hydrophytes and xerophytes, eg, beans,
maize, wheat, sorghum etc

• Xerophytes
– Plants that can grow in very dry habitats, where potential
evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, eg, prickly pea,
cactus
 Definitions........................cntd
• Drought
– Absence of rainfall for a period long enough to cause
depletion of moisture in the soil, which causes plants to
be stressed due to lack of water
• Drought day
– A period of one day during which a drought exists, that
is, a day on which available soil moisture is zero.
• Excess moisture
– A condition where there is too much water in the soil,
as a result of flooding, water-logging, or a high water
table.
– It lowers gaseous diffusion rates, which adversely affects
the plants and soil microorganisms.
 TRANSPIRATION RATIO
• Refers to the mass of water consumed by a crop
in order to produce one unit mass of dry matter

– e.g. Lucerne uses approximately 835 kg of water to

produce 1 kg of dry matter.

• Some plants use much more water than others

even when grown under identical conditions, ie,
plants vary greatly in the quantity of water they
need to produce a unit mass dry matter.
 TRANSPIRATION RATIO..........cntd
• It is important to note that the transpiration
ratio does not include water loss through
evaporation, percolation or run off.
The transpiration ratios of some crops and weeds determined
at two locations in the U.S.A.
• The amount of water required per unit dry
matter produced fluctuates from year to year
and also from location to location but the order
of relative requirement remains the same.

• A given quantity of water produces about 3.5

times as much millet as bromegrass.

• The small grains have roughly twice and the

legumes roughly three times the water
requirements of millets, sorghums and maize.
• The transpiration ratio is sometimes thought to give
an indication of the degree of drought resistance of a
plant, which is not the case.

• Even though the order in which plants occur in the

table suggests that an increase in water requirement
is associated with a decrease in drought resistance,
there are exceptions to this trend.
– For example, soybeans are more drought resistant than
potatoes.

• Some drought resistant plants use water very

extravagantly when adequately supplied.
• The transpiration ratio is determined under
conditions of adequate moisture.

• Drought resistance is due to a variety of plant

characteristics, many of which have little bearing
on the efficiency with which a plant uses water.

• What are examples of characteristics that give

plants drought tolerance?
• Xeromorphic characteristics include;
– Deep root system
– Hidden stomata
– Thick cuticle covering on leaves
– Special water storage structures on leaves
• The transpiration ratio can be decreased in
two ways by:
•
– (1) reducing the water requirement of the crop
and/or
•
– (2) by promoting growth (production of dry-
matter).

• Transpiration ratio= Water used (kg)

• Dry matter produced
•
• It is most important to know what the
transpiration ratio is, in order to calculate crop
water requirements when planning an
irrigation set up.

• This is essentially a measure of the efficiency

of water use by a crop.
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE TRANSPIRATION RATIO
AND WATER USE EFFICIENCY
• The transpiration ratio is by definition a measure of the
efficiency with which the plant uses water to produce
dry matter.

• Since the transpiration ratio comprises two terms, it

follows that this ratio can be decreased (that is to say
the efficiency of water use can be increased) in two
ways by:
•
• a) reducing the water requirement of the crop and/or
•
• b) by promoting growth (production of dry matter).
•
• a) Factors affecting the water demand

– These are all the environmental factors which affect

the rate of transpiration, i.e. solar radiation,
temperature, wind etc.

– The transpiration ratio therefore increases with the

water demand of the atmosphere.
• For example, wheat grown under humid conditions in
England may need only 225kg of water to produce 1kg of
dry matter, whereas wheat may use 1000 kg in the arid
state of Utah in the U.S.A.
• Obviously, the farmer can do little about the
atmospheric water demand other than to
grow his crop at the time of the year when the
water requirement is relatively low.

– For example, the returns from a limited supply of

water available for irrigation may be much higher
where this water is applied to winter wheat than
when it is used as supplementary irrigation in a
summer crop such as maize.
• Factors affecting the growth processes
•
• Any factors which promote growth and increases
yield will obviously increase the efficiency of water
use by the plant.
•
Hence, everything feasible must be done to make
the crop grow as well as possible with the water
which is available for growth.

• This means that the limiting factors, other than

water, must be alleviated as far as is practicable

•
• It is a cadinal rule in biology that the
response to a growth factor in short
supply increases as the level of
other growth factors are
correspondingly made more
favourable.
The best population density for potato tuber yield is dependent on nitrogen
level in the system as different plant populations give different best yield
results.
• Similar curves showing the relation between
yield and quantity of water available to the
plant will indicate maximum efficiency of
water use when no factors limit the growth of
the plant in any way.
•
• To the agronomist, the most important factors
which influence the efficiency of water use are
plant nutrition, diseases and pests, etc

• Any cultural practice which leads to improved

yields will as a matter of course improve water
use efficiency.
• (1) Plant nutrition
•
• The importance of the effect of fertilisation on the
efficicacy of water use by crops has been
recognized for many years.

• From experiments, Briggs and Shantz demonsrated

the fact that efficiency of water use was often
doubled or even trebled by the addition of
Fertilizers.

• In 1912, it was shown that the water requirement

of maize per unit grain produced, was dramatically
reduced by improving soil fertility.
Level of fertilisation Kg of water used per kg
of maize produced

Low 2 136

medium 1 160

high 799
• Fertilizer can increase the efficiency of plant water
use in the following ways:
•
• (a) Alleviation of any nutrient deficiency will increase
plant size, leaf area and sometimes even the
concentration of chlorophyll.

– As a result, the rate of photosynthesis, and also the

capacity to fix CO2, is increased.

• (b) The application of fertilizers, particularly P & N,

frequently hastens maturity and reduces the total
amount of water consumed by the crop in this way.
• Apart from improving the ability of the plant to
utilize radiant energy and CO2, fertilization often
promotes the development of a deeper root
system so that reserves of moisture in the subsoil
are made available to the plant.

• In this respect, one should however note that a

deeper root system is only advantageous if the
subsoil actually contains adequate reserves of
water.

• In cases where the moisture supply is very

limiting, applications of nitrogenous fertilizer may
have no effect or even make the plant more
susceptible to droughty conditions, not less, for
the following reasons:
• (a) A high level of nitrogen favours rapid, early
growth and consequently, an early depletion of
soil moisture reserves so that the plant may 'run
out' of water during subsequent stages of
growth, when adequate supplies of water are
most needed.

• (b) High nitrogen promotes a leafy, mesophytic

plant habit which heightens the risk of drought
damage.
– Mesophytic – requiring a continuous supply of water -
having larger, thinner leaves compared to xerophytes,
sometimes with a greater number of stomata
• One must therefore be careful about applying too
much N when water is in short supply, not only
because the returns from added nitrogen may be
too small, but also because a high nitrogen status
can aggravate the drought hazard.

• Nevertheless, an adequate supply of other nutrients

should be maintained as far as it is practicable to do
so.
• Much of the maize in South Africa is grown
under conditions where moisture is so
limiting that a relatively strong element of risk
is imparted to its production under dryland
conditions.

• In these areas, low density planting of maize

in wide rows in practiced, and one must also
be careful about applying too much nitrogen.
• In summary, it can be stated that if fertilizers
fail to increase yields on soils known to be
deficient in nutrients, it is an indication that a
shortage of water is limiting yields so seriously
that the area is not suited to efficient dryland
crop production.
• (2) Diseases and Pests
•
• Diseases and pests impair the growth of plants, and
will cause an inefficient use of water.
•
• Weed infestation not only deprive the crop of water,
but also cause it to make inefficient use of what little
water is left over for the crop.
•
• This is because weeds slow the growth of the crop by
competing for any growth factor which is in short
supply, particularly nutrients, with the result that the
transpiration ratio is increased.
• WATER USE EFFICIENCY
•
• In the preceding discussion of the transpiration
ratio, efficiency of water use was evaluated in
terms of total dry matter produced by the plant.
•
• Although the entire above ground portion of the
plant sometimes constitutes the yield (for
example Lucerne, silage crops, lettuce, etc.), the
farmer is frequently concerned with only part of
the crop, the remainder often being of little or no
economic importance.

• Tobacco is grown for its leaves only, sunflower for

its seed, and cotton for its fibre.
• It is therefore more meaningful to express
efficiency of water use in terms of production
of that part of the crop which is of economic
importance, the so-called economic yield.

• Furthermore , one is not merely concerned

with the amount of water transpired by the
crop, but with the combined losses of water
due to transpiration and evaporation from the
soil surface.
• Water use efficiency is therefore best defined as
follows;
•
• Water use efficiency = Crop yield
• Evapotranspiration from crop area
•
•
• It should be noted that this expression is similar to the
reciprocal of the transpiration ratio, except that the
water lost by evaporation is also included.
•
•
• The main objective of all farmers is to convert solar energy and
CO2 to the plant product which constitutes yield with the aid
of natural resources and artificial means at his disposal.

• It should be noted that very little of the solar energy (at most,
less than 2% is converted into vegetative material) and that
the remainder of the sun's energy is used to evaporate water
from the plant-soil system and to heat the plant, soil and air.
• Though Small, this fraction of potentially convertible
energy may be, it is reduced even further by any factor
which may limit growth.

• The factor most likely to be limiting in South African

Agriculture is water.

• Hence, every feasible effort must be made to make

maximum use of available water in order to enable the
fullest possible conversion of light energy & CO2 into
that part of the crop which constitutes the yield.
Lessons 14

Temperature
• OBJECTIVES:
•
• 1 To define the cardinal points of vital activity
•
• 2. To discuss the influence of temperature on plant
growth
• Most crops grow best when the
temperature lies between 15 and 32°C.

• However, each crop has its own optimum

temperature requirements, which can
broadly be described by the minimum,
optimum and maximum temperatures
for its growth.
• Plant growth is an expression of a host of
physiological processes.

• For each of these processes there is a

minimum temperature required to initiate
the activity, an optimum temperature at
which the activity proceeds at the highest
rate, and a maximum temperature at which
the activity will come to a halt.

• These three temperatures are known as the

cardinal points of vital activity.
• The cardinal temperature for growth therefore expresses
the integrated effects of temperature on all the vital
processes occurring in a plant.

• The nature of dominant growth processes in a plant vary

with stage of development, hence the cardinal
temperatures of a plant also show some variation with
time.

– eg, the optimum temperature for photosynthesis is generally

lower than the optimum temperature for respiration.

– During the germination of a seed, respiration is the dominating

process. Germination and emergence of the seedling will
therefore be most rapid at the optimum temperatures for
respiration.
• With the emergence of the first green leaves,
photosynthesis generally becomes the process
which determines the rate of growth and increase
in dry matter.

• Hence the optimum temperature for plants after

reaching the stage at which they begin to
photosynthesize actively is approximated by the
optimum temperature for photosynthesis.
The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
• The temperature extremes at which growth is
impaired are not the same as those which the
species can endure without injury.
– eg, the minimum temperature for wheat is 5°C, yet
wheat which is in the vegetative stage of growth can
endure frost several degrees below freezing.

– Similarly, the maximum temperature for growth may

be 40°C, but the maximum lethal temperature may lie
between 55 and 60°C.

• Generally maximum lethal temperatures range

from 50 to 60 oC, being the temperature at which
protoplasm is coagulated.
The effect of temperature on the rate of growth for a given crop
• Rate of growth is defined as the increase in
mass of the plant over a unit of time.
•
• Also note that the upper and lower limits
which a plant can endure are relative to the
time of exposure.

• Living organisms can survive high

temperatures for short periods but as the
duration of exposure increases so the
maximum lethal temperature declines.
• The optimum temperature at which growth occurs
is likewise dependant upon the time of exposure.

• eg, in an experiment that was done to study the

effects of temperature on growth rate of peas, it
was noted that the maximum growth rate occurred
at a temperature of 30.3o C, but that this rate could
not be maintained for a long time.

• The optimum temperature for a prolonged period

was 29°C.
 TEMPERATURE AND CROP DISTRIBUTION

• Various methods have been evolved for evaluating the

effect of temperature an crop distribution. These can be
summarized as follows:
•
• (i) Length of the growing season
•
• The average length of the period between the last killing
frost in winter, and the first killing frost in autumn is a
crude but often useful means of defining the growing
season in areas where water is not a limiting factor.
• In Southern Africa, the length of the growing
season is more often determined by the
first spring rain, and the first winter frost.

• Weather records show that the length of the frost

free period can vary greatly from year to year, and
cannot therefore be ascertained with a great degree
of accuracy.

• Nevertheless it is important to know the frequency

with which seasonal frosts can be expected.
 (ii) Temperature summation
• A more workable system for evaluating the effect of
temperatures on crop growth is that which is based
on the summation of temperatures above a certain
threshold value considered to be the minimum for
the growth of a crop.

• This lower threshold value, also referred to as “zero

point of vital activity” can be taken as 5oC, 100C or
even 130C depending upon the requirements of the
crop concerned.
• For crops such as wheat, oats, barley and peas
a threshold value of 50C is used, while for
maize, which has higher heat requirements, a
value of 100C is normally employed.

• For cotton a base value of 130C has been is

used.

• The upper threshold value for maize is taken

as 30 0C, since growth is not accelerated by
raising the temperature above this point.
• Heat summation systems are based upon the
observation that many plants reach a given stage of
development (e.g. flowering), after they have
received a certain amount of heat, regardless of the
time required.

• This heat requirement can be expressed as "heat

units“, which are measured by determining the
difference between the mean daily temperature
and the threshold value defined for the crop
concerned
• Heat unit = mean daily temp – lower threshold value
•
• Where,

• mean daily temp = minimum + Maximum

2
• and minimum = minimum temperature recorded, with
the lower threshold value as the lower limit.

• Maximum = maximum temperature recorded in the

same day, with the Upper threshold as the upper limit.
•
• Example:
• Crop = Maize
•
• Maximum temp for day = 38°C (take 30°C, as the upper threshold for
maize)

• Minimum temperature for day = 15°C

•
• Mean daily temp = 30+15 = 22.5
• 2
•
• No of heat units = Mean daily temp - lower threshold value
• =22,5 -10 (10°C is lower threshold for maize)
=12,5
•
• A summation of heat units for a specified
period of time is referred to as degree days.
• Calculate the amount of heat units that will be accumulated
over a day that has the following information
•
• Given Crop = Cotton (Lower threshold for cotton is 130C)
• Day 1
Maximum temp for day = 31 °C
Minimum temp for day = 15°C

• Day 2
• Maximum temp for day = 45 °C
Minimum temp for day = 9°C

Upper threshold for cotton = 32°C

•
• What are the number of heat units accumulated over the two
days?
Lesson 15: TEMPERATURE AND CROP
DISTRIBUTION (Cont.)
•

• OBJECTIVE:
•
• To use the Ehlers System to select
crops for a region on
• the basis of their temperature
requirements or needs.
•
• The classification of Agro-Ecological Regions
according to Ehlers
•
• Ehlers (1374) divided the country into relatively
homogeneous temperature zones which he
termed agro-ecological regions.

• The temperature regime of each zone is

characterized by a code consisting of two
numbers and a letter:
Eh1er's scale = Number (Characterizing Summer temp)
Letter
• Number (Characterizing Winter temp)
•
• The number above the line characterizes the
summer temperature, ie. the temperature for the
three summer months (Dec. Jan. Feb).
• The number below the line characterises the
winter temperature, ie, temperature for the
three winter months (June, July, August).

• This value can also be obtained from the table

using the mean temperature of the three
winter months, and the mean night
temperature of the same months.
• No letter: General frost over whole area

• A: Frost free only at higher altitudes in the area

• B: Frost free at higher altitudes, some frost in

plains and valleys

• C: Entire zone frost free

• An agro-ecological map indicating the Ehlers codes
for a region can be used to obtain these codes if
the necessary information on temperatures is not
available for that region or farm.

• Ehlers also prepared a table for use with his maps,

which indicates the suitability of the various
regions for production of a wide diversity of crops.
 Lessons 16

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
• OBJECTIVES:
•
• 1. To familiarize the student with some of the
instruments used to measure temperature of the
atmosphere
•
• 2. To define minimum, maximum and mean
temperature
• 3. To define the following terms:
•
• White frost
– A solid deposition of ice which forms directly from
water vapour contained in the air. It occurs when the
relative humidity is very high, and temperatures drop
drastically during the night.
• Black frost
– Occurs when very low temperatures are experienced but
no ice/solid deposits are seen. Evidence of frost damage
is seen when plants turn black due to frost damage.
• Temperature inversion
– A situation when temperature increases with height.
It results in suppression of convection currents that
result in cloud formation.
•
• Katabatic wind
• A wind that carries high density air from a higher
elevation down a slope under the force of
gravity. It heats adiabatically as it descends. Also
called fall winds.
Lessons 18

RADIATION
• OBJECTIVE

• 1. To familiarize you with the distribution of

light energy and its effects on plants, and the
agronomic importance of light
• All sources of energy on earth, with the
exception of atomic energy, originate from
the sun.

• The sun's energy is transmitted to the earth

by radiation in the form of electromagnetic
waves.

• The properties of these waves vary with

their wavelength.
• On one end of the scale lie the cosmic
rays, which are the shortest, and on
the other end of the scale are the radio
waves, which are the longest.

• The fate of radiant energy as it strikes

the earths atmosphere can be depicted
using a figure
• The water vapour and CO2 in the earths
atmosphere cause it to act like a pane of glass,
which can be penetrated by short waves but not
by the long waves.

• Light and heat rays which strike the earth’s

surface are partially reflected as heat waves .

• These in turn are partially re-reflected back to the

earth.

• This process is known as the "greenhouse"

effect.
• The extent to which the earth is warmed by radiant
energy is determined by factors that affect the
intensity and duration of incoming radiation,

• e.g. The lower temperatures during winter are due

to the suns rays entering the earths atmosphere at
a more oblique angle and also to the shorter
period of insolation.

• Oblique rays travel through a larger volume of air

and are more fully intercepted by dust and water
vapour.
• Furthermore, the area of the earths
surface irradiated by incoming radiation is
increased as the angle of the rays become
more oblique.

• The obliqueness of the sun’s rays at higher

latitudes account for the lower
temperatures of these regions.
• The intensity of solar radiation increases with
altitude, but air temperature declines by about 2 °C
for every 300 m increase in altitude.

• Air temperatures are higher at low elevations

because most of the atmosphere’s heat is received
directly from the earth's surface and only indirectly
from the sun.

• In addition, the lower air is warmer because it is

denser, contains more water vapour and dust and
therefore has a higher heat capacity.
The effect of light on plants
• The radiant energy occurring as visible light is a
very small fraction of the frequency range of
the magnetic spectrum but is by far the most
important fraction of radiant energy as far as
vital processes on earth are concerned.

• The visible light rays and the ultra violet rays

(which are invisible) are together classified as
actinic rays.
• This type of radiation is capable of inducing
chemical change.

• Photosynthesis, phototropic response and floral

initiation, as well as photoperiodic induction
are all mediated by the actinic rays of the sun.
• Photosynthesis
– A process that converts CO2 into organic compounds,
especially sugars, using energy from sunlight and
water. Oxygen is released as a waste product.

• Phototropism
– Directional growth, in which the direction of growth
of plants is determined by the direction of the source
of light
– Tropism - movement
• Other rays which exert a strong influence on plants are
the heat rays (infra-red) in that they influence the rate
of the chemical reactions involved in plant growth,
and also influence the rate of evaporation and
transpiration.
•

• The electromagnetic spectrum is diagrammatically

depicted as follows:
•
The electro magnetic spectrum
• Plants are photochemical autotrophs that require light
to grow.
-They become etiolated, ie, chlorotic and spindly
stemmed

• Each of the photochemical reactions in plants are

mediated by special pigments which respond to various
wavelengths.
– The light energy which is fixed during photosynthesis is
derived mainly from the violet, blue and red wavelengths
through the mediation of chlorophyl

– Photoperiodic effects are mediated through the action of

red light on the phytochrome pigment

– The pigment of seeds which require light in order to

germinate are activated by yellow and orange light.
 Agronomic importance of light
• In South Africa particularly, light quality, and light
intensity are generally not limiting factors in crop
production. On the other hand light duration has a
definite bearing on the choice of crops and planting
dates.

• Plants which are sensitive to photoperiod must be

grown when and where their photoperiodic
requirements are satisfied.
•
• Long day plants (those that flower only when the
photoperiod is greater than a critical minimum) must
also be planted at times which will enable their normal
development.
• Soyabeans, maize and millet are short day
plants whilst the small grains, potato, sweet
clover and red clover are long day plants.

• Some photoperiodically sensitive plants are

particularly sensitive to changes in latitude.

• The Sayabeans and Red clover are the most

notable examples in this respect, and cultivars
are available which can only be effectively
grown in narrow belts of latitude.
• Apart from its effect on photoperiod, daylength
has a pronounced effect on the efficiency with
which plants produce dry matter.

• The greatest gains in photosynthesis are made

when the days are longest. Hence, whenever
possible (i.e. where other limiting factors such as
water and temperature permit), one should
attempt to choose a planting date which will
enable maximum utilization of available light
energy, that is to say, the stage of maximum leaf
area should as far as possible coincide with the
time that the days are longest.
• The efficiency with which a plant makes gains in dry
weight can be
expressed by the Nett Assimilation Rate '(N.A.R.).

• The N.A.R. represents the gain in dry mass due to

fixation of CD2 minus the loss due to respiration, per
unit time, per unit leaf area:
•
•
• increase in dry matter
NAR =
• leaf area x time
• The N.A.R. follows the seasonal charges in period
OF insolation (exposure to the sun’s rays)
reaching a maximum in midsummer and a
minimum in midwinter.
•
• Fig. 10 The relationship between daily
amount of light energy received and time, and
between NAR and time.
• The longest day of the year occurs on 21st December
and the shortest day on the 21st June.
•
• Whereas the N.A.R, is a measure of the efficiency of
dry matter production, the leaf are, of a plant is a
measure of its capacity for dry matter production.
• Hence maximum increase in dry matter accumulation
will occur Shen both the efficiency and capacity factors
are at a maximum.
• Planting dates should therefore be selected so that the
photosynthesizing surface is greatest when the days
are longest.
• Another way of making maximum use of the
available light energy is to plant crops and
cultivars which can use as much of the
growing season as possible.
• In the figure below the optimum planting
dates (P1 , P2, P3,) for 3 crops with long,
medium and short growing seasons are,
depicted diagrammatically.
• Fig. 11 Optimum planting; dates in relation
to the amount of light received at different
times of the year
• In each case, planting dare is sc- chosen that
the crop makes its growth during the period
when thu maximum amount of light energy is
available.
•
 WIND
•
• Wind occasionally limits the production of crops which are easily
damaged by gusty conditions. Tobacco and fruit such 2a citrus are
prone to wind damage.
•
• Wind breaks, (one or more lines of closely spaced trees planted across
• the path of the prevailing winds) can reduce wind damage under many
conditions.

• The Silky Oak is a species which forms a very efficient wind break.
• It has the added advantage of posessing a well developed taproot and
relatively few, widely spreading lateral branch roots which otherwise
would compete severely with crop roots in the adjacent field.

• In spite of its relatively benign root system, a silver oak wind break
must be planted about 5 meters away from the cropped field.
• Wind can also affect plant growth by
influencing the rate of evaporation and
transpiration. Desiccating Berg winds can
cause severe damage by greatly aggregating
plant water requirements which can results in
wilting and scorching of the leaves even when
the soil is
• Photosynthesis is vital in maintaining life on earth. Basically, it's the process in
which carbon dioxide is converted into energy or "organic compounds" like sugar
using sunlight. Photosynthesis is not used by humans, but by plants, algae and
some bacteria. Once the carbon dioxide has been converted into energy, cellular
respiration then converts that into ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) which is
essentially the fuel that all living things need to live.
If you were looking for the chemical equation of photosynthesis, here it is:
6H2O+6C02 ---> C6H1206+6O2
All of that basically translates into: six molecules of water plus six molecules of
carbon dioxide make/produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen.
Short Answer: It`s the process that captures energy from sunlight to make sugars
that store chemical energy
 Temperature inversion
• In meteorology, an inversion is a deviation
from the normal change of an atmospheric
property with altitude.

• It almost always refers to a "temperature

inversion", i.e., an increase in temperature
with height, or to the layer ("inversion layer")
within which such an increase occurs.
• An inversion can lead to pollution such as
smog being trapped close to the ground,
with possible adverse effects on health.

• An inversion can also suppress convection by

acting as a "cap".

• If this cap is broken for any of several

reasons, convection of any moisture present
can then erupt into violent thunderstorms.
 Supplemental Instruction (SI) Leader
• Xola Notini

• 201306644@ufh.ac.za

• SI Sessions
• 1. Thursday – 1700 hrs: Venue – B16, Agric building

• 2. Consultations – Wednesday 1500 hrs – 1545 hrs;

Friday 1500 hrs – 1545 hrs: Venue – PASS Venue at
TLC, Henderson hall