UNIT 2: CROPPING SYSTEMS

Definition: cropping system is the pattern in which crops are grown in a

given area over a period of time and the technical and managerial resources
that are utilized.

Criteria for cropping systems classification:

1)The distribution of crops in time, i.e. whether shifting cultivation,

continuous cropping, monoculture, or crop rotation is practiced.

2)The distribution of the crops in space on the field, i.e. whether

intercropping or sole cropping is practiced.

3)The level of management and resources utilized to produce the crop, i.e.
whether production is intensive or extensive.

•The type of crop grown, i.e. whether orchard, pasturing, forestry, etc. is
practiced.
Types of crop systems
 1. Shifting cultivation
This is nonpermanent farming system whereby a piece of land is cleared,
farmed for a few years and then abandoned in preference for a new site.

While the new site is being farmed, natural vegetation is allowed to grow on
the old site. Eventually, after several years of bush fallows, the farmer
returns to the original location. This is the most primitive form of land
cultivation.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

•It tends to discourage high level of inputs.
•Because the farms stay in one location only for a short while, there is no
incentive to invest in permanent structures such as store sheds, irrigation
and even certain pest control soil erosion or soil conservation measure that
may have a long-term benefit.
•It requires a great deal of land to maintain the system.
A.Low efficiency in land utilization.
 2. Continuous Cropping

In contrast to shifting cultivation, continuous cropping is the cultivation of the

same piece of land year after year. This means that soil management practices
must be employed in order to maintain high soil fertility. These practices
include application of fertilizers, crop combinations and rotations, and growing
cover crops.

Advantages of Continuous Cropping

Land utilization under continuous cropping is extremely efficient. A very

high percentage of land is under crops at any given time.

It is possible and economically feasible, to erect permanent structures on

the farm site.
 3. Crop Rotation

• The practice of growing different kinds of crops, one at a time, in a

definite sequence on the same piece of land is referred to as crop
rotation.

• In designing a good crop rotation, the farmer must decide what crops to
have in the rotation, in what sequence the crops should occur, and for how
many years or season each cycle of the rotation must run.

Factors that affect crop rotation

The choice of a rotation for a particular farm depends upon the following:
A.Adaptation of the crops to a particular soil, climate, and economic
conditions.
B.Prevalence of weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests may also limit the
kinds of crops that can be grown in a locality.
 Principles of Crop Rotation

 The target crop (the main crop) should be planted immediately after the
legumes or fallow period.

 Crops which are deep feeders should alternate with shallow feeders.

 Crops that are botanically similar or are likely to be attacked by the same
diseases and pests should not normally follow each other in the rotation.

 The number of years for which each cycle of the rotation should run is
determined by the number of crops in the rotation, the length of their
growing seasons and how frequent the farmer can grow the target crop
without running into problems of disease and soil fertility.
Advantages of Crop Rotation
 
It is an effective means of controlling diseases and pests.

Crop rotation is the most effective practical method for controlling

many farm weeds.

The type of crop rotation where the field is divided into several plots,
offers the farmer some insurance against crop failure, and enables him
to spread out his labour needs.

Crop rotation is an effective means of reducing erosion in comparison

with continuous cropping.
 Intercropping

The alternative practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the

same field is called intercropping. The various crops in the intercrop do not
necessarily have to be sown or harvested at the same time; the main
requirement is that they are on the field at the same time for a significant
part of their growing periods.

Types of intercropping

1. Row intercropping: This is when the various crops are grown in separate rows.
 
2. Mixed cropping: This is when the various crops are grown intermingled more
or less at random with each other.

3. Relay inter-cropping: This is when a second crop variety is sown between the
stands of an existing sole crop just before the first crop is harvested.
Advantages of intercropping
 
-Higher yield advantage in growing crops together than growing each one
separately.
 
-Efficient utilization of the resources available as crops differ in the
periods of their peak demands for light, water, nutrients and other
resources.

-The component crop may complement each other in their use of space. For
example, an intercrop of a deep rooted crop can exploit various horizons of
the soil.

-An intercrop may be able to utilize resources which the main crop may not
be able to utilize or which may even be disadvantageous to it.
- By having many crops growing simultaneously on the field the farmer is
more or less buffered against failure of one of the crop.

- Certain crops may exert specific beneficial effect on others. For

example, in an intercrop of a legume with a cereal crop, the cereal would
benefit from the nitrogen fixed by the legumes.

- Intercropping allows for a more uniform distribution of labour throughout

the year.
 
- The spread of diseases and pests is less rapid than in sole cropping.
 Agronomy

The word agronomy has been derived from two Greek word-

 ‘Agros’ meaning field and

 ‘Nomos’ meaning to manage.

So, literally agronomy means the art of managing field and technically it
means the science and economics of crop production by management of
farmland.

 
Agronomy is the science and practice of crop production to produce food,
feed, fiber, and fuel.

Agronomists need to understand plants, soils, insects, microorganisms,

climate and how they interact with each other within agroecosystems.
 
The central theme of agronomy is of soil−plant–environment relationship.
 The basic principles of agronomy may be listed as:

 Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of

land, labour, capital, sunshine, rain-water, temperature, humidity,
transport and marketing facilities.

 Choice of crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land

situation, soil fertility, season and method of cultivation and benefiting to
the cropping system.

 Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels or bunds for

irrigation and drainage, checking soil erosion, leveling and adopting other
suitable land management practices.

 Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure

harvest even under adverse environmental condition.

 Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop or crops

in sequence and improvement of soil fertility and productivity.

 Choice of quality seed or seed material and maintenance of requisite

plant density per unit area with healthy and uniform seedlings.
UNIT 3: FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
 INTERNAL FACTORS

1.GENETIC FACTORS

The increase in crop yields and other desirable characters are related to
Genetic make up of plants.
• High yielding ability
• Early maturity
• Resistance to lodging
• Drought flood and salinity tolerance
• Tolerance to insect pests and diseases
• Chemical composition of grains (oil content, protein content)
• Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness)
• Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)
The above characters are less influenced by environmental factors since
they are governed by genetic make-up of crop.
EXTERNAL FACTORS
CLIMATIC FACTORS
Nearly 50 % of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors.
The following are the atmospheric weather variables which influences
the crop production.

1. Precipitation
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric humidity
4. Solar radiation
5. Wind velocity
6. Atmospheric gases
 EDAPHIC FACTORS (soil)

Plants grown in land completely depend on soil on which they grow.

The soil factors that affect crop growth are

1. Soil moisture
2. Soil air
3. Soil temperature
4. Soil mineral matter
5. Soil organic matter
6. Soil organisms
7. Soil reactions
A. BIOTIC FACTORS
Beneficial and harmful effects caused by other biological organism (plants and
animals) on the crop plants
1. Plants
 Competition between plants occurs when there is demand for nutrients,
moisture and sunlight particularly when they are in short supply or when
plants are closely spaced.
 When different crops of cereals and legumes are grown together, mutual
benefit results in higher yield (synergistic effect).
 Competition between weed and crop plants as parasites eg: Striga
parasite weed on sugarcane crop.
1. Animals
A. Soil fauna like protozoa, nematode, snails, and insects help in organic
matter decomposition, while using organic matter for their living.
1. Honey bees and wasps help in cross pollination and increases yield and
considered as beneficial organisms
 Burrowing earthworm facilitates aeration and drainage of the soil as
ingestion of organic and mineral matter by earthworm results in constant
mixing of these materials in the soils.
 Large animals cause damage to crop plants by grazing (cattle, goats etc)
 Physiographic factors:

• Topography is the nature of surface earth (leveled or sloppy) is

known as topography. Topographic factors affect the crop growth
indirectly.

• Altitude – increase in altitude cause a decrease in temperature and

increase in precipitation and wind velocity (hills and plains)

• Steepness of slope: it results in run off of rain water and loss of

nutrient rich top soil

• Exposure to light and wind: a mountain slope exposed to low intensity

of light and strong dry winds may results in poor crop yields (coastal
areas and interior pockets)
 Socio-economic factors

• Society inclination to farming and members available for cultivation

• Appropriate choice of crops by human beings to satisfy the food and

fodder requirement of farm household.

• Breeding varieties by human invention for increased yield or pest &

disease resistance

• The economic condition of the farmers greatly decides the input/

resource mobilizing ability (marginal, small, medium and large farmers)
UNIT 5: TILLAGE PRACTICES
 Definition: Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with implements for obtaining conditions ideal
for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops.

Objectives of tillage Types of Tillage

1. Seed bed preparation

2. Control of weeds

3. Incorporation of organic matter in to

the soil 1. Conventional tillage (plowing, harrowing)

4. Soil and water conservation 2. Conservation Tillage (Mulch Tillage, No-till,

Strip Tillage, zero tillage
5. Soil and water conservation

6. Improve of soil physical condition

7. Increase of soil aeration

 1. Conventional tillage (plowing, harrowing)

Plowing: This is one of the most ancient and most

universal forms of conventional tillage.

It creates significant soil disturbance by shearing

off a section of the grass sod and flipping it over.

Harrowing: plowing usually leaves large lumps of

soil which must be broken up before planting.

The conventional way of breaking up soil lumps is

through harrowing. Harrowing smoothes and levels
the field and reduces soil particle size.
2. Conservation Tillage (Mulch Tillage, No-till, Strip Tillage, zero tillage

 Mulch Tillage: in this system, crop residues are left on the surface, and subsurface tillage leaves
them relatively undisturbed. In this system, chisel plow is used as a primary tillage implement.
 No-Till: is an approach in which
specialized planters with disk openers
slice through crop residues and precisely
deposit the seed at a desired depth.

 No-till, which involves minimal crop

residue disturbance, also minimizes soil
erosion and maximizes soil organic
matter and soil water conservation.
 Strip tillage: is a conservation tillage option to no-till seeding. Special equipment creates a tilled,
narrow seedbed for row crop planting, but leaves similar between-row residue as a no-till
system.
Benefits of tillage:

1. Water retention
2. Organic matter increase
3. Cycling of nutrient
4. Reduce of soil aeration
5. Micro-organism enhancement
6. Save money
7. Faster crop maturity
8. Soil evaporation reduction
9. Easier weeds control
10. Improved soil fertility
11. Better profits