Republic of the Philippines

SOUTH COTABATO STATE COLLEGE

(Formerly Surallah National Agricultural School)
Dajay, Surallah, South Cotabato
Telefax No. (083) 238-5143 | southcotabatostatecollege@gmail.com

LEARNING GUIDE IN
Practices of Crop Production and Management
I. Introduction
The agriculture sector mainly dominates the economy of the Philippines.
Agricultural operations provide 40 to 45 percent of the total national income and
about 75 to 80 percent of the country's exports. Food crops account for about two-
thirds of the total production (tonnage) and about three-fourths of the cultivated
acreage. The main crops usually cultivated for local consumption are rice, corn,
and sweet potatoes. In keeping with the national emphasis on increased food
production, there has been a consistent but not rapid increase in acreage devoted
to these and other food crops. The increase in fruit and vegetable production has
been quite significant. Double cropping of rice, corn, and some vegetables is
practiced in many areas but is not general. Agricultural production, therefore,
furnishes employment to about 3 million persons or about 60 percent of the
gainfully employed workers where it provides 40 to 45 percent of the total national
income and about 75 to 80 percent of the country's export (Cutshall, 1958)

Crop production mainly belongs to the farming sector. As of the second quarter
of 2020, the agricultural production status in the Philippines managed to grow 0.5
percent. 5.0 percent growth in production. It shared 53.7 percent of the total
agricultural output, where palay went up by 7.1 percent and corn by 15.4 percent.
At current prices, the value of agricultural production amounted to Php. 439.8
billion. This was 4.6 percent higher than the previous year’s level (PSA, 2020).
Currently, the Philippines faces many problems in the agricultural sector, which
employs around 37 percent of people in the country, being a major source of
income for many households. Yet, this sector’s share in the country’s GDP has
gone down over the years, showing a decline. The Philippines government is also
decreasing funding for agriculture. Starting in 2011, agriculture only makes up
about 4 percent of the national budget. This makes agricultural development in the
Philippines questionable. Worse, the Philippines is notoriously vulnerable to
natural disasters, facing around 20 typhoons each year. For farmers, one typhoon
or tropical storm could be enough to wipe out the entire crop. Starting over with the
work can be expensive and time-consuming. For example, coconut farmers need
 up to 10 years for their crops to grow. The lack of financial support coupled with
frequent natural disasters leaves farmers in a compromising state. As a result, 57
percent of agricultural households are impoverished. In comparison, non-
agricultural households are three times less impoverished. This rate is even worse
in agricultural- dependent areas and reaches up to 74 percent in Central Visayas
(Massarath, 2018).

Issues in Crop Production and Development

What is the issue of the crop production in the Philippines?

Long-standing challenges that hamper productivity includes

1. limited access to credit and Agricultural insurance

2. low farm mechanization, and inadequate postharvest facilities
3. inadequate irrigation
4. scant support for research and development (R & D)
5. weak extension service
6. incomplete agrarian reform program

II. Crop Production, Agriculture and Trade (Food Chain, food utilization,
nutrition, research, education, distribution, marketing and etc.)

Crop Production - is a branch of agriculture, which includes the cultivation of

crops in field cultivation, vegetable growing, fruit growing, etc. This industry gives
necessary food. Consumer goods manufacturing and food industries gets raw
materials. Livestock industry, in turn, uses by-products such as straw, silage, and
food industry waste.
 What are types of crop production?

By use, crops fall into six categories: 

1. Food crops - are subsistence crops that are meant for human consumption. They
include fruits, vegetables, grains, and tubers, like potatoes. Grains, which include
crops like wheat, rice, and corn, are the most popular crops in the world, with
wheat as the most widely grown crop overall

2. Feed crops - are harvested for livestock consumption. These crops contain
nutrients that animals need to develop. They are grown in agricultural fields but
can also be found in natural meadows and pastures. Forage crops are important
for livestock farming. (e.g. yellow corn, Napier grass, soybean, cassava, sorghum,
flemingia, rensonii, Indigofera, calliandra)

3. Fiber crops - Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are
traditionally used to make paper, cloth, or rope. Fiber crops are characterized by
having a large concentration of cellulose, which is what gives them their strength.
(Cotton, jute, kenaf, industrial hemp, sun hemp, and flax are among the well-
known fiber crops.)

4. Oil crops – This are food and feed crops such as rapeseed, palm, soybeans and
sunflower, that are not starch rich crops and sugar crops that are commonly used
as feedstock for the production of biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels.

5. Ornamental crops - crops are produced with the purpose of beautifying,

decorating, or enhancing the environment, and exclude plants intended for
commercial food production such as vegetables and fruits. Ornamental crops can
be classified as floriculture and nursery plants, shrubs, trees, and foliage
plants for outdoor and indoor use. These include flowering plants, foliage plants
and grasses. Ornamental plant examples include: Petunias, Sansevieria,
Monsteras, Orchids, Ixora, Cacti, Succulents, Pothos, Sedges, Restio, Hoyas, ZZ
plants, Bonsai, Dracaenas, Ornamental palms, Anthuriums, Philodendrons
6. Industrial crops - is a crop grown to produce goods for manufacturing, for
example fiber for clothing, rather than food for consumption.  industrial crops
such as rubber, coffee, cacao, oil palm, fiber crops and spices has a significant
contribute to the growth and sustainability of the country's economy.
 III. Site Characterization for Crop Production (Biophysical Associative
Economics, Socio- cultural and Political Determinants)

Location vs Site
Location–general area
refers to the geographical position or place where the crops are located in relation to a
city, town or highway or other point of designation.

Site– specific area-refers to the immediate place where any given crop is produced.

Factors to Consider in Selecting a Suitable Location and Site

1. Climatic requirements of the crops
A. Temperature

How temperature and heat affect our crops?

High temperature, even for short period, affects crop growth especially in
temperate crops like wheat. High air temperature reduces the growth of shoots
and in turn reduces root growth. High soil temperature is more crucial as damage
to the roots is severe resulting in substantial reduction in shoot growth.

Higher nighttime temperatures may increase respiration at night causing

declines in yield (e.g. rice) and flowering or reproduction (e.g. beans). Most crops
can tolerate higher daytime temperatures during vegetative growth, with
photosynthesis reaching an optimum at between 20°C and 30°C (Wahid et al.,
2007).
However, when there is a heat wave and soil temperatures increase, plant
roots are less able to compensate for varying levels of soil moisture within the
soil profile. When soil temperature rises above an optimum threshold, plant water
and nutrient uptake can be impeded, causing damage to plant components.
B. Rainfall
Why is rainfall so important?
Rain and snow are key elements in the Earth's water cycle, which is vital to all life
on Earth. Rainfall is the main way that the water in the skies comes down to Earth,
where it fills our lakes and rivers, recharges the underground aquifers, and provides
drinks to plants and animals. It is the major factor in the growth and production of
food crops both at the germination and fruit development stage.

Is rain water important for farmers?

The majority of such farm populations are rain-fed producers with no access to
surface water or groundwater. Rainwater harvesting is, therefore, their sole
alternative for accessing sustainable quantities of water to satisfy crop requirements
during periods of drought. SWIP
How does rainfall affect fruit production?
High intensity rainfall causes physical damage to flower, which are essential for the
pollination process, that results in fruit formation.

How does rainfall affect the natural environment?

Heavy rainfall negatively affects grassland ecosystem biomass and C sink function
because excess soil water content suppresses plant growth. Such negative effects
of heavy rainfall may weaken with annual repeated occurrence, because plants
adjust physiologically and/or morphologically.

How does rainfall affect soil nutrients?

Precipitation can promote mineralization and improve soil nutrients, thereby
increasing plant NPP, which is the limiting factor for plants to absorb soil nutrients.
Net primary production (NPP) 

What is the relationship between rainfall and agriculture?

An important aspect to be understood regarding the relationship between rainfall
and agriculture is that rainfall is the major factor in the growth and production of
food crops both at the germination and fruit development stage.
The climate in the place where you intend to establish your farm should match the
climatic requirements of the plants/crops that you intend to grow.
C. Light
How Does Light Affect Plant Growth?
1. Direction of Growth
The survival of a plant is entirely dependent on the source of light. In the case of all
outdoor plants, the sun is the only source of light. When the first leaves appear on
the plant, it will try to grow towards the light source, to ensure that maximum light is
received by the leaves for photosynthesis. Some plants take this to its extreme and
follow the sun as it traverses the sky in the day. The sunflower is the most famous
example of these plants, called heliotropic by botanists. The rest of the plants are
called phototropic, which means that they respond to light. The stems of these
plants try to grow towards the direction of the source of the light. Consider a garden
plant which is partially in the shade. When light shines on a part, it stimulates the
secretion of growth hormones called auxins in that area of the stem. These auxins
cause that part of the stem cells to elongate, forcing the stem to grow towards the
sunlight. These are changes that occur continuously through the life cycle of a
plant.

Seasonal Effects
If there is one disadvantage to sunlight, it is the fact that it is not constant all through
the year. The duration and intensity of sunlight received fluctuate with the changing
seasons. So, plants have adapted to these changing seasons as well. In the
summer and spring, with light being plentiful, most plants focus on growth, blooming
of flowers, and bearing of fruit. When the light intensity and duration reduces as
winters approach, the plants put more emphasis on conserving energy and
reducing growth.
Photosynthesis is reduced in the fall, and leaves start losing chlorophyll. This is why
leaves tend to turn brown, yellow, or red in autumn.
Light is a form of energy that moves as an electromagnetic wave. What we see as
visible light is made up of electromagnetic radiation in a specific range of
wavelengths. Visible light falls between the wavelengths of 390-700 nanometers.
Light in different wavelengths appears as a particular color to the human eye.
When you use a prism to scatter the light, you can see these individual colors, as
VIBGYOR or ROYGBIV.
Red light has the longest wavelength and the lowest energy, while blue and violet
lights at the other end have short wavelengths and more energy. (This is one
reason why energy-rich UV light is considered dangerous). Like the cells in the
human eye, the leaves in a plant also respond to the light energy falling on it within
these 390-700nm wavelengths. To be more precise, the chlorophyll in the leaves
absorb most of this light to create food. We said “most of the light,” not all of it. Ever
wonder why plants appear green? It is because chlorophyll reflects the green part of
the spectrum (495-570nm). Out of the remaining wavelengths, red and blue color
light seems to have the most impact on the health of a plant. These wavelengths
have different impacts:

Blue Light

With a wavelength between 400-500nm, this light has high energy and affects the
leaf growth (also called vegetative or “veg” growth) of plants. Blue light has an
impact on chlorophyll production, but you only need it very small quantities when
compared to red light. If a plant does not get enough blue light, it will start getting
weaker, with yellow streaks in the leaves instead of green.

Red Light

This low-energy light has a wavelength of 600-700nm. It is essential for flowering

and blooming of the plants. Deficiency in this light wavelength will invariably result
in delayed flowering or very weak blooming stage in plants. Understanding the
spectrum is vital for hydroponics. Out in the sun, plants get all the light energy they
need in all the important wavelengths. But as we will see in the next section,
replicating the effect of sunlight using grow lights is not a very simple task.

Yellow and Orange Light

Plants absorb some yellow and orange light, but these wavelengths are not the
most important for photosynthesis. Seedlings given yellow or orange light alone will
not be able to create carbohydrates, and so will not grow and thrive.
 Green light 
May better penetrate a canopy than other colors on the visible spectrum. This
allows lusher growth on lower leaves, possibly leading to a better yield overall. In
limited amounts, and used alongside other colors, green light could potentially
create stronger, fuller plants.

What is phototropism in plants?

Phototropism is the growth of an organism in response to a light stimulus.

Phototropism is most often observed in plants, but can also occur in other organisms
such as fungi. The cells on the plant that are farthest from the light contain a hormone
called auxin that reacts when phototropism occurs.

(a) The growth of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism. An example
of phototropism is the growth of plant stem in the upward direction in response to
sunlight.

(b) The stems of plants grow towards sunlight showing positive phototropism.
(c) The movement of plant parts towards the light source is known as positive
phototropism, whereas the movement of plant parts away from light is known as
negative phototropism.
The stems of plants show positive phototropism as they grow upwards. The roots of
plants show negative phototropism as they grow downwards into the soil

All plants require light for photosynthesis, the process within a plant that converts light,
oxygen and water into carbohydrates (energy). Plants require this energy in order to
grow, bloom and produce seed. Without adequate light, carbohydrates cannot be
manufactured, the energy reserves are depleted and plants die.

D. Wind

Wind direction and velocity have significant influence on crop growth. Wind

increases the turbulence in atmosphere, thus increasing the supply of carbon dioxide to
the plants resulting in greater photosynthesis rates. Wind alters the balance of
hormones. Wind increases the ethylene production in barley and rice.

How do plants react to wind?

In persistent wind, plants close their leaf pores (called 'stomata') to reduce water
loss. Closing these pores also limits the plants ability to breath, slowing growth (and
your harvests) by 50% or more. Wind will also make containers dry out faster, adding
more stress to your plants. Windy air contributes to evaporation. As wind speed
increases, plants react by upping their rate of transpiration, which is the plant's loss of
water as it's absorbed through the roots, up to the leaves, and out the leaves as it
evaporates. More than 90 percent of the water a plant absorbs is lost by transpiration.

How do plants survive windy conditions?

Wind-tolerant plants share certain characteristics. They are usually evergreen
with small, tough often-leathery leaves and short, stout branches that withstand the
wind. Most can be pruned (handy when there's wind damage to deal with) and most
have a multi-branched habit rather than a single main stem. Plants exposed to wind
produce a growth-retardant hormone called ethylene, which causes the plant to be
shorter and to have thicker stems
E. Relative humidity.

When relative humidity levels are too high or there is a lack of air circulation, a
plant cannot make water evaporate (part of the transpiration process) or draw nutrients
from the soil. When this occurs for a prolonged period, a plant eventually rots. When
the temperature is high and humidity is normal, more stomates will open, letting in
carbon dioxide for active Photosynthesis. If the air is excessively dry and the plant is
wilting, the stomatal openings close, thereby reducing photosynthetic activity and
ultimately plant growth. The extra moisture in the air means that plants have a higher
available moisture, transpire less and are able to keep their stomata (the tiny holes in
their leaves which allow gas exchange, including water vapor) open longer which in turn
means more photosynthesis and more growth.
2. Soil-Type, drainage, fertility, pH.

Soil - Commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases,
liquids, and organisms that together support life. It provides the structural support to plants
used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients. An important function of soil
is to store and supply nutrients to plants. The ability to perform this function is referred to as
soil fertility. The clay and organic matter (OM) content of a soil directly influence its fertility.
Greater clay and OM content will generally lead to greater soil fertility.

Importance of soil

1. Soil provides plants with foothold for their roots and holds the necessary nutrients for
plants to grow;
2. It filters the rainwater and regulates the discharge of excess rainwater, preventing
flooding;
3. It is capable of storing large amounts of organic carbon;
4. It buffers against pollutants, thus protecting groundwater ...

Healthy soils are essential for healthy plant growth, human nutrition, and water filtration.
Healthy soil supports a landscape that is more resilient to the impacts of drought, flood, or fire.
Soil helps to regulate the Earth's climate and stores more carbon than all of the world's forests
combined.

Soil is classified into four types:

1. Sandy soil - are those that are generally coarse textured until 50 cm depth and
consequently retain few nutrients and have a low water holding capacity. Sandy soils
are good for growing a wide range of crops. The crops that grow well in sandy soil
include carrot, beetroot, cucumber, muskmelon, watermelon, fenugreek,
radish etc.

2. Silt Soil - is a solid, dust-like sediment that water, ice, and wind transport and
deposit. Silt is made up of rock and mineral particles that are larger than clay but
smaller than sand. Carried by water during flood it forms a fertile deposit on valleys.
Shallow-rooted vegetables like lettuce, onion, broccoli, and other related
brassicas are good options. Nitrogen-fixing vegetables like peas and legumes are
also great to further amend your soil. 

3. Clay Soil - is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals.
Clays develop plasticity when wet, due to a molecular film of water surrounding the
clay particles, but become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying or firing. Lettuce,
chard, snap beans and other crops with shallow roots benefit from clay soil's ability
to retain moisture, and broccoli, Brussels sprouts and cabbage often grow better in
clay soil than looser loams because their roots enjoy firm anchorage

4. Loamy Soil - A loamy soil, then, is one that combines all three of these types of
particles in relatively equal amounts. Loamy soils are friable, possessing a mixture of
clay, sand, and humus (and/or silt) that is ideal for growing plants. Loamy soil is
ideal for growing many crops including wheat, sugar cane, cotton, pulses, and
 oilseeds. In this loam soil, vegetables grow well too. Tomatoes, peppers, green
beans, cucumbers, onions, and lettuce are some examples of common vegetables
and crops that grow well in a loamy soil.

Drainage
Is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an
area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good
enough to prevent severe waterlogging, but many soils need artificial drainage to
improve production or to manage water supplies.

Purpose of drainage

One of the drainage system's functions is to collect surface water and/or ground
water and direct it away, thereby keeping the ballast bed drained. The drainage system
must also protect the substructure from erosion, from becoming sodden, and from
losing its load-bearing capacity and stability.

The two general types of drainage practices

1. Surface Drainage - Is the orderly removal of excess water from the surface of
land through improved natural channels or constructed ditches and through
shaping of the land.

2. Subsurface drainage - Is the removal of water from the soil profile.

 3. Topography- Refers to the contour of the land, elevation, etc. It also
determines the ease of transporting implements/inputs, produce and the surface
drainage condition. It is derives from the Greek “topo,” meaning place, and
“graphia,” meaning to write or to record.

Topography affects agriculture because it determines if an area will be wetter or

drier than another area and if a farmer wants to grow certain crops. The topography of a
region also affects how easily you can move around, which can have an impact on the
types of crops that are grown locally.

Flatlands are better suited to farming than highlands because they are lesser,
mostly flatlands with abundant rivers and streams. These rivers and streams serve as
water supplies, ensuring that the crops planted by farmers are increasingly beneficial.

4. Accessibility - The site should be serviced by good roads for ease of transport. It
should be accessible to potential customers.

5. Water Supply- The site of the farm should have a good source of water for
irrigation/watering and for spraying.
SOIL FERTILITY

Crops need nutrients just like people do. A fertile soil will contain all the major nutrients
for basic plant nutrition (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), as well as other
nutrients needed in smaller quantities (e.g., calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc,
copper, boron, molybdenum, nickel). Usually, a fertile soil will also have some organic
matter that improves soil structure, soil moisture retention, and also nutrient retention,
and a pH between 6 and 7. Unfortunately, many soils do not have adequate levels of all
the necessary plant nutrients, or conditions in the soil are unfavorable for plant uptake
of certain nutrients.

Soil Fertility – Is the ability of a soil to support vigorous crop growth by ensuring
adequate plant nutrients and suitable conditions for water uptake, and by providing
favorable conditions for root growth and development.

- A fertile soil is one that contains an adequate supply of all the nutrients required for
the successful production of plant life.

- Soil fertility is the ability of a soil to sustain plant growth by providing essential plant
nutrients and favorable chemical, physical, and biological characteristics as a habitat
for plant growth. Plant nutrients include the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, sulfur, calcium and magnesium.

Ways to increase soil fertility

Organic ways such as
1. Crop rotation
2. Bush fallowing
3. No-till farming
4. Growing cover crops
5. Use of manures
6. Weed control
7. Mulching
Types of Soil Fertility
1.  Natural or Inherent fertility - The soil naturally contains all essential nutrients
such as nitrogen, phosphorus etc. 
2. Acquired fertility - The soil has this type of fertility because artificial fertilizers,
manures are applied to soil so that's why it is named as acquired fertility.
Soil pH

Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. A pH value is actually a
measure of hydrogen ion concentration. Because hydrogen ion concentration varies
over a wide range, a logarithmic scale (pH) is used: for a pH decrease of 1, the acidity
increases by a factor of 10.S

A pH of 6.5 is just about right for most home gardens, since most plants thrive in the  6.0
to 7.0 (slightly acidic to neutral) range. Some plants (blueberries, azaleas) prefer more
acidic soil, while a few (ferns, asparagus) do best in soil that is neutral to slightly
alkaline.
Soil pH generally varies from around 3.5 (very acidic) to 8.5 (alkaline). A reading of 7.0
is considered neutral and the optimum for most plants is 6.5. When soil pH is too
high, it can pose problems for plant health and growth. For many plants, soil that is high
in alkalinity makes it harder for plants to drink in nutrients from the soil, which can limit
their optimal growth.
Soil pH influences plant growth through several factors. Those factors include soil
bacteria, nutrient leaching, nutrient availability, toxic elements, and soil structure. These
factors have equal importance. Yet, many gardeners tend to focus on nutrient
availability.

A soil pH in the right zone for a plant will make nutrients available to that plant. If there
are nutrients, but the pH is too high or low, the plant will not be able to absorb the
nutrients. Or, it could mean that there are not enough nutrients like those mentioned
above in the soil.

What crop grows best in acidic soil?

If water is managed well, they can support oil palm and rice. Some other crops grown
on acid soils around the world include: rice, cassava, mango, cashew, citrus, pineapple,
cowpeas, blueberries and certain grasses.
What crop grows best in Alkaline Soil?
● Asparagus.
● Broccoli/Brussels Sprouts.
● Cabbages.
● Kale/ Collard Greens.
● Leeks.
● Marjoram.
● Peas.
● Pole Beans.

Alkalis are very corrosive in nature and penetrate deeply. Examples of strong alkalis
(lye) include barium, sodium, ammonium, calcium, lithium, and potassium
hydroxides.

Alkaline soil is referred to by some gardeners as “sweet soil.” The pH level of alkaline
soil is above 7, and it usually contains a great deal of sodium, calcium, and magnesium.
Since alkaline soil is less soluble than acidic or neutral soil, availability of nutrients is
often limited.

IV. Production Practices

Crop Production
Food is the major source of energy. Every living organism on this planet needs
food to remain alive and to continue all other essential life processes. Plants are the
most source of food on which both humans and animals depend. We cannot imagine
life without food.
With the rapidly growing population, demand for more food, loss of produced
crops, and other problems within the agricultural output are the most reasons for the
scarcity of food and are the most important concern in some parts of the planet facing
today. This has led to a rise within the requirement of strategies which will help within
the management of the crops produced.
Crop production may be a common agricultural practice followed by worldwide
farmers to grow and produce crops to use as food and fiber. This practice includes all
the feed sources that are required to take care of and produce crops. Listed below are
few practices used during crop production.
 Preparation of Soil, Sowing of Seeds, Irrigation, Application of manure,
pesticides, and fertilizers to the crops, Protecting and Harvesting Crops, Storage and
Preserving the produced Crops. The ultimate stages of crop production are harvesting
and storage.
Harvesting requires art and practice because an outsized proportion of crops are often
lost thanks to improper methods of harvesting. Another concern besides harvesting is
storage. Storage of grains is to tend utmost priority as improper storage may result
within the destruction of crops being by pests or unfavorable environmental conditions.
Once the crop is matured or fully ripen, they're cut and gathered (Reaping) which
are collectively called as harvesting. Harvesting depends on many factors like season,
crop variety, maturity period, etc.
Over-irrigation, irregular sunlight can prolong ripening of crop
which thus delays the harvesting time. Early harvesting causes loss of unripen grains
while delayed harvesting results in shedding off of grains. Besides this, rodents and
even birds eat the grains. Therefore, regular examination of the crop is necessary as
harvesting period approaches. The golden yellow color is that the indication of ripened
crops for paddy, rice, and wheat.
Manually harvesting is completed by using sickles but it's a tedious job also as
time-consuming. In recent times, machines called harvesters are used for harvesting,
especially in large-scale farming.
Followed by harvesting, threshing of the crop has got to be performed. Threshing
is that the process, in which, the collected grains are separated from the chaff by
beating or by the thresher. In small-scale farming, chaff and grains are separated from
one another by a process called winnowing. Harvesting is taken into account as a
festival in most a part of the country. 
Major agricultural systems include lowland irrigated farming, rainfed farming and
upland farming. Irrigated farm areas mainly grow rice and sugarcane whereas rainfed
areas are planted with coconut, corn and cassava. Preparation of Soil, Sowing of
Seeds, Irrigation, Application of manure, pesticides, and fertilizers to the crops,
Protecting and Harvesting Crops, Storage and Preserving the produced Crops. The
ultimate stages of crop production are harvesting and storage.

1. Land Preparation
It is the process of preparing the land for seeding and plantation. A land, if well-
prepared helps control the growth of weeds, promotes plant nutrients and helps
in direct seeding. Land preparation basically involves ploughing the soil or
digging it up, followed by harrowing the land to break soil clods and then levelling
the field. Generally, it takes 3 to 4 weeks to prepare the land before planting.
and preparation ensures ideal soil conditions for the crops to be seeded, in order
to produce a huge yield. The sustenance of the farm is of utmost importance for
the farmers who invest time, energy and money into the plantation. Factors like
the soil depth, soil quality, availability of water sources, distance to the field and
the quality of water play a pivotal role in helping to attain a huge yield from the
field. The process starts with clearing the land where the field is ploughed.
Operations like planting and application of fertilizers are carried out in order to
achieve a perfect soil condition to expose soil-borne pests and to help bring up
the nutrients to the surface. The Moldboard Plough is another primary tillage
equipment, well suited for tough ploughing job with outstanding depth of cut.  It is
best suited for stone and root-laden soil and is designed to work in most types of
soil to perform basic functions such as soil breaking and soil inversion.

What is the purpose of land preparation?

Land preparation is important to ensure that the field is ready for planting. A
well-prepared field controls weeds, recycles plant nutrients, and provides a soft
soil mass for transplanting and a suitable soil surface for direct seeding.

Production Practices for Annual Crops

Land Preparation is done in accordance with the requirements of the crops,
whether they grow under the dryland or wetland systems. He two systems of
land preparation and water management (wetland and dryland) have contrasting
features in terms of physical, biological and chemical nature of soils.

Before seeding, the land prepared by the process of tillage. Tillage is

the manual or mechanized manipulation of the soil to provide a medium for
proper crop establishment and growth. There are several purposes of tillage,
these are;

1. Land leveling – Land is leveled for several purposes.

2. Seedbed preparation - In order for germination to occur, the seed must make
good contact with the soil to be able to imbibe moisture. Seed bed
preparation is done according to the seed characteristics, especially the size.
The fineness of the soil after the soil after the tillage is called tilth. A fine tilth
is required for seeding small – sized seeds.
3. Incorporating Organic matter and soil amendments. Stubbles left after crop
harvesting can be mixed in the soil to improve its physical characteristics.
Fertilizers, organic or inorganic and soil amendments such as lime, may be
added to the soil during the preparation prior to seeding.
 4. Weed Control – Weeds compete with crop plants for growth factors and may
harbor diseases and insect pest. Weeds are controlled at various stages in
crop production.
5. Improve soil physical condition – Soil texture and structure are important in
crop production. Soil structure can be destroyed with time, because of a
variety of reasons. Heavy traffic (vehicle, farm animals, humans) can
compact the soil and create an impervious soil barrier called hard pan.
Tillage can be used to break up the hard pan for crop root growth and
development.
6. Erosion Control. Tillage may be conducted in a certain way to provide a
rough soil surface to impede the actions of the agents of soil erosion
(conservation tillage)
7. Shaping soil – Tillage is used to create raised beds for planting or to create
furrows for irrigation system.

Tillage systems describe the nature and sequence of tillage operations used in
preparing the seedbed for planting. Tillage system differ in the degree of the soil stirring
and nature of the finished product.

Two Classification of Tillage

1. Conventional Tillage - In conventional Tillage the field is stirred up to a certain
depth (called plow depth) using various kind of implements. The final condition
depends on the purpose of tillage and the crop to be produced. Conventional
Tillage incorporates to basic methods
A. Clean Tillage (No debris or plant remains are left on the soil surface)
B. Mulch Tillage (Some debris are left on the soil surface)

3 General steps in Conventional Tillage

A. Clearing the land to remove larger pieces of debris, and trees and shrubs to
facilitate the use of plant implements.
B. Primary Tillage – The mechanical manipulation of the soil the produces less
than 15% of the soil covered with plant residue. The top soil is stirred up to a
depth of 6 to 14 inches, and inverted, burring the vegetation and debris on the
soil surface. The time of primary tillage depends on the soil type, soil
moisture, climatic conditions and the time of seeding the crop. The depth of
tillage also depends on the amount and nature of the plant residues on the
soil, soil type and farmer’s preference.
The primary tillage implements used are:
1. Moldboard plow
 2. Disk plow
3. Chisel Plow
4Powered rotary tiller
4. Sweep plow (also called as stubble mulch plow)
5. Lister / bedder (for ridges of beds)

C. Secondary Tillage - The Mechanical manipulation of the soil to produce a

finer tilth for preparing a seedbed, usually follows primary tillage. It is done at
a shallower depth from 2 – 6 inches. The implements pulverize the clods left
by primary tillage. These farm implements include the disk harrow, harrow
and cultivator.

Conventional Tillage has advantages and dis advantages that include the
following

Advantages:
1. It is the most convenient method for managing soil compaction.
2. It is easier to apply fertilizers and preform other operations when the land is
clean.
3. The lack of crop residues reduces hibernating pests.

Dis Advantages:
1. Erosion – The soil is exposed to agents of erosion.
2. Compaction – Excessive and repeated use of farm implements predisposes the
soil compaction.
3. Cost – Conventional Tillage is expensive
4. Soil Organic Matter loss – Soil Organic Matter decrease over time.

2. Conservation Tillage

It is the basic tillage strategies that entails practices in which some crop residues
remain on the soil surface after the operation. The chief goals of conservation tillage
are:
 1. To reduce soil erosion
2. Conserve moisture
Conservation Tillage is sometimes called crop residue management. The common
types of conservation tillage include.
1. No tillage -
(Also known as  zero tillage or direct drilling) is an
agricultural technique for growing crops or pasture
without disturbing the soi

2. Mulch Tillage - Mulch tillage is a system in which

crop residues are left on the surface, and subsurface tillage leaves them
relatively undisturbed.

3. Strip Tillage - is a field tillage system that combines no till and full tillage to
produce row crops. Narrow strips 6 to 12 inches wide are tilled in crop stubble,
with the area between the rows left undisturbed. Often, fertilizer is injected into
the tilled area during the strip-tilling operation.

4. Minimum Tillage - Minimum tillage is a soil conservation system like strip-till with
the goal of minimum soil manipulation necessary for a successful crop
 production. It is a tillage method that does not turn the soil over, in contrast to
intensive tillage, which changes the soil structure using ploughs. 

5. Ridge Tillage - is a form of conservation tillage where the farmer builds ridges or
raised beds. Planting is completed on the ridge and usually involves the removal
of the top of the ridge. Ridge tillage can improve soil health, reduce erosion and
runoff.

Advantages of Conservation Tillage

 1. Reduces soil erosion from wind and water
2. Reduces soil compaction
3. Applicable to steep slopes
4. Soil infiltration and moisture conservation
5. Reduces Cost of tillage
6. Soil temperature moderation
7. Increase soil organic matter
Dis advantages
1. Dependence in chemicals due to less stirring of the soil
2. Cost for special planters for no till seeding
3. Higher risks of insect pest and pathogens in early crop establishment due to soil
borne pathogens and soil surface.
4. High soil moisture increases leaching of water-soluble base such as nitrate.
5. Crop residue impedes fertilizer application
6. Higher level of herbicide uses due to new weed problem.