Indian Agriculture: Farming Types,

Features and Challenges

India has one of the largest plain areas of the world-the Indo-
Gangetic plain which is immensely fertile.

India has varieties of climatic conditions and soil types.

These physical variations along with factors like availability of

irrigation, use of machinery, modern agricultural inputs like High
Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds, insecticides, and pesticides have
played their important roles in the evolution of different farming
practices in the Indian agriculture sector.

Types of farming in India

Some of the major types of farming are discussed below.

i) Subsistence farming:
The majority of farmers in India practice subsistence farming- farming
for their consumption. The entire production is largely consumed by
the farmers and their families and they do not have any surplus to
sell in the market.

In this type of farming, landholdings are small and fragmented;

cultivation techniques are primitive and simple. There is a total
absence of modern equipment like tractors and farm inputs like
chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides. In this farming,
farmers mostly cultivate cereals along with oilseeds, pulses,
vegetables, and sugarcane.

Subsistence farming is further classified into:

 Intensive
 Primitive

Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on patches of land with

the help of primitive tools like simple digging tools and community or
family labour. This type of farming is monsoon depended along with
the fertility of the soil and other environmental conditions. Examples
of such types are shifting agriculture and nomadic herding.

 Shifting agriculture is practised in thickly forested regions like

the Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia, and
northeast India. These areas receive heavy rainfall hence the
vegetation regenerates quickly.
 A patch of land is cleared by felling if tress and burning them.
The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize,
yam, potatoes, and cassava are grown. The land is abandoned
once fertility is reduced.
 nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of
Sahara, Central Asia, and some parts of India like Rajasthan,
Jammu and Kashmir.
 Herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for
fodder and water, along defined routes and such movement
arises due to seasonal changes. Animals like sheep, camel,
yak, and goats are most commonly reared.

Intensive subsistence agriculture is done on small lands with simple

tools and more labour. The produce is enough for local consumption
and to be sold outside. The sunny climate and fertile soil for most of
the year permit the cultivation of more than one crop annually on the
same plot. Rice, wheat, maize, pulses, and oilseeds are generally
cultivated.

ii) Intensive and Extensive farming

The basic difference between these two types of farming is the
amount of production per unit of land. In comparison with temperate
areas of the USA, Canada, India do not practice extensive cultivation.

When a large patch of land is used for cultivation then we call it

extensive farming. Here, total production may be high due to the
larger area but per unit are production is low.

Intensive Farming records high production per unit of land. An

example of intensive cultivation is in Kerala where the availability of
land for cultivation is very limited.

iii) Commercial farming

It is just the opposite of subsistence farming as most of the produce
is sold in the market for earning money. In this system, farmers use
inputs like irrigation, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, High
Yielding Varieties of seeds, etc.

Some of the major commercial crops grown in different parts of India

are cotton, jute, sugarcane, groundnut, etc.

Rice farming in Harayana is mainly for commercial purposes as

people of this area are predominantly wheat eaters. However, in East
and North-Eastern states of India, rice cultivation would be large of
subsistence type.

iv) Plantation Farming:

In this type, a single cash crop is grown for sale in national and
international markets. This type of agriculture involves the growing
and processing of a single cash crop purely meant for sale.

Tea, coffee, rubber, banana, and spices are all examples of

plantation crops. Most of these crops were introduced in India by the
Britishers in the 19th Century

v) Mixed Farming:
When both raising crops and rearing animals are carried on
simultaneously it is called mixed farming. Farmers engaged in mixed
farming have economical advantages as well.

All classifications are based on the nature and purpose of farming

hence they may overlap in some cases. For example, Banana is a
plantation type of farming but can also be classified as commercial
farming.

Features of Indian Agriculture

Subsistence Agriculture: Most parts of India have subsistence
agriculture which has been practised in India for several hundreds of
years and still prevails.

The pressure of population on Agriculture: Despite the increase in

urbanization and industrialization, about 70% of the population is still
directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.
Mechanization in agriculture: Even after more than forty years of
the Green Revolution and revolution in agricultural machinery and
equipment, complete mechanization is still not achieved.

Monsoon dependency: Despite the large-scale expansion, only

about one-third of the total cropped area is irrigated today. As a
consequence, two-thirds of cropped areas are still dependent upon
the monsoon.

Variety of crops: Since India has both tropical and temperate

climates, crops of both climates are found in India. There are very
few countries in the world that have variety comparable to that of
India. You would realize that when we would discuss the different
types of crops in detail.

The predominance of food crops: The production of food crops is

the priority of the farmers almost everywhere in the country.

Seasonal patterns: India has three distinct agricultural/cropping

seasons- Kharif, rabi, and Zaid. In India, there are specific crops
grown in these three seasons. For example, rice is a Kharif crop
whereas wheat is a rabi crop.

Challenges for Indian Agriculture

The challenges faced by Indian agriculture can be broadly grouped
into two categories- the long-standing problems and the emerging
issues from the prevailing agricultural practices, system, changing
climate, and economy.

Stagnation in Production of Major Crops: Production of some of

the major staple food crops like rice and wheat has been stagnating
for quite some time. This is a situation that is worrying our agricultural
scientists, planners, and policymakers as it creates a huge gap
between the demand of the ever-growing population and the
production.

High cost of Farm Inputs: Farm inputs include fertilizer, insecticide,

pesticides, HYV seeds, farm labour cost, etc. Such an increase puts
low and medium-land-holding farmers at a disadvantage.
Soil Exhaustion: Green revolution has played a positive role in
reducing hunger in India but has negative consequences also. One of
which is Soil exhaustion which means the loss of nutrients in the soil
from farming the same crop over and over again.

Ground Water depletion: The second negative consequence of the

green revolution is the depletion of fresh groundwater. Most of the
irrigation in dry areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar
Pradesh was carried out by excessive use of groundwater. Today
fresh groundwater situation in these states is alarming.

Global Climatic Change: It has been predicted that climate

change’s impact on Indian agriculture would be immense. It is
predicted that due to climate change, the temperature would
increase, leading to an increase in sea level, more intense cyclones,
unpredictable rainfall, etc. These changes would adversely affect the
production of rice and wheat. Specifically, a rise in temperature in
winter would affect the production of wheat in north India. Production
of rice would be affected in coastal areas of India due to the ingress
of saline water and an increase in the frequency of cyclones.

Impact of Globalisation: All developing countries have been

affected by globalization. The most evident effect is the reduction in
farmers’ income and the threat to the viability of cultivation in India.
This is due to the rising input costs and falling output prices. This
reflects the combination of reduced subsidy and protection to
farmers. Trade liberalization exposes these farmers to competition
from highly subsidized production in the developed world.

Providing Food Security: Before the introduction of the green

revolution in India, we were not self-sufficient in terms of our food
grain production. But last few decades agriculture is not growing with
the increasing population and to ensure food security factors like
accessibility, affordability as well nutritional value of the food
available should be catered to.

Farmers Suicides: The farmer suicides appear concentrated in

regions of high commercialization of Indian agriculture and very high
peasant debt. Cash crop farmers seemed far more vulnerable than
those growing food crops. Commercialization of the countryside
along with a massive decline in investment in agriculture was the
beginning of the decline. Privatization of many resources has also
compounded the problems.
Indian Agriculture: Important Facts
The Economic Survey of India 2020-21 report stated that in FY20:

 The total food grain production in the country was recorded at

296.65 million tonnes (up by 11.44 million tonnes compared with
285.21 million tonnes in FY19).
 The government has set a target to buy 42.74 million tonnes
from the central pool in FY21; this is 10% more than the quantity
purchased in FY20.
 For FY22, the government has set a record target for farmers to
raise food grain production by 2% with 307.31 million tonnes of
food grains.
 In FY21, production was recorded at 303.34 million tonnes
against a target of 301 million tonnes
 Gross Value Added (GVA) by agriculture, forestry, and fishing
was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore in FY20.
 The share of agriculture and allied sectors in GVA of India at
current prices stood at 17.8 % in FY20.
 Consumer spending in India will return to growth in 2021 post
the pandemic-led contraction, expanding by as much as 6.6%.

Agriculture in India
The history of agriculture in India dates back to the neolothic. India ranks second
worldwide in farm outputs. As per 2018, agriculture employed more than 50% of the
Indian work force and contributed 17–18% to country's GDP. [1]
In 2016, agriculture and allied sectors like animal
husbandry, forestry and fisheries accounted for 17.5% of the GDP (gross domestic
product) with about 41.49% of the workforce in 2020. [2][3][4][5] India ranks first in the world
with highest net cropped area followed by US and China. [6] The economic contribution of
agriculture to India's GDP is steadily declining with the country's broad-based economic
growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and plays a
significant role in the overall socio-economic fabric of India.
The total agriculture commodities export was US$3.50 billion in March - June 2020. India
exported $38 billion worth of agricultural products in 2013, making it the seventh largest
agricultural exporter worldwide and the sixth largest net exporter. [7] Most of its agriculture
exports serve developing and least developed nations. [7] Indian agricultural/horticultural
and processed foods are exported to more than 120 countries, primarily to the
Japan, Southeast Asia, SAARC countries, the European Union and the United States.
Definition of farmer[edit]
The Indian government [10]
Indian farmers are people who grow crops. Various government estimates (Census,
Agricultural Census, National Sample Survey assessments, and Periodic Labour Force
Surveys) give a different number of farmers in the country ranging from 37 million to 118
million as per the different definitions.[11] Some definitions take in to account the number of
holdings as compared to the number of farmers.[11] Other definitions take into account
possession of land, while others try to delink land ownership from the definition of a
farmer.[12] Other terms also used include 'cultivator'.[12]
India's National Policy for Farmers 2007 defines farmer as:[13]
For the purpose of this Policy, the term “FARMER” will refer to a person actively engaged
in the economic and/or livelihood activity of growing crops and producing other primary
agricultural commodities and will include all agricultural operational holders, cultivators,
agricultural labourers, sharecroppers, tenants, poultry and livestock rearers, fishers,
beekeepers, gardeners, pastoralists, non-corporate planters and planting labourers, as
well as persons engaged in various farmingrelated occupations such as sericulture,
vermiculture, and agro-forestry. The term will also include tribal families / persons
engaged in shifting cultivation and in the collection, use and sale of timber and non-
timber forest produce.

History
Vedic literature provides some of the earliest written record of agriculture in
India. Rigveda hymns, for example, describes ploughing, fallowing, irrigation, fruit and
vegetable cultivation. Other historical evidence suggests rice and cotton were cultivated
in the Indus Valley, and ploughing patterns from the Bronze Age have been excavated
at Kalibangan in Rajasthan.[29] Bhumivargaha, an Indian Sanskrit text, suggested to be
2500 years old, classifies agricultural land into 12 categories: urvara (fertile), ushara
(barren), maru (desert), aprahata (fallow), shadvala (grassy), pankikala (muddy),
jalaprayah (watery), kachchaha (contiguous to water), sharkara (full of pebbles and
pieces of limestone), sharkaravati (sandy), nadimatruka (watered from a river), and
devamatruka (rainfed). Some archaeologists believe that rice was a domesticated crop
along the banks of the river Ganges in the sixth millennium BC.[30] So were species of
winter cereals (barley, oats, and wheat) and legumes (lentil and chickpea) grown in
northwest India before the sixth millennium BC.[citation needed] Other crops cultivated in India
3000 to 6000 years ago, include sesame, linseed, safflower, mustard, castor, mung
bean, black gram, horse gram, pigeon pea, field pea, grass pea (khesari), fenugreek,
cotton, jujube, grapes, dates, jack fruit, mango, mulberry, and black plum [citation needed]. Indians
might have domesticated buffalo (the river type) 5000 years ago. [31]
According to some scientists agriculture was widespread in the Indian peninsula, 10000–
3000 years ago, well beyond the fertile plains of the north. For example, one study
reports 12 sites in the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka providing clear evidence of agriculture of pulses Vigna
radiata and Macrotyloma uniflorum, millet-grasses (Brachiaria ramosa and Setaria
verticillata), wheats (Triticum dicoccum, Triticum durum/aestivum), barley (Hordeum
vulgare), hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum), finger millet (Eleusine
coracana), cotton (Gossypium sp.), linseed (Linum sp.), as well as gathered fruits
of Ziziphus and two Cucurbitaceae.[32][33]
Some claim Indian agriculture began by 9000 BC as a result of early cultivation of plants,
and domestication of crops.[34] Settled life soon followed with implements and techniques
being developed for agriculture. [35][36] Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped
in one year.[37] Indian products soon reached trading networks and foreign crops were
introduced.[37][38] Plants and animals—considered esses "reeds that produce honey without
bees" being grown. These were locally called साखर, (Sākhara). On their return journey
soldiers carried the "honey bearing reeds," thus
spreading sugar and sugarcane agriculture.[39][40] People in India had invented, by about
500 BC, the process to produce sugar crystals. In the local language, these crystals were
called khanda (खण्ड), which is the source of the word candy.[41]
Before the 18th century, cultivation of sugarcane was largely confined to India. A few
merchants began to trade in sugar – a luxury and an expensive spice in Europe until the
18th century. Sugar became widely popular in 18th-century Europe, then graduated to
become a human necessity in the 19th century all over the world. Sugarcane plantations,
just like cotton farms, became a major driver of large and forced human migrations in the
19th century and early 20th century – of people from Africa and from India, both in
millions – influencing the ethnic mix, political conflicts and cultural evolution of Caribbean,
South American, Indian Ocean and Pacific Island nations. [42][43]
The history and past accomplishments of Indian agriculture thus influenced, in part,
colonialism, slavery and slavery-like indentured labour practices in the new
world, Caribbean wars and world history in 18th and 19th centuries

Horticulture[edit]
The total production and economic value of horticultural produce, such as fruits,
vegetables and nuts has doubled in India over the 10-year period from 2002 to 2012. In
2012, the production from horticulture exceeded grain output for the first time. The total
horticulture produce reached 277.4 million metric tonnes in 2013, making India the
second largest producer of horticultural products after China. [83] Of this, India in 2013
produced 81 million tonnes of fruits, 162 million tonnes of vegetables, 5.7 million tonnes
of spices, 17 million tonnes of nuts and plantation products (cashew, cacao, coconut,
etc.), 1 million tonnes of aromatic horticulture produce and 1.7 million tonnes of flowers
(7.6 billion cut flowers).[84][85]
 Horticultural productivity in India, 2013

Average
Area under Average Area under
vegetable
fruits fruits yield vegetable
yield
Country[86] production (metric production
(metric
(million tonnes per (million
tonnes per
hectares)[86] hectare)[86] hectares)[86]
hectare)[86]

7.0 11.6 9.2 52.36

 India

11.8 11.6 24.6 23.4

 China

1.54 9.1 0.32 39.3

 Spain

 United 1.14 23.3 1.1 32.5

States

World 57.3 11.3 60.0 19.7

During the 2013 fiscal year, India exported horticulture products worth ₹14,365
crore (US$1.8 billion), nearly double the value of its 2010 exports. [83] Along with these
farm-level gains, the losses between farm and consumer increased and are estimated to
range between 51 and 82 million metric tonnes a year.

Agricultural Policy of India –

Explained!
Agricultural policy of a country is mostly designed by the
Government for raising agricultural production and
productivity and also for raising the level of income and
standard of living of farmers within a definite time frame. This
policy is formulated for all round and comprehensive
development of the agricultural sector.
In India, the main objectives of agricultural policy are to
remove the major problems of agricultural sector related to
improper and inefficient uses of natural resources,
predominance of low-value agriculture, poor cost-benefit ratio
of the sectoral activities and insignificant progress of co-
operative farming and other self-help institutions.

Main Objectives:
The following are some of the important objectives of
India’s agricultural policy:
(i) Raising the Productivity of Inputs:
One of the important objectives of India’s agricultural policy is
to improve the productivity of inputs so purchased viz., HYV
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation projects etc.

(ii) Raising Value-Added per Hectare:

Another important objective of country’s agricultural policy is
to increase per hectare value-added rather than raising
physical output by raising the productivity of agriculture in
general and productivity of small and marginal holdings in
particular.

(iii) Protecting the Interest of Poor Farmers:

One of the important objectives of agricultural policy is to
protect the interest of poor and marginal farmers by
abolishing intermediaries through land reforms expanding
institutional credit support to poor farmers etc.

(iv) Modernizing Agricultural Sector:

Modernizing agricultural sector is another important objective
of agricultural policy of the country. Here the policy support
includes introduction of modern technology in agricultural
operations and application of improved agricultural inputs like
HYV seeds, fertilizers etc.

(v) Checking Environmental Degradation:

Agricultural policy of India has set another objective to check
environmental degradation of natural base of Indian
agriculture.

(vi) Agricultural Research and Training:

Another important objective of Indian agricultural policy is to
promote agricultural research and training facilities and to
percolate the fruits of such research among the farmers by
establishing a close linkage between research institutions and
farmers.

(vii) Removing Bureaucratic Obstacles:

The policy has set another objective to remove bureaucratic
obstacles on the farmers Co-operative societies and self help
institutions so that they can work independently.

National Agricultural Policy Document, 2000:

On 28th July, 2000, the NDA Government made public a
National Agriculture Policy envisaging over 4 per cent annual
growth through efficient use of resources and technology and
increased private investment while emphasizing on price
protection to farmers in the WTO regime.

The policy aimed at catapulting agricultural growth to over 4

per cent per annum by 2005. This growth is to be achieved
through a combination of measures including structural,
institutional, agronomic, environmental, economical and tax
reforms.

The policy formulation has been necessitated due to the

relatively poor growth of agriculture experienced during the
1990s. The Policy Document observed, “Capital inadequacy,
lack of infrastructural support and demand side constraints
such as controls on movement, storage and sale of agricultural
products etc. have continued to affect the economic activity of
agricultural sector. Consequently, growth has also tended to
slacken during the 1990s”.

As the agricultural sector ensures the food security and

nutrition to this huge size of population of India and also
supplies huge quantity of raw materials for expanding
industrial base along with creating surplus for exports thus a
fast and equitable reward system for the farming community
along with attaining faster growth rate of the sector should be
the important components of agricultural reforms.

Thus, the National Agricultural Policy (2000) has

taken the following important objectives:
1. Attaining a growth rate above 4.0 per cent per annum in the
agricultural sector;

2. Attaining a growth which is based on efficient use of

resources and also makes provision for conservation of our
soil, water and bio-diversity;

3. Attainment of growth with 4. Attaining a growth that is

demand-driven and cater to the need of domestic markets and
ensuring maximization of benefit from exports of agricultural
products in the face of challenges from economic liberalization
and globalization;

5. Attaining a growth that is sustainable technologically,

environmentally and economically.

Sustainability in Agriculture:
The new policy seeks to introduce economically viable,
technically sound, environmentally non-degrading and non-
hazardous and socially acceptable use of natural resources of
the country for promoting the concept of sustainable
agriculture.

equity, i.e., attaining a growth whose impact would be

widespread across regions and different classes of farmers;

Incentives and Investment in Agriculture:

The policy suggested that the Government should make
adequate efforts for improving the terms of trade for
agriculture along with associated manufacturing sector.
Accordingly, attempts will be made to review and rationalize
the structure of taxes on food grains, other commercial crops
and also excise duty on farm machinery and implements. The
Government has committed to keep agriculture outside
purview of taxes and decided to continue the present regime of
agricultural subsidies.

The, new policy statement accepted the problem of fall in

public sector Policy on Institutional Structure:
The policy gave due emphasis for reforming the
Institutional structure where the approach on rural
development and land reforms will give stress on the
following issues:
1. Consolidation of holdings throughout the country following
the pattern of north western states.

investment in agricultural sector and decided to step up

public investment for narrowing regional imbalances and also
for accelerating development of supportive infrastructure.

In addition to this, private sector investment in agriculture

will be encouraged in some sophisticated areas like
agricultural research, post-harvest management, marketing
and human resource development. Moreover, attempts would
be made for setting up agro-processing units in collaboration
between the producer co-operatives and the corporate sector.

2. Steps for redistribution of ceiling surplus lands and waste-

lands among the landless farmers and unemployed persons.

3. Adopting tenancy reforms for recognizing the rights of

tenants and sharecroppers.

4. Promotion and development of lease markets for raising the

size of holdings by making legal provisions so as to give private
land on lease for cultivation and agro-business purposes.

5. Recognizing the rights of women on land.

6. Making provision for updating and improvement of land

records through computerization and also by issuing land pass
books to all the farmers.
The policy has made arrangement for promotion through
contract farming and land leasing arrangements for allowing
accelerated technology transfer, capital inflow and assured
marketing arrangements for some crops, especially of oilseeds,
cotton and horticultural crops.
As per the 2014 FAO world agriculture statistics India is the world's largest producer of
many fresh fruits like banana, mango, guava, papaya, lemon and vegetables like
chickpea, okra and milk, major spices like chili pepper, ginger, fibrous crops such as jute,
staples such as millets and castor oil seed. India is the second largest producer
of wheat and rice, the world's major food staples.[14]
India is currently the world's second largest producer of several dry fruits, agriculture-
based textile raw materials, roots and tuber crops, pulses,
farmed fish, eggs, coconut, sugarcane and numerous vegetables. India is ranked under
the world's five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items, including
many cash crops such as coffee and cotton, in 2010.[14] India is one of the world's five
largest producers of livestock and poultry meat, with one of the fastest growth rates, as of
2011.[15]
One report from 2008 claimed that India's population is growing faster than its ability to
produce rice and wheat.[16] While other recent studies claim that India can easily feed its
growing population, plus produce wheat and rice for global exports, if it can reduce food
staple spoilage/wastage, improve its infrastructure and raise its farm productivity like
those achieved by other developing countries such as Brazil and China.[17][18]
In fiscal year ending June 2011, with a normal monsoon season, Indian agriculture
accomplished an all-time record production of 85.9 million tonnes of wheat, a 6.4%
increase from a year earlier. Rice output in India hit a new record at 95.3 million tonnes, a
7% increase from the year earlier.[19] Lentils and many other food staples production also
increased year over year. Indian farmers, thus produced about 71 kilograms of wheat
and 80 kilograms of rice for every member of Indian population in 2011. The per capita
supply of rice every year in India is now higher than the per capita consumption of rice
every year in Japan