Crop Management

Under
Stress Conditions
Authors
Dr. Chetan Kumar Jangir
Dr. Kavita Rani
Dr. Atul Parashar

AkiNik Publications
New Delhi
Published By: AkiNik Publications

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Authors: Dr. Chetan Kumar Jangir, Dr. Kavita Rani and Dr. Atul Parashar

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© AkiNik Publications
Edition: 1st
Publication Year: 2021
Pages: 274
ISBN: 978-93-91216-22-1
Book DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/ed.book.1235
Price: ` 695/-
 Contents

S. No. Chapters Pages No.

1. Soil fertility, productivity and integrated nutrient 01-32
management
(Shilpa Paritaand Alpana Paul)
2. Nutrient use efficiency and strategies for crop 33-52
improvement
(Shivani Thakur and Kavita Rani)
3. Problematic soils and their management 53-78
(Abha Sharma, Raveena, Shilpa, Anusha Land Rajveer)
4. Dryland agriculture 79-114
(Anusha L, Raveena, Shilpa and Alpana Paul)
5. Distribution of water logging soils, problems and their 115-140
management
(Raveena, Abha Sharma, Anusha L, Shilpaand Rajveer)
6. Irrigation water management 142-166
(Mohit Kingopa, Anusha L, Raveena, Alpana Paul and
Rajveer)
7. Scientific cultivation of sesamum 167-178
(Surgyan Rundla)
8. Plant genetic resources for sustainable agriculture 179-198
(Manju Kumari, Sushil Chouray and Seema Sheoran)
9. An insight of bioinformatics in agriculture 199-220
(Shweta Kumari, Seema Sheoran and Kavita Rani)
10. Nanotechnology application in soil and crop management 221-260
(Alpana Paul, Babulal Choudhary, Sabyasachi Majumdar
and Kavita Rani)
11. Microbes for growth promotion 261-274
(Kavita Rani, Savita Rani, Atul Parashar, Shweta Kumari
and Leela Wati)
 Chapter - 1
Soil fertility, productivity and integrated nutrient
management

Authors
Shilpa
CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur,
India
Parita
CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur,
India
Alpana Paul
2
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India

Page | 1
Page | 2
 Chapter - 1
Soil fertility, productivity and integrated nutrient
management
Shilpa, Parita and Alpana Paul

Abstract
Soil is an important medium of plant growth and development. It
provides nutrients in an adequate amount. With more and more development,
different types of methods, systems, manures and fertilizers have been
introduced. Now a day, declining soil fertility has become a threat in
agricultural productivity. In this chapter, soil fertility and factors affecting it,
different types of chemical fertilizers, biofertilizers and other methods have
been described to enhance soil fertility. Not only chemical fertilizers but also
organic manure can sustain the productivity of crops. Hence, integrated
management of chemical fertilizer and organic manure are essential for
maintaining soil fertility and sustainability of agricultural productivity.
Keywords: Soil fertility, biofertilizers, productivity, integrated
management, organic manure.
1. Introduction
A productive soil has to be fertile, while a fertile soil may or may not be
productive. A soil is said to be fertile if it contains and can supply all
essential plant nutrients in adequate amounts needed by the growing crop
plants. The quantities of these essential plant nutrients should neither be
deficient nor in toxic amounts. However, for good plant growth and
productivity, conditions needed are: adequate amounts of water and air in
soil. Furthermore, for release of several plant nutrients, a good activity of
many soil microorganisms is also required. Thus, for a soil to be productive
good soil physical and microbiological properties are also needed in addition
to being fertile. Also, a soil to be productive must also be safe from natural
hazards such as floods and associated erosion. Soil fertility is the key to
sustainable agriculture.

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2. Soil fertility and soil productivity
Soil fertility
“Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients
during growth period of the plants, without toxic concentration of any
nutrients” i.e. “the capacity of soil to supply available nutrients to crop”.
Soil productivity
“Soil productivity is ability of soil to produce a particular crop or
sequence of crops under a specified management system” i.e. “the crop
producing capacity of soil”.
Sometimes even if the soil is fertile, they are subjected to drought or
other unsatisfactory growth factors or management practices.
2.1 Types of soil fertility
2.1.1 Inherent fertility: The soil, as a nature of them, contains some
nutrients which is known as inherent fertility. Among the plant
nutrients N, P and K are essential for the normal growth and yield
of crop. The Indian soil contains 0.2 to 0.3% N, 0.03 to 0.3% P
and 0.4 to 0.5% K. The inherent fertility has a limiting factor
from which the fertility is not decreased.
2.1.2 Acquired fertility: The fertility developed by application of
manures and fertilizers, tillage, irrigation etc. is known as
acquired fertility. The acquired fertility has also a limiting factor.
It is found by experiment that the yield does not increase
remarkably by application of additional quantity of fertilizers.
Therefore, it is necessary to apply fertilizer on the basis of
nutrient content of a soil which is estimated by soil testing.
Table 1: Comparison between soil fertility and productivity

S. No. Soil fertility Soil productivity

1. It is considered as an index of It is broader term used to denote crop
available nutrients to plants. yield.
2. It is one of the factors for crop It is the interactions of all the factors.
production, others are water, pests
etc.
3. It can be analyzed in the lab. It can be assessed in the field under
particular climatic conditions.
4. It depends upon physical, It depends upon location, fertility,
chemical and biological factors of climate, physical conditions of soil etc.
soil.

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 5. The fertility of a certain soil is It differs according to the variation in
same in all the climate. climate and location.
6. Soil fertility is vital to productive A fertile soil is not necessarily a
soil. productive soil.

2.3 Indicators for good/fertile soils

2.3.1 Black/dark soils
The black or dark colors of soils is an indicator of good soils (fertile
soils), are reflections of the high amount of organic matter content in the
soils (Jangir et al., 2017, 2019).
Soil organic matter contribute to soil fertility as follows
• Through the process of decomposition and mineralization of
organic matter, the plant nutrients contained in its components are
released into the soil to support plant growth.
• Organic matter is a source of carbon and energy for the soil
microorganisms which are involved in many natural biological
processes in soils.
• Organic matter increases the water retention and storage capacities
of soils, hence increasing the magnitude and extent of plant
available water /soil moisture.
• During the process of decomposition, some of the decomposition
products of soil organic matter are synthesized into humic
compounds, which have high capacities to retain plant nutrients
(ions) in exchangeable forms.
• Organic matter stabilizes soil reaction that it acts as a buffer of soil
pH and other chemical processes and reactions in soils.
• Organic matter contributes to the formation and development of
good soil structure and increases the stability of the soil aggregates
so formed.
2.3.2 The ability of soils to support vigorous plant/crop growth and
high yields without the use of fertilizers and manures
This is an indication of the ability and capacity of soils to supply
adequate quantities of the essential plant nutrients, water and aeration and
other growth factors to the plants for growth and development. The ability
and capacity of soils to furnish the above growth requirements to plants are
attributed to the capacities of the soils to retain large quantities of the
nutrient ions in solution and exchangeable forms and to maintain and sustain
a balanced equilibrium between the ions in the soils (Meena et al., 2018).

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2.3.3 Presence of vigorous growth of specific plants
The presence of vigorous growth of specific plants like solum indicum
and mingurere are also local indicators of soil fertility is a manifestation of
the soils ability to supply sufficient nutrients and water for the above plants
with very high demands for plant nutrients and water (heavy feeders). Also
the growth of the above plants is related to the significant thickness of the
soil layers.
2.3.4 Development of visible cracks by the soils during the dry season
This is an indication of the high content of clays in the soil dominated
by the 2:1 expanding lattice clay minerals like montmorillonite and
vermiculite. These clays expand when wet and contract when dry. The
cracking is due to the differential expansion and contraction in response to
water loss through evaporation. The 2:1 clay mineral are characterized by
high surface charge, hence the ability to retain ions on their surfaces in
exchangeable forms.
2.3.5 Presence/occurrence of friable soils
The friable soils are equivalent to the loam soils, which have the desired
proportions of the clay, sand and silt fractions. The friable soils under natural
conditions have the ideal or optimal characteristics and requirements for
good plant growth and performance. Such characteristics include good water
holding capacities, high or adequate nutrient contents available to plants,
sufficient aeration and the capacities of the soils to positively respond to soil
fertility management practices under intensive crop production.
2.3.6 Ability of the soils to support plant growth during the dry seasons
This is a reflection of the ability of the soils to supply adequate amounts
of water and nutrients to the plants. The adequate or sufficient amounts of
water for plant growth during the dry season is attributed to the high
capacities of the soil to retain and store water in plant available forms and
the pronounced thickness of the soil layers (deep soils).
2.3.6 Presence or occurrence of deep soils
Deep soils are mostly found at the bottom positions of the landscapes or
catchments as a consequence of the depositional phase of soil erosion by
water and gravity. Deep soils vary considerable in texture, structure,
mineralogy and organic matter contents and available plant nutrients. The
characteristics of the soils are determined by the soil erosion episodes.
However, based on their extensive/pronounced thickness (depth), the overall
total moisture (water) and nutrient contents that can be accessible to plants

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are significantly high hence their local characterization/qualification as good
(fertile) soils. These soils are suitable for most crops.
2.4 Indicators for bad or infertile Soils
These bad soils that are soils of low fertility status and productivity are
mostly confined to the summit/top and middle positions on the landscapes or
catchments. However, at the summit and middle positions on the landscapes,
the soils in depressions are exceptional to the above observations.
2.4.1 Poor crop growth, scanty and stunted natural vegetation
This is an indication /reflection of the inadequate supply of plant
nutrients and water by the soils to the plants. The nutrients might be in the
soils in forms not available to plants either due to low moisture contents in
the soils, the nutrients are strongly fixed or retained by the soil components
hence not exchangeable or the nutrients have been converted into insoluble
compounds/substances through various transformations in the soils. Further,
such soils may fail to support plants growth because the soils are naturally
poor or deficient in the essential nutrient elements due to the low contents of
the elements in the parent materials of the soils coupled with low soil
organic matter contents.
2.4.2 Presence or occurrence of light and red colored soils
The above local indicator of low soil fertility (bad soils) is related to the
very low organic matter contents in the soils and significant amounts of Fe
oxides and hydroxides. The high contents of the oxides of Fe in the soils are
due to the high contents of Fe in the parent materials of the soils and
extensive weathering of the soils. These highly weathered soils also have
high contents of the 1:1 clay minerals, oxides of Al and they are extensively
leached. The red and light colors of the soils are due to the high contents of
the oxides of Fe and Al, respectively.
2.4.3 Presence/growth of specific plants
The growth and proliferation of specific and peculiar plants like ndase,
magunguli, kiduha (weeds) etc. and Cyperus rotundus, jangare, mbigiri etc.
plants (weeds) which have the abilities and capacities to withstand various
growth hardships is a reflection of the low fertility and productivity status of
such soils. The above plants mostly weed, have the abilities to extract
nutrients and water from soils deficient in the plant nutrients and water.
Their nutrient and water requirements are not that high as compared to the
other crop plants.

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2.4.4 Presence /occurrence of sandy soils and soils which dry fast
The above local indicator of fertility status of soils is the reflection and
manifestation of the inability of sandy soils to retain (hold) water and plant
nutrients for plant growth and development. The sandy fractions of soils are
dominated by quartz, which is an inert soil component with limited surface
charges and thus very limited capacity to retain water and plant nutrients.
These soils cannot be used for crop production and may be found on all
positions on the landscape/catchments as would be determined by the extent
and magnitude of removal, transportation and deposition of the soil materials
during the erosion process or episodes. The sandy soils are highly weathered
and their physical, chemical and biological attributes to soil fertility are
negative or extremely limited. The soils dry fast or lose water very fast
because the water is easily desorbed from the surfaces through the
application of external forces.
2.4.5 Presence of rocks and stones
This is an indication of the shallowness of the A and B horizons of the
soils. Presence of rocks and stones could be attributed to extensive
weathering of the soils with extensive and intensive erosion, or the soils are
still young hence most of the rocks and stones are yet to be weathered.
Because of the shallowness of the soils, their total water storage and nutrient
contents are very low, and their abilities and capacities to provide
mechanical support and anchorage to plants are limited. The presence of
rocks and stones on the landscapes/catchments are dominant on the top and
middle positions, as a consequence to soil removal and transportation. Areas
dominated by rocks and stones are not suitable for crop production.
2.4.6 Compacted soils
The compaction of soils could be caused by the presence of heavy clays
with significant amounts of Al and Fe oxides and other strong cementing
compounds/materials in soils. Inappropriate tillage practices, like the use of
heavy machinery during various farm activities, continuous cultivation
coupled with preparation of very fine seedbeds and very shallow cultivation
might also give rise to soil compaction. Compacted soils or presence of
compacted soil layers (hard pans) within the A and B horizons, hinder/limit
root growth and extension, drastically limit water movement within the soil,
limit water percolation down the soil profiles and reduce the aeration status
of the soils. Compacted soils are prone to erosion by surface water flow due
to reduced water infiltration and percolation. Compacted and highly
cemented soils may be found at all the positions on the landscape, depending

Page | 8
on the origin and causes of the formation and development of the compacted
soils.
2.4.7 Presence of salts or white parches /spots on the surfaces of soils
This is an indication of the presence of sodic, sodic-saline or saline soils.
The white particles may be deposits of Ca, Mg, Na-chloride, sulphates,
carbonates or bicarbonate. Such soils are dominant in semi-arid and arid
areas. Because of the high salt content, hence the osmotic potential of the
soil solution, such soils can only support the growth of salt tolerant crops.
These soils are mostly found at the bottom of the landscape coupled with
poor drainage.
3. Fertilizers
Any commercial chemical which is added in the soil with intention to
boost up the yields of the crop is known as fertilizer (Meena et al., 2017,
2019). They are industrially manufactured chemicals containing plant
nutrients. Nutrient content is higher in fertilizers than organic manures and
nutrients and nutrients are released almost immediately which are available
to the plants (Kakraliya et al., 2017, 2017a).
3.1 Classification of fertilizers
3.1.1 Straight fertilizers: - Fertilizers which contains only one
primary nutrient.
a) Nitrogenous fertilizers, e.g. Urea (46%), Ammonium sulphate
(20.6%)
b) Phosphatic fertilizers,e.g. SSP (16%), DAP (32%)
c) Potassic fertilizers, e.g. MOP (60%)
3.1.2 Complex fertilizers
Also known as compound fertilizers are made from mixing two or more
of macro-nutrient type fertilizers. They may also be further blended with
elements that provide some of the less-common plant nutrients (known as
secondary or trace nutrients, such as sulfur, calcium and magnesium). Eg:
Diammonium phosphate (18-46-0), mono ammonium phosphate (11-52-0).
3.1.3 Mixed fertilizers
Mixed fertilizers are simply physical mixture of solid fertilizers
materials containing two or more major plant nutrients. It may be made
either at home or factories by mixing the constituent fertilizer in correct
proportion. It is available in market in a particular grade.

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 The fertilizers grade refers to the minimum guarantee of plant nutrients
in terms of total N, available P2O5 and water-soluble potash.
e.g. Grade-1 fertilizers mixture (6-12-0)
Grade-2 fertilizers mixture (10-6-6)
Grade-3 fertilizers mixture (6.6-6.5-6)
Grade-4 fertilizers mixture (9-8-8.0)
Grade-5 fertilizers mixture (8-8-8)
3.2 Types of fertilizers
3.2.1 Nitrogenous fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers are those fertilizers that are sold for their nitrogen
content.
• Nitrogen fertilizer is a compound that is added to plants to stimulate
vegetative growth.
• The nitrogen stimulates chloroplasts in plants, which are
responsible for the process of photosynthesis.
• Plants that do not have enough nitrogen will turn yellow and
eventually perish from lack of food.
3.2.1.1 Classification of nitrogenous fertilizers
Chemical form of Chemical N content
S. No. Fertilizer
fertilizer formula (%)
Anhydrous
NH3 82
+]
ammonia
1. Ammonium [NH4
Ammonium
NH4SO4 20.6
sulphate
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO₃)₂ 15.5
Sodium nitrate NaNO₃ 16
2. Nitrate[NO3]
Ammonium (NH₄)SO₄
35
sulphate nitrate +NH₄NO₃
Ammonium nitrate NH₄NO₃ 35
3. Ammonium+ nitrate
CAN NH₄NO₃+ CaCO₃ 25
Urea CO(NH₂)₂ 46
4. Amide
Calcium cyanamide CaCN₂ 21

3.2.2 Phosphatic fertilizers

 Chemical substances that contain the nutrient element phosphorous
in the form of absorbable phosphate ions or that yield such
phosphate anions after conversion.

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  The raw material of these fertilizers is essentially rock phosphates
from phosphate deposits, phosphate ores and other phosphatic
compounds.
3.2.2.1 Classification of phosphatic fertilizers
1. Classification of phosphate fertilizers based on relative
solubility of phosphate
2. Classification of phosphate fertilizers based on the form in
which orthophosphoric acid and phosphoric acid is combined
with calcium.
1. Based on solubility
a) Water Soluble
b) Water insoluble but citrate soluble phosphorus fertilizers
c) Water and Citrate insoluble phosphorus fertilizers
S. No. Form of phosphorus Fertilizers P2O5

1. Water soluble [Ca(H2PO₄)₂] Single super phosphate 16% P₂O₅

12% S
20% Ca
Double super phosphate 32%
Triple super phosphate 46-48%
2. Citrate soluble [Ca₂H₂(PO₄)₂] Dicalcium phosphate 33-40%
Thomas/ basic slag 14-18%
Rhemania phosphate 23–26%
3. Citrate and water insoluble Rock phosphate 20-30%
[Ca₃(PO₄)₂] Raw bone meal 3-4% N
20-25% P₂O₅

2. Based on the form in which ortho-phosphoric acid and phosphoric

acid is combined with calcium.
a) Ortho phosphate e.g. MAP, DAP, UAP, SSP, Nitro phosphates
b) Polyphosphates e.g. Ammonium poly phosphate, Potassium poly
phosphate
c) Metaphosphates e.g. Ammonium meta phosphate, Potassium meta
phosphate
3.2.3 Potassic fertilizers
• Potassium is a soft, grey metal that reacts vigorously with water and
so is never found in free state.

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 • On exposure to air, it rapidly oxidizes to K2O.
• K2O combines with water, forming highly caustic potassium
hydroxide.
3.2.3.1 Classification of potassic fertilizers
S. No. Forms of Potassium Fertilizers Potassium (%)
In chloride form Muriate of potash (KCl) K₂O = 60
1.
Cl = 46
K₂O = 50
Potassium sulphate
In the Non-Chloride form S = 18
2.
Potash- magnesia K₂O = 25-30
MgO= 10-12

3.3 Fate of fertilizers in soil

3.3.1 Nitrogenous fertilizers
a) Ammonium sulphate [(NH₄)₂SO₄]
• Suitable for soils deficient in sulphur and for salt affected soils.
• Quick-acting fertilizer absorbed on the soil colloids, replacing
calcium.
• It is mainly used in crops like Paddy, sugarcane, tea etc.
The adsorption of NH₄⁺ by soil colloids can be represented as follows

The adsorbed portion is slowly released and is subjected to various fates

It may be directly absorbed by higher plants especially by rice and
potato.
Conversion into nitrites and nitrates by nitrification process under
following reaction:

b) Urea [CO(NH₂)₂]
• Hygroscopic nature

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 • Less acidic in residual effect, compared to ammonium sulphate.
• Also suitable for foliar application.
Reaction
CO(NH₂)₂ + 2H₂O (NH₄)₂CO₃
(NH₄)₂CO₃ NH₄OH+ H₂CO₃
H₂CO₃ H₂O + CO₂
• In the anaerobic soil, ammonium carbonate gets dissociated into
ammonia and carbonate.
• Ammonia either enters into exchange complex of soil or remains in
soil solution
• In the aerobic soil, ammonium ion is oxidized to nitrate form by
certain micro-organism due to nitrification process.
3.3.2 Phosphatic fertilizers
a) Single super phosphate
1. In slightly acid, neutral, calcareous and alkaline soil, dicalcium
phosphate and tricalcium phosphate are formed.
Ca(H2PO4)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 2CaHPO4 + 2H₂CO₃
Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2Ca(HCO3)2 Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H2CO3
2. In acid soils
Ca(H2PO4)2 + Fe2O3 2FePO4 + 2CaHPO4 + H2O
b) Rock phosphate
Rock Phosphate when applied to soil goes through following reaction:
i) [Ca3(PO4)₂]3CaCO3 + 6H2CO3 3Ca(H2PO4)2 +
7CaCO3
ii) [Ca3(PO4)₂]3CaCO3 + 14HNO3 3Ca(H2PO4)2
+7Ca(NO3)2 + H2CO3
3.3.23 Potassic fertilizers
KCl and K₂SO₄
• Both chloride and sulphate forms of potash are soluble in water and
on application to the soil they ionize into K⁺, Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻ ions.
• The released K⁺ ion from the fertilizer gets adsorbed on the soil
colloids and also available to plants.

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 • Based on the chemistry of chloride in the soils, it is concluded that
under acidic soils Cl⁻ ions replace the OH⁻ ions associated with the
free iron oxides and therefore, in such soils, MOP is likely to give a
greater response.
• In alkaline soils, when MOP is applied, the accumulation of Cl⁻
ions creates toxicity to plants.
3.4 Customized fertilizers
Customized fertilizer may also be defined as multi-nutrient carrier
which contains macro and/or micronutrient, whose sources are from
inorganic or organic, which are manufactured through systemic process of
granulation and satisfies crop's nutritional demand, specific to area, soil and
growth stage of plant.
According to FCO, Customized fertilizers is the use of the Fertilizers
Best Management Practices and are generally assumed to maximize crop
yields while minimizing unwanted impacts on the environment & human
health (Kumar et al., 2020). Fertilizer Best Management Practices will make
it easier for farmers, extension agents, crop advisers & researchers, to
exchange their experiences and also to restrict the unwanted nutrient impact
on the ecosystem. Application of customized fertilizer is compatible with
existing farmers system & hence it will be comfortably accepted by the
farmers. Production of customized fertilizers will ensure improved ‘Fertilizer
Use Efficiency’ and will create a new “Virtual” source of nutrients, implying
from the existing quantity of DAP, MOP, Urea, SSP & Ammonium Sulphate
available & consumed in India, the agricultural produce output will increase,
simultaneously the distribution & availability of fertilizer will be better.
Customized fertilizer satisfies crop’s nutritional demand, specific to area,
soil, and growth stage of plant. As the micronutrients are also added with the
granulated NPK fertilizer the plants can absorb the micronutrient along with
macronutrient which prevents nutrient deficiency in plant.
3.4.1 How to arrive at customized fertilizers?
Scientific principles were used as an ultimate guiding factor in deciding
the grades of customized fertilizers. Following procedures were used to
arrive at crop-soil specific customized fertilizer grades (CFG).
• Geo-referencing of chosen area
• Selecting sampling points on appropriate statistical procedure
• Actual sampling of the sites
• Analyzing sampling of the sites

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 • Analyzing soil, plant and water samples for nutrients and some soil
characteristics
• Defining management zones
• Yield targeting in major management zones
• Computing crop removal of nutrients
• Calculating nutrient requirement (amount and ratio)
• Blending of nutrients based on the generated information
Customized fertilizer satisfies crop’s nutritional demand, specific to
area, soil, and growth stage of plant. As the micronutrients are also added
with the granulated NPK fertilizer the plants can absorb the micronutrient
along with macronutrient which prevents nutrient deficiency in plant.
3.5 Slow release fertilizers
Fertilizers which release their nutrient contents at more gradual rates
that permit maximum uptake and utilization of the nutrient while minimizing
losses due to leaching, volatilization or denitrification.
3.5.1 Properties
• Not more than 15% released in 24 hrs
• Not more than 75% released in 28 days
• At least about 75% released at the stated release time.
• Materials releasing nutrients through low solubility due to
complex/high molecular weight chemical structure following
microbial decomposition.
• Materials releasing nutrients through coated surface.
• Materials releasing nutrients through membrane which may or may
not itself be soluble.
• Nutrients releasing materials incorporated into matrix which itself
may be coated.
• Materials releasing nutrients in delayed form due to small surface to
volume ratio.
3.5.2 Types of slow-release fertilizers
3.5.2.1 Condensation products of urea and aldehydes
3.5.2.2 Coated/ Encapsulated controlled- release fertilizers
3.5.2.3 Nitrification and urease inhibitors

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3.5.2.1 Condensation products of urea and aldehydes
S. No. Inhibition
N-Source Common names N content(%)
duration(weeks)
1. Urea Nitamin,Nitroform, 35-40
6-10
Formaldehyde UF,Folocorn
2. Isobutylidene
IBDU 31 10-16
Diurea
3. Triazone N-Sure 28-33 6-10
4. Melamine Nitrazine 50-60 6-12
5. Crotonylidene Crotodur,
34 6-12
Diurea Triabon, CDU

3.5.2.2 Coated/ encapsulated controlled- release fertilizers

S. No. N content Inhibition
N-source Common name
(%) duration(weeks)
1. Polymer sulfur- Polyplus, Poly-S 38-42
6-16
coated urea
2. Sulfur-coated
Enspan, SCU 30-42
urea 4-12

3. Polymer-resin
Polyon, Meister, 38-44
coated urea 8-14
Nutrisphere,Escote
(PRCU)

3.5.2.3 Nitrification and urease inhibitors

1. Nitrification inhibitors
When added to nitrogen fertilizers and applied to soil, delay
transformation of ammonium-ions by slowing down activities of soil
bacteria Nitrosomonas sp. Addition of nitrification inhibitor to nitrogen
fertilizers minimize leaching of nitrogen in the form of nitrate as well as
denitrification losses of N.Nitrification inhibitors not only reduce leaching of
nitrate nitrogen but also show suppression of methane emissions and
reduction of nitrous oxide.e.g. Sodium thiosulphate, ammonium
thiosulphate, dicyandiamide
2. Urease inhibitors
The UI inhibitors inhibit formation of enzyme urease, which is
ubiquitous in surface soils and necessary for transformation of urea to
ammonia, CO2 and H2O. Thus, slowing down rate at which urea hydrolysis
in the soil and preventing or at least depressing transformation of amide-N to
ammonium hydroxide and ammonium. Therefore, use of urease inhibitors

Page | 16
added to urea or to UAN solutions may be able to increase efficiency of
surface applications or applications and to reduce the toxicity of seed-placed
urea (Punia et al., 2020).e.g. Thiophosphoryl triamide, cyclohexyl
phosphoric triamide, phosphoric triamide, hydroquinone
3.6 Methods of fertilizers application
Broadcasting, localized placement and spraying of fertilizer solution on
crops are the three main methods of fertilizer application.
3.6.1 Broadcasting
Broadcasting of fertilizers means the uniform spreading of fertilizer over
the entire field. It proves effective when the roots uniformly permeate the
soil, when heavy doses of nitrogenous and potassic fertilizer are to be
applied, and when citrate soluble phosphatic fertilizers like bone meal and
basic slag are to be applied to the acidic soil (Varma et al., 2017).
Broadcasting of fertilizers should be discouraged due to the following
disadvantages
i) Most of the plant nutrients are assimilated by weeds.
ii) Since fertilizers come in contact with a large volume of soil, most
of the nutrients, especially phosphates, are fixed up.
iii) Nutrients cannot be fully assimilated by the roots of widely spaced
crops.
3.6.2 Localized placement
The localized placement of fertilizers means their application very near
the seed or the plant. Drill placement of fertilizers means the placement of
fertilizers in the soil with the help of drills, which usually have separate seed
box and fertilizers hoppers with drills attached, so that the seed and
fertilizers are put in same furrow. The fertilizers, if placed a little below the
seed, will not harm the seed and the tender roots of the young seeding. Roots
will also develop deeper. Drill application saves the cost of labor.Plough sole
placement of fertilizers means the application of fertilizers in a continuous
band at the bottom of the furrow when the field is being ploughed, with a
furrow turning plough. This method encourages the development of a deeper
root system, because fertilizers have been placed in the moist sub soil where
roots develop.
3.6.3 Band placement
The fertilizer is placed by the side of the crop, either along the row of

Page | 17
crops or in the hill near each plant. This is called Band Placement, where the
fertilizer is placed to one or both the side of the row of the crop plant at a
distance of 2.5 cm to 7.5 cm from it.
3.6.4 Spot placement
This means the placement of fertilizers at the base of each pair of crop
plants.
Advantages of localized placement
i) The fixation of nutrients, especially phosphate, is considerably
reduced because the fertilizers come in minimum contact with the
soil.
ii) The nutrients are near the root hairs which can easily assimilate
them, yet are not injured by the high concentration of fertilizers.
iii) Plough sole placement of fertilizers encourages a deeper root
system because the fertilizer is placed in the moist deeper layers
where roots readily extend to assimilate the nutrients.
iv) In the fertilizers band, the high ion concentration facilitates their
movement in the roots.
v) The residual effect of bands of fertilizer is more than that of the
broadcasted fertilizers.
3.6.5 Spraying of fertilizerssolutions
Dilute solutions of nitrogenous and micro nutrient fertilizers are sprayed
on the crops and leaves readily absorb the nutrient
• Application of fertilizers to foliage of the crop as spray solution is
known as foliar spray of fertilizers.
• It is also called non-root feeding.
• These solutions may be prepared in a low concentration to apply
any one of plant nutrient or a combination of nutrients.
• This method is suitable for application of small quantities of
fertilizers, especially micronutrients.
• Among the nutrients N is most frequently foliarly applied.
• Absorption of N by foliage is more rapid and nearly 80% of the
spray material is absorbed by most of the crops within 24 hours of
application.
• Spray of urea 4-6% solution, is common in many cereals excluding
maize which is very susceptible to foliar injury.

Page | 18
 • Some thick-cuticle leaf fruit crops can also be sprayed with urea
concentration as high as 15-20%.
• Foliar application of urea just before flowering or at flowering
increases grain quality and leaf area duration (LAD).
Foliar application does not result in a great saving of fertilizer, but may
be preferable to soil application when
a) The soil conditions (moisture or uneven topography) or a
competitive crop makes nutrients from soil dressings unavailable,
like late application of nitrogen to crops raised under rainfed
conditions;
b) An accurately timed response to fertilizers is required, e.g., changes
in the season or higher fertilizer economy is desired;
c) Routine applications are made of insecticidal or herbicidal sprays to
which nutrients can be added.
d) The growth of the crop prevents application of fertilizers to the soil
but permits its application to the leaves from a high clearance
sprayer or from a helicopter.
3.7 Limitation/difficulties associated with the foliar application of
nutrients
i) Marginal leaf burn or scorching may occur if strong solution is
used.
ii) As solutions of low concentrations (usually 3-6%) are to be used,
only small quantities of nutrients can be applied in one single spray.
iii) Several applications are needed for moderate to high fertilizer rates,
and hence
iv) Foliar spraying of fertilizers is costly compared to soil application,
unless combined with other spraying operations taken up for weeds,
insect or disease control.
4. Integrated nutrient management
• INM also known as Integrated Plant Nutrient Management System
(IPNS).
• It is a system which aims at improving and maintaining soil health
to sustain the desired crop productivity involving: combined use of
chemical fertilizers, organic manures/wastes, coupled with inputs
through biological processes (Kumar et al., 2017; Sharma et al.,
2020).

Page | 19
4.1 Concept
1. The recent energy crises, high fertilizer cost and low purchasing
power of the farming community have made it necessary to rethink
alternatives.
2. Increasing nutrient - consumption gap: According to nutrient
balance sheet, total removal of nutrients by crops in a year is 32
million tonnes and nutrients added through different sources i.e.
chemical fertilizers, organic manures (FYM, compost,
vermicompost) etc. accounts for 25 million tonnes and thus nutrient
consumption gap is increasing day by day.
3. Long term and imbalance use of chemical fertilizers cause multi-
nutrient deficiencies, decline in soil productivity and environment
pollution i.e. leaching of nitrate into groundwater, depletion of
ozone layer due to N2O. According to Dr. Swaminathan, father of
Green revolution in 1968 said that indiscriminate use of chemical
fertilizers for long run can cause adverse change in biological
balance to lead to increased incidences of cancer, tumor and other
diseases through the toxic residues present in the grains. It may lead
us into an era of agriculture disaster rather than to an era of
agriculture prosperity
4. Multi nutrient deficiencies
5. The increased cropping intensity and changes in crop sequences
e.g. cereal-cereal rotation as compare to cereal-legume rotation
reduce soil fertility by excessive removal of nutrients from soil as
compared to nutrient addition which legume crop do.
6. No single source of plant nutrients be it chemical fertilizers,
organic manures, crop residues, green manure or even biofertilizers
can meet the nutritional needs of crops in modern agriculture. So,
by combining organic and inorganic sources of nutrients have
proved superior.
7. Dark side of the Green revolution: - Main concept behind the
origin of INM is darker side of green revolution. All the above
points to be discussed are the consequences of green revolution.
Due to it farmer has lost its traditional seeds, soil health has
deteriorated, cost of input has increased i.e. now need 300 kg urea
per hectare compared to 31 kg initially. Land is losing its fertility
and is demanding more and more quantities of fertilizers and if

Page | 20
 yield is less, finally farmer indebted and commit suicide (Meena et
al., 2016; Rani et al., 2020).
4.2 Objectives
➢ To reduce the inorganic fertilizer requirement.
➢ Encouragement of the judicious use of chemical fertilizers, green
leaf manures and bio-fertilizers for higher productivity.
➢ To enhance nutrient use efficiency.
➢ To enhance and sustain soil health.
➢ To restore organic matter in soil.
➢ Creation of positive nutrient balance in soil.
➢ Environmentally safe and eco-friendly sustainable agriculture to use
all available pollution free sources of plant nutrients (Bajiya et al.,
2017).
➢ To increase farm income.
4.3 Components of INM
4.3.1 FYM:- FYM is one of the oldest manure used by the farmers in
growing crops because of its easy availability and presence of all
the nutrients required by the plants. Farmyard manure refers to
the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along
with their litter and left over material from roughages or fodder
fed to the cattle. FYM is one of the components of INM as it a
cheap and easily available source of organic nutrients.
Nutritional Status of FYM
Nitrogen 0.5
Phosphorus 0.25
Potassium 0.4
Sodium 0.08
Sulphur 0.02
Zinc 0.004
Copper 0.0003
Manganese 0.007
Iron 0.45
4.3.2 Compost:-It is a manure derived from decomposed plant residues

Page | 21
 usually made by fermenting waste plant materials heaped or put
in a pit usually in alternate layers with a view to bring the plant
nutrients in a more readily available form.
Nutritional status of compost
Nitrogen- 0.5
Phosphorus- 0.15
Potassium- 0.5
4.3.3 Vermicompost: - Vermicompost is stable, fine granular organic
manure, which enriches soil quality by improving its
physicochemical and biological properties. It is highly useful in
raising seedlings and for crop production. Vermicompost is
becoming popular as a major component of Integrated farming
system.
Nutritional status of vermicompost
Nitrogen- 3%
Phosphorus- 1%
Potassium- 1.5%
4.3.4 Green manure:- Green un-decomposed plant material used as
manure is called green manure. It is obtained in two ways: by
growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf (along
with twigs) from plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and
forest. Green manuring crop is growing in the field plants usually
belonging to leguminous family and incorporating into the soil
after sufficient growth. The plants that are grown for green
manure are known as green manure crops. e.g. sunhemp,
dhaincha, pillipesara, clusterbeans and Sesbania rostrata.
Investigations at CRRI, Cuttack revealed that Sesbania aculeata
and Sesbania rostrata grown for 45 days accumulated 17.5 and
18.8 t /ha green matter and contributed 60 and 61 kg N/ha
respectively. Pruning of Sesbania rostrata planted as hedge rows
provides 3-4 t/ha dry matter and after decomposition, it releases
an average of 70 kg N/ha.
4.3.5 Crop residue
On an average 25% N and P, 50% S & 75% K is retained in cereal
residues. Direct application of crop residues with wide C/N ratio many a

Page | 22
times immobilizes all the available nutrients, particularly N and P.Convert
all available biomass on the farm into compost instead of burning or wasting
it.
4.3.6 Chemical fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers are and will remain the major and most important
component of INM system as these contribute about 50% to the increase in
food grain production. These are rich in nutrients and required in less
quantity to supply nutrients as compared to organic manures. But continuous
use of chemical fertilizers deteriorates the soil conditions. Therefore,
chemical fertilizers should be accompanied by organic/biofertilizers.
4.3.7 Bio-fertilizers
Preparation containing live microbes which helps in enhancing the soil
fertility either by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, solubilization of phosphorus
or decomposing organic wastes or by augmenting plant growth by producing
growth hormones with their biological activities (Jangir et al., 2016).
• The nitrogen cycle is more complex than other biogeochemical
cycles because most organisms cannot use the nitrogen found in the
atmosphere - even though almost 80% of the air is nitrogen.
• In order for plants and humans to get the nitrogen they need; the
nitrogen must be converted into ammonia - NH3.
The conversion of this atmospheric nitrogen to the usable form of
ammonia is known as Nitrogen Fixation.
4.3.7.1 Nitrogen fixation is of two types
1. Non-biological
2. Biological
a) Symbiotic
b) Non-symbiotic
1. Non- biological
• It is brought about by ionizing phenomena such as cosmic
radiations, lightning, thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions etc.
• This provides high energy for breaking N≡N & also for the
formation of free N₂ with oxygen or hydrogen (H₂0).
2. Biological nitrogen fixation
• Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by the German

Page | 23
 agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and Dutch microbiologist
Martinus Beijerinck.
• Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) occurs when atmospheric
nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an enzyme called nitrogenase.
• BNF is mostly accomplished by microorganisms called
diazotrophs or N₂-fixers.
4.3.7.2 Two types of nitrogen fixation
a) Non- symbiotic
• Fixation is carried out by free living microorganism.
• They inhabit both terrestrial and aquatic habitat.
• They can be aerobic, anaerobic.
E.g. Free living aerobics :- Azotobactor, Beijerenckia
• Free living anaerobic :- Clostridium
• Free living photosynthetic :- Chlorobium, Rhodopseudomonas
• Free living chemosynthetic :- Desulfovibro, Thiobacillus
b) Symbiotic fixation
• Fixation of free nitrogen by micro-organisms living in soil
symbiotically inside the plants (Meena et al., 2020).
• ‘Symbiosis’ – coined by DeBary.
• Three categories
1. Nodule formation in leguminous plants
2. Nodule formation in non-leguminous plants
3. Non nodulation
Biochemistry of nitrogen fixation
• N₂ fixers utilizes atmospheric nitrogen to synthesize NH₃.
• N-fixing bacteria fix 60% of nitrogen gas.
• In this process, N₂ is first split up into free N₂ atoms by breaking the
triple bond, with the help of enzyme Nitrogenase.
• This process is endergonic (energy consuming), it requires an input
of nearly 160 Kcal energy.
• Free nitrogen combines with hydrogen forming NH₃.
• This reaction is exergonic (energy releasing).

Page | 24
 • Mediated by enzyme hydrogenase and it releases nearly 13 Kcal
energy
• BNF requires a net input of 147 Kcal energy and an expenditure of
nearly 16 moles of ATP per each molecule of Nitrogen.
N2+16ATP+8H+8 e− 2NH₃+H₂+16ADP+16Pi
Nitrogen return to the soil and other crops
The amount of nitrogen returned to the soil during or after a legume
crop can be misleading. Almost all of the nitrogen fixed goes directly into
the plant. Little leaks into the soil for a neighboring non-legume plant.
However, nitrogen eventually returns to the soil for a neighboring plant
when vegetation (roots, leaves, fruits) of the legume die and decompose.
When the grain from a grain legume crop is harvested, little nitrogen is
returned for the following crop. Most of the nitrogen fixed during the season
is removed from the field. The stalks, leaves, and roots of grain legumes
such as soybeans and beans contain about the same concentration of nitrogen
as found in non-legume crop residue. In fact, the residue from a corn crop
contains more nitrogen than the residue from a bean crop, simply because
the corn crop has more residue. A perennial or forage legume crop only adds
significant nitrogen for the following crop if the entire biomass (stems,
leaves, roots) is incorporated into the soil. If a forage is cut and removed
from the field, most of the nitrogen fixed by the forage is removed. Roots
and crowns add little soil nitrogen, compared to the above ground biomass.

Page | 25
Biofertilizers

Pseudomonas Aspergillus, Penicillium

Azolla nilotica, BGA
NBF for sugar crops
Acetobacter
S. No. Biofertilizer Contribution Benefits
1. Rhizobium Symbiotic in nature, fix 50- Pulses:- Cowpea,
100 kg N/ha with legumes Greengram, blackgram,
only, in market- Jahawar pea.
culture, Nitrogen R-H, Moti Oilseeds:- Groundnut,
Rhizobium. soybean.
Fodder legumes:-
Berseem, Lucerne.
2. Azotobacter Non- symbiotic in nature and Mustard, sunflower,
free living, fix 20-40 kg N/ha, banana, sugarcane, rice,
in market- Nitrone A-Z, 10- millets, maize
15% increase in yield.
3. Azospirillum Non- Symbiotic in nature, fix Rice, sugarcane, finger
20-40 kg N/ha in cereals, millet, wheat, sorghum
increase minerals and water etc.
uptake.
4. Acetobacter Recently added microbial Sugarcane
inoculants for nitrogen
mobilization in Sugarcane

Page | 26
 crop.
5. Azolla Symbiotic in nature Flooded rice
(Anabeana azollae).Fix 40-80
Kg N/ha.
6. BGA/ Submerged rice
Cyanobacteria
7. Phosphate PSB on reaching the soil get Paddy,wheat, cotton,
Solubilizing activated and multiply on maize,
Micro-organism carbon source and secrete barley,sorghum,oat,
organic acids which convert sugarcane.
non available form into
available form there by gain
of 40-50 kg P₂O₅/ha.
8. Mycorrhiza A Mycorrhiza is an infected Enhance uptake of P, Zn,
root system arising from the S, Cu and water.
rootlets of a seed plant.
Mycorrhizae are fungi that
form symbiotic association of
a fungus with the roots of a
higher plant (Jakhar et al.,
2018).

4.4 Benefits of INM

 Enhances the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrients.
 Synchronizes the nutrient demand of crop with nutrient supply from
soil and applied sources.
 Provides balanced nutrition to crops and minimizes the antagonistic
effects resulting from hidden deficiencies and nutrient imbalance.
 It sustain and enhance the chemical, biological and physical soil
health.
 It arrests degradation of soil, water and environment quality by
promoting or minimizing the avoidable leakages of fertilizers
nutrients to water bodies and atmosphere.
1. Conclusion
Soil Fertility and Soil Productivity are two important terms. If soil is
productive, it will yield more and vice-versa. Continued use of inorganic
fertilizers is deteriorating soil health and so there is need for balanced
nutrient supply. Timely application of all essential plant nutrients (which
include primary, secondary and micronutrients) in readily available form, in
optimum quantities and in the right proportion, through the correct method,
suitable for specific soil/crop conditions helpful in improving soil fertility
and productivity. Balanced use aims at ensuring adequate availability of

Page | 27
nutrients in soil to meet the requirement of plants at critical stages of growth.
Soil Fertility and Soil Productivity are two important terms. If soil is
productive, it will yield more and vice-versa. Continued use of inorganic
fertilizers is deteriorating soil health and so there is need for balanced
nutrient supply. Timely application of all essential plant nutrients (which
include primary, secondary and micronutrients) in readily available form, in
optimum quantities and in the right proportion, through the correct method,
suitable for specific soil/crop conditions helpful in improving soil fertility
and productivity. Balanced use aims at ensuring adequate availability of
nutrients in soil to meet the requirement of plants at critical stages of growth.
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Page | 32
 Chapter - 2
Nutrient use efficiency and strategies for crop
improvement

Authors
Shivani Thakur
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India
Kavita Rani
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India

Page | 33
Page | 34
 Chapter - 2
Nutrient use efficiency and strategies for crop improvement
Shivani Thakur and Kavita Rani

Abstract
With increase in population, demand for food, fiber and fuel is also
increasing. Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is a very important concept in the
evaluation of crop production systems. All the essential plant nutrients play a
vital role in plant growth and development. Most of the population depends
on fertilizers for food supply. More than 90% of the fertilizers are consumed
by the cereals mainly wheat, maize and rice. Less use of fertilizers leads to
low yield and more use of fertilizers leads to soil, water and environmental
pollution. The main point of consideration is that the response of applied
fertilizers and their use efficiency to get the maximum output. There must be
a balance between optimal nutrient use efficiency and optimal crop
productivity. Hence there is a need to understand the best soil and water
management practices which helps in increasing nutrient use efficiency and
yield by using less fertilizers so that the goal of sustainable agriculture can
be achieved. Nutrient use efficiency can be optimized by fertilizer best
management practices (BMPs) that apply nutrients at the right rate, time and
place and accompanied by the right agronomic practices. Best management
practices can be defined as actions applied to resources which have been
demonstrated through research to provide the best-known combination of
economic, social, and environmental performance, the three pillars of
sustainability. For plant nutrients, BMPs are the in-field manifestation of the
Four Rights (4Rs), application of the right nutrient source, at the right rate, in
the right place, and at the right time. To truly be “right” they must be site-
specific for the crop, field, and often for the zone within the field.
Keywords: Nutrient use efficiency, best management practices.
1. Introduction
In modern agriculture use of essential plant nutrients in crop production
is very important to increase productivity and maintain sustainability of the
cropping system (Kakraliya et al., 2018). Fertilizers are one of the most

Page | 35
important and costly inputs applied to supplement nutrient requirement of
the crop. When a fertilizer is applied all of its nutrient(s) are not absorbed by
the crop. Only a fraction of the nutrient(s) is utilized by the crop. Large part
of the applied nutrients is lost in the soil-plant system that reduces its
efficiency. Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is a critically important concept in
the evaluation of crop production systems (Meena et al., 2016). It can be
greatly impacted by fertilizer management as well as by soil and plant-water
management. The objective of nutrient use is to increase the overall
performance of cropping systems by providing economically optimum
nourishment to the crop while minimizing nutrient losses from the field. Site
specific nutrient management (SSNM) is a component of precision
agriculture improves nutrient-use efficiency and provides greater returns on
investments in fertilizer. It provides an approach for need based feeding of
crops with nutrients while recognizing the inherent spatial variability.
Excessive and misuse of fertilizers causes adverse effects on environment.
2. Efficiency
Efficiency in any system is an expression of obtainable output with the
addition of unit amount of input. Fertilizer use efficiency is the output of any
crop per unit of the nutrient applied under a specified set of soil and climatic
conditions (Kakraliya et al., 2017, 2017a).
2.1 Mosier et al. (2004) described four agronomic indices to describe
NUE:
2.1.1 Partial factor productivity (PFP, kg crop yield per kg input
applied)
2.1.2 Agronomic efficiency (AE, kg crop yield increased per kg
nutrient applied)
2.1.3 Apparent recovery efficiency (RE, kg nutrient taken up per kg
nutrient applied)
2.1.4 Physiological efficiency (PE, kg yield increase per kg nutrient
taken up)
2.1.5 Crop removal efficiency (removal of nutrient in harvested crop
as% of nutrient applied) is also commonly used to explain nutrient
efficiency.
The partial factor productivity (PFP) from applied nutrients is a useful
measure of nutrient use efficiency because it provides an integrative index
that quantifies total economic output relative to utilization of all nutrient
resources in the system. For a given yield level, optimum factor productivity

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from applied nutrients is achieved when the use of indigenous soil nutrients
is maximum and the efficiency of applied nutrients in producing economic
yield is high. In the long term, specification of optimum factor productivity
must also consider nutrient balance so that the depletion of nutrient stocks
below critical threshold levels does not lead to increased requirements for
applied nutrients to maintain yield levels (Kumar et al., 2020; Rani et al.,
2020; Punia et al., 2020).
2.2 Nutrient recovery (NR) refers to the actual amount of nutrient
taken up from the fertilizers. NR could be best known through isotopic
studies. For practical purposes, however, it is worked out as follows: the NR
exhibits a diminishing trend with the increasing amounts of nutrients.
Agronomists usually express the efficiency of fertilizer nutrient in kg of
grain yield produced kg-l of applied nutrient is called agronomic efficiency
(AE). It refers to the additional produce obtained in kg per kg of an applied
nutrient.
Physiologists, define the efficiency of nutrient utilization in kg of grain
yield produced kg-l of nutrient absorbed (Physiological efficiency).
Nutrient Use Efficiency of different Nutrients
Nutrient Efficiency (%) Cause of Low efficiency
Immobilization, volatilization, denitrification,
Nitrogen 30-50
leaching
Phosphorus 15-20 Fixation in soils Al-P, Fe-P, Ca-P
Potassium 70-80 Fixation in clay -lattices
Sulphur 8-10 Immobilization, leaching

Enhancing fertilizer use efficiency:

To increase the fertilizer use efficiency the nutrient must be available at
the time of its requirement by the crop, in right form and quantity. On
application, occurrence of certain inevitable/evitable losses of nutrients that
reduce the efficiency. The losses are due to: leaching, volatilization,
immobilization, chemical reaction between various components in the
mixture, change in capacity to supply nutrients. Each component of loss can
be reduced to a great extent by management of the soil-fertilizer-crop
system. The following are the measures to improve FUE:
• Best source of fertilizer
• Adequate rate of fertilizer
• Proper method of fertilizer application

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 • Right time of fertilizer application
• Balanced fertilization
• Integrated nutrient management
How much: Inorganic source is a supplement to other sources of
nutrients. Among other sources, the most important one is soil source.
Availability of nutrients from soil and fertilizer sources can be estimated
from field experiments involving response to fertilizers and tracer techniques
(using radio-active isotopes).
What and which (Type of fertilizer): Fertilizers vary with respect to
their solubility besides their grade. Choice of fertilizer is location specific
and needs to be found out by field experimentation. The choice is more with
respect to nitrogen and phosphatic fertilizers than for potassic. Studies on
crop response is also more for N than for P or K fertilizers because leaching
loss is more in nitrogenous fertilizer and its residual effect is nil or
negligible. In case of P, its indirect, residual and cumulative effects are more
important. Nitrogen in form of NO3- is subject to more leaching. Leaching
loss is also more in wet (kharif) than in summer and in sandy soils than in
clayey soils. Losses can be minimized by choosing suitable time and method
of application.
When to apply: It necessarily means time of application. The objective
of time of application is to get maximum benefit from the fertilizer nutrient.
If the nutrient is applied too earlier than the time of requirement, it is lost in
different ways or is absorbed more than required. If applied late it is either
not absorbed or if absorbed not utilized for the purpose and only gets
accumulated in plant parts. Some amendments need to be applied before
commencement of crop season so that it reacts well with the soil and
becomes available to the crop after sowing/planting (Example - application
of press mud, other liming materials, bone-meal, etc.).
Where to apply (placements): The objective of placement of fertilizer is
to make the nutrient available easily to the crop. It should be near to the
roots. Application may be surface broadcast, at furrow bottom, placed deep
at or slightly below the root zone, top dressed, side dressed or to foliage.
This depends on type of crop, rooting pattern, feeding area and ease of
application. The choice of method of application depends on soil-crop-
fertilizer interaction too.
Other considerations
• Proper control of pests and diseases is must for realizing maximum
effectiveness from fertilizers.

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• Weeds, if not controlled effectively particularly during early stages
(7-21 days) of crop growth in kharif season, take away about 25 to
30 per cent of the applied plant nutrients. Therefore, the weed
control, particularly during early stages of crop growth is essential.
• When the soils are acidic or saline or alkali, appropriate
amendments viz. lime, gypsum etc. should be applied before using
fertilizers. In alkali soils 3 to 5 tonnes of gypsum per acre (8 to 12
t/ha) should be applied broadcast only once and mixed with the top
10 cm of the soil layer.
• Rock phosphates can be profitably used in acid soils and in low
land rice and legumes.
• Deficiency of Zn is becoming increasingly widespread. In such
cases 25-50 kg zinc sulphate should be applied through soil as basal
application. If symptoms of zinc deficiency appear in standing crop,
it should be sprayed with 0.3 to 0.5 per cent solution of zinc
sulphate mixed with 0.3 percent solution of lime for quick recovery
(Meena et al., 2019).
• Under adverse soil and climatic conditions e.g. light permeable
soils, rainfed conditions or where the crop is grown under deep
standing water, application of fertilizers (particularly N) through
foliage along with insecticides and pesticides (if needed will lead to
higher utilization efficiency by plants.
• For rice crop, wherever possible, mix urea with available
nitrification inhibitors such as neem cake and karanj cake (1 kg of
cake blend with 5 kg of urea). This will reduce N losses from the
soil. Curing urea with soil for top-dressing reduces N loss. Mixing
one part of urea with 5 to 10 parts of moist soil thoroughly and
keeping it for 24 hours can cure urea for its better efficiency.
• Fertilizer recommendations should preferably be based on crop
sequence for multiple cropping. Application of FYM and phosphate
should preferably be made in wet and dry season, respectively.
Intercropping with green gram, blackgram, soybean, onion and
groundnut prove highly remunerative in wide row crops like cotton
and red gram as compared to pure crop stand and need no extra
fertilizers.
• Balanced fertilization should be practiced based on the soil test.
• To the extent possible, using just enough water at different
physiological growth stages as recommended for the crop being

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 grown controls irrigation rate. It is better to give priority to irrigated
fields as compared to un-irrigated fields/crops as irrigated crops
respond better to fertilizers (Gupta and Kumar, 2019).
• The introduction of leguminous crops in diverse rotational and
inter-cropping sequence and use of bacterial and algal cultures play
a very important role in meeting the fertilizer need of the crop.
• To the extent possible, green manuring with daincha (Sesbania
aculeata) or sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) should be practiced in
low land paddy cultivation.
• For the compost made from straw and leaves having wide C:N
ratio, add small quantity of N to increase N availability to young
crop. Incorporation of finely ground rock phosphate or super
phosphate with organic manures will make the manure more
balanced (Jangir et al., 2019).
• It is desirable to properly conserve and use organic waste. They
should be incorporated 3- 4 weeks before sowing the crop. It is
preferable to apply FYM in kharif.
• Ensure proper plant spacing.
• Plant/sow the crop timely to get maximum benefit from fertilizers.
• Higher yielding varieties should be preferred over local varieties.
Most responsive and best-suited crops should be selected to get
maximum benefits of the limited quantity of fertilizers.
3. Concept of fertilizer use in cropping system
Designing fertilizer schedule for intensive cropping is more complex
because the residual fertilizer effect may be accounted. It may benefit certain
crops in the cropping system. Legume effect to be accounted, due to
decaying nodules, some amount of nutrients is released; accordingly, the
fertilizer must be rescheduled. Competitive and exhaustive effect also to be
accounted e.g. cotton removes more of phosphorus. Contribution from the
stubbles and residues of previous crops/component crops is to be considered.
When we design a fertilizer schedule based on cropping system, there is a
possibility of reducing the fertilizer doses. The efficient fertilizer
management is possible by nutrient requirement of various component crops
should be known. The sum of the nutrient requirement of various crops is the
total nutrient requirement of the system. Response of crops to various
nutrient application. Some crops may respond to a particular nutrient, but not
the other crops for the same nutrient e.g. pulse respond to phosphorus,

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millets, cereals respond to nitrogen and nuts, tubers and oilseeds to
potassium.
Integrated nutrient for the cropping system by accounting the soil
contribution and involving organic forms like FYM, compost and residue
contribution, inorganic forms and biofertilizers like azospirillum for cereals,
millets, cotton, sugarcane and rhizobium for legumes and phosphobacteria
for mobilizing the phosphorus (Jangir et al., 2016, 2017).
3.1 Effects of fertilizer
Direct effect: An effect of organic manure, fertilizer, pesticide, or
growth hormone on growth, development and yield of crop with in the
cropping season.
Residual effect: An effect of the remains/residues of the organic
manures, fertilizers, pesticides, or growth hormones on growth, development
and yield of the next crop/cropping season.
Cumulative effect: Effect owing to increasing or growing by
accumulation or successive additions of fertilizers or manures.
3.2 Types of cropping system
3.2.1 Intercropping system
The amount of nutrients present in the component crops indicates the
requirement of fertilizers for the intercropping system. The nutrient uptake is
generally more in intercropping system compared to pure crops. When
legumes are associated with cereal crop in intercropping system, a portion of
nitrogen requirement of cereal is supplemented by the legume. The amount
may be as small as a few kilograms to 20 kg/ha. Application of higher dose
of nitrogen to the cereal plus legume intercropping system not only reduces
the nitrogen fixation capacity of legume, but also growth of legume is
suppressed by aggressive cereals owing to fast growth of cereals with
increased availability of nitrogen (Kumar et al., 2017,2017a; Jakhar et al.,
2018). Cereal plus legume intercropping, is therefore; mainly advantageous
under low fertilizer application.
The nitrogen dose recommended for base crop as pure crop is sufficient
for intercropping system with cereals plus legume. With regard to
phosphorus and potassium, one-eighth to one-fourth of the recommended
dose of intercrop is also added in addition to recommended dose of base crop
to meet the extra demand. Basal dose of nitrogen is applied to rows of both
components in cereals plus legume intercrop system. Top dressing of
nitrogen is done only to cereal rows. Phosphorus and potassium are applied
as basal dose to both crops.

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3.2.2 Sequential cropping system
Determining the fertilizer schedule is complex in sequential cropping
system as several factors have to be considered. The important factors are:
soil supplying power, total uptake by crops, residual effect of fertilizers,
nutrients added by legume crop, crop residues left on the soil and efficiency
of crops in utilizing the soil and applied nutrients.
Soil supplying power
Soil contribution to the crops should be known before deciding on the
quantum of fertilizer application. The soil nutrient status, estimated by soil
analysis at the beginning of the season is altered by growing different crops
during different seasons. The soil supplying power increases with legume in
rotation, fertilizer application and addition of crop residues.
Nutrient uptake by crops
The total amount of nutrients taken by the crops in one sequence gives
an indication of the fertilizer requirement of the system. Balance sheet
approach is followed to know whether the amount of fertilizers applied is
equal, more or less to the total uptake of nutrients by different crops in the
system. The balance is obtained by subtracting the fertilizer applied to crops
in the system from the nutrients taken up by the crop.
3.3 Residual effect of fertilizers
The extent of residues left over in the soil depends on the type of
fertilizer used. Because of their mobility and solubility, nitrogenous
fertilizers leave no residues after the crop is harvested. The residues left by
potassium fertilizers are marginal. Phosphatic fertilizers and farmyard
manure leave considerable residue in the soil which is useful for subsequent
crops. Farmyard manure applied to the previous crops use only 50% of its
nutrients and rest are available for subsequent crops.
3.3.1 Legume effect
Legumes add nitrogen to the soil in the range of 15 to 120 kg N/ha. The
amount of nitrogen added depends on the crop and also on the purpose for
which it is grown. Green gram grown for grain contributes 15 to 20 kg N/ha
to the succeeding crop. Cowpea grown for grain and fodder contributes 24
and 30 kg N/ha, respectively to the succeeding crop.
3.3.2 Crop residues
Crop residues add considerable quantity of nutrients to the soil. Cotton
planted in finger millet stubbles benefits by 20 to 30 kg N/ha due to

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decomposition of finger millet stubbles. Deep rooted crops like cotton and
red gram absorb phosphorus and other nutrients from deeper layers. Leaf fall
and its subsequent decomposition add phosphorus to the top layers. Crop
residues containing high C: N ratio like stubble of sorghum and pearl millet
temporarily immobilize nitrogen. Residues of leguminous crops contain low
C: N ratio and, they decompose quickly and release nutrients
Fertilizer recommendation should be made to the cropping system
considering all the above factors. For example, in wheat based cropping
systems, an extra dose of 25% nitrogen is recommended for wheat when it is
grown after sorghum or pearl millet. When phosphatic fertilizers are added
to green manure crop, there is no necessity to apply phosphorus to
succeeding wheat crop. In rice-wheat cropping system, recommended dose
of nitrogen of crops has to be applied. Thus, lot of fertilizer can be saved by
following system approach in fertilizer recommendation.
4. Site specific nutrient management (SSNM)
Fertilizer application recommendations are often based on crop response
data averaged over large areas. Farmer’s fields show large variability in
terms of nutrient-supplying capacity and crop response to nutrients. Thus,
blanket fertilizer application recommendations may lead farmers to over-
fertilize in some areas and under-fertilize in others, or apply an improper
balance of nutrients for their soil or crop.
Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) is a component of precision
agriculture. It provides an approach for need based feeding of crops with
nutrients while recognizing the inherent spatial variability. It avoids
indiscriminate use of fertilizers and enables the farmer to dynamically adjust
the fertilizer use to fill the deficit optimally between nutrient needs of the
crop variety and nutrient supply from natural resources, organic sources,
irrigation water etc.
Importance
• Optimizes the supply of soil nutrients over space and time to match
crop requirements.
• Increases crop productivity and improves efficiency of fertilizer
use.
• Mitigates greenhouse gases from agriculture in areas with high
nitrogen fertilizer use.
• Provides guidance relevant to the context of farmer’s fields.

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4.1 Principles of SSNM
The principles, called the “4 R’s” are:
• Right rate
• Right time
• Right product
• Right place
Right rate: Match the quantity of fertilizer applied to crop needs, taking
into account the current supply of nutrients in the soil. Too much fertilizer
leads to environmental losses, including runoff, leaching and gaseous
emissions, as well as wasting money. Too little fertilizer exhausts soils,
leading to soil degradation.
Right product: Match the fertilizer product or nutrient source to crop
needs and soil type to ensure balanced supply of nutrients.
Right place: Placing and keeping nutrients at the optimal distance from
the crop and soil depth so that crops can use them is key to minimizing
nutrient losses. Generally, incorporating nutrients into the soil is
recommended over applying them to the surface. The ideal method depends
on characteristics of the soil, crop, tillage regime and type of fertilizer.
Right time: Ensure nutrients are available when crops need them by
assessing crop nutrient dynamics. This may mean using split applications of
mineral fertilizers or combining organic and mineral nutrient sources to
provide slow-releasing sources of nutrients.
4.2 Benefits of the practice
Higher profits: SSNM can increase and maintain yields by optimizing
the balance between supply and demand of nutrients and providing more
balanced plant nutrition. In general, it improves nutrient-use efficiency and
provides greater returns on investments in fertilizer.
Reduced nitrous oxide emissions: Agriculture contributes 70-90% of
nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, mostly from N fertilizer. SSNM reduces N 2O
emissions by reducing total N application and/or timing applications to crop
needs, thus avoiding N losses to volatilization, leaching and runoff.
Improved disease resistance: The more balanced NPK nutrition that
comes with SSNM may lead to improved resistance to plant diseases.
Variable economic benefit: For SSNM to increase farmer’s profits,
SSNM must deliver either savings from reduced fertilizer use without a

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reduction in yields, or yield increases that are valued higher than the costs of
acquiring and using SSNM technology.
SSNM in three steps
Establish a grain yield target.
Effectively use existing nutrients.
Apply fertilizer to fill the deficit between crop needs and indigenous
supply.
4.3 Tools and techniques for SSNM
4.3.1 Optical sensor-based N management optical sensor measure
visible and near infrared spectral responses from plant canopies
to detect the N stress.
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) quantifies vegetation
by measuring the difference between near-infrared (which vegetation
strongly reflects) and red light (which vegetation absorbs).
NDVI = (FNIR-FRED) / (FNIR+ FRED)
NDVI values range from +1.0 to -1.0. Areas of barren rock, sand, or
snow usually show very low NDVI values (for example, 0.1 or less). Sparse
vegetation such as shrubs and grasslands or senescing crops may result in
moderate NDVI values (approximately 0.2 to 0.5). High NDVI values
(approximately 0.6 to 0.9) correspond to dense vegetation such as that found
in temperate and tropical forests or crops at their peak growth stage.
4.3.2 Green seeker crop sensing system: It helps you effectively and
precisely manage crop inputs. Green Seeker, can address field
variability by applying the right amount of fertilizer, in the right
place, at the right time. Gives quick measurement.Hold the sensor
over the crop canopy and pull the trigger.The sensor should be
held at 60-120 cm above the crop canopy.Observe the reading on
the display.
4.3.3 Leaf colour chart is a simple, quick and non-destructive tool for
estimating leaf N status. It consists of 6 colour shades ranging
from light yellowish green (No.1) to dark green (No.6) colour.
The Leaf Color Chart (LCC) is used to determine the N fertilizer
needs of crops. It determines the greenness of the leaf, which
indicates its N content.

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How to use the leaf color chart
• Select plants for testing
• Match the leaf to the chart
• Measure the leaf color
• Determine the average LCC
How to use the LCC in maize
• Apply 25 kg Urea per acre at the time of sowing of maize.
• Take readings of ten randomly selected maize plants, by matching
the colour of the first fully exposed leaf from the top with the leaf
colour chart (LCC) starting from 21 days after sowing of maize till
initiation of silking at 10 day interval.
• Match the colour of maize leaves with LCC shade 5.
• If 6 or more leaves out of 10 leaves are lighter than the specified
threshold, apply 25 kg urea per acre.
• When colour of 5 or more leaves is equal to or darker than the
specified threshold no urea should be applied.
• Use of LCC should be discontinued after silking in maize and no
urea should be applied afterwards.
4.3.4 Chlorophyll meter (SPAD) instantly provides an estimate of leaf
N status in unplucked leafy tissue.Leaf N status corresponds to
leaf chlorophyll content, which is displayed in arbitrary units (0-
99.9).Since SPAD meter readings are unit less, it need to be
calibrated with chlorophyll or N content and leaf greenness.
4.3.5 Variable rate applicator (VRT): Site specific application of
material
• The variable rate applicator has three components:
• Control computer
• Locator and
• Actuator
• The control computer coordinates the field operation.
• It has a map of desired activity as a function of geographic
location.
• It receives the equipment’s current location from the locator,
which has a GPS in it, and decides what to do, based upon

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 the map in its memory or data storage. It then issues the
command to the actuator, which does the input
4.3.5.1 Sensor based variable rate applicator
4.3.5.2 Map based variable rate applicator
4.3.6 Nutrient expert® software: is an interactive, computer-based
decision-support tool that enables smallholder farmers to rapidly
implement SSNM in their individual fields with or without soil
test data. The software estimates the attainable yield for a
farmer’s field based on the growing conditions. Determines the
nutrient balance in the cropping system based on yield and
fertilizer/manure applied in the previous crop and combines such
information with expected N, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K)
response in target fields to generate location-specific nutrient
recommendations. The software also does a simple profit analysis
comparing costs and benefits between farmer’s current practice
and recommended alternative practices.
4.3.7 Crop manager is a computer and mobile phone-based
application that provides small-scale rice, rice-wheat, and maize
farmers with site- and season-specific recommendations for
fertilizer application. The tool allows farmers to adjust nutrient
application to crop needs based on soil characteristics, water
management, and crop variety on their farm. Recommendations
are based on user-input information about farm location and
management, which can be collected by extension workers, crop
advisors, and service providers.
4.4 Fertilizer related environmental problems
4.4.1 Methemoglobinemia: Pollution due to excessive nitrate in soil.
The increase of nitrates in the drinking water due to excessive use
of nitrogen fertilizers and animal manures is regarded as the most
important fertilizer related pollution issue. The nutrient
enrichment and deterioration of surface water quality due to
transportation of nutrients applied through fertilizers via leaching
or runoff or sediment erosion. NO3- when denitrified forms N2
and N2O gases leading to global warming. Nitrates can also be
absorbed in large amounts by plants particularly fodders and
vegetables, and may result in nitrate toxicity to the consumers.
The excessive nitrate leaching below the root zone constitutes a
potential threat for surface and ground water bodies. The World

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 Health Organization standard of nitrate for drinking water is 10
mg/l. The consumption of water containing high levels of nitrate
leads to ‘methemoglobinemia’ called as ‘blue baby syndrome’ in
infants in the age of < 6 months. An excessive ingestion of
nitrates may also increase the risk of cancer in humans due to the
formation of nitrosamines.
4.4.2 Eutrophication: It refers to the process of enrichment of surface
water bodies with nutrients. The nutrient enrichment of water
bodies results in intense proliferation and accumulation of algae
and higher aquatic plants in excessive quantities that can result in
detrimental changes in the water quality. Estimates indicated that
more than 80% of N entering the surface waters originates from
agricultural activities. Both N and P are important in stimulating
eutrophication.
4.4.3 Nitrous oxide emissions from soil in relation to climate
change effects: Nitrous oxide is a trace gas that is formed during
the microbial processes of nitrification and denitrification in soils
which contributes around 6% to the anthropogenic greenhouse
effect according to the estimates of IPCC (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, 2001; Kumar et al., 2016; Lakhran et
al., 2016; Bajiya et al., 2016; Mrunalini et al., 2020). Upto 50%
of the applied nitrogen can be lost through denitrification.
4.4.4 Ammonia emissions from soil and environmental
degradation: Out of all fertilizers, urea application is responsible
for more than 90% of total contribution in volatilization due to
fertilizers. Deep placement of urea in the soil as such or its
application before irrigation results in substantial reduction in
ammonia volatilization losses from agricultural fields. Ammonia
emissions from soil and environmental degradation. Out of all
fertilizers, urea application is responsible for more than 90% of
total contribution in volatilization due to fertilizers. Deep
placement of urea in the soil as such or its application before
irrigation results in substantial reduction in ammonia
volatilization losses from agricultural fields.
4.4.5 Heavy metal contaminants in fertilizers as soil pollutants: The
contamination of soils by heavy metals through fertilizers such as
cadmium from phosphatic fertilizers is also receiving increasing
attention; rock phosphate being highly potential source, for lead
and cadmium.

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 4.4.5.1 Cadmium: is considered to be toxic if its concentration exceeds
0.01 mg/L both in drinking and irrigation water. The effects of
acute cadmium are high blood pressure, kidney damage,
destruction of testicular tissue as well as destruction of red blood
cells. Leafy vegetables accumulate more heavy metals.
4.4.5.2 Arsenic: regulatory limits according to Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) - 0.01 parts per million (ppm) in
drinking water. Exposure to arsenic can cause nausea and
vomiting, decreased production of red and white blood cells,
abnormal heart rhythm, damage to blood vessels.
4.4.5.3 Lead: regulatory limits according to EPA – 0.015 parts per
million (ppm) in drinking water, 0.15 micrograms per cubic
meter in air. Exposure to high lead levels can severely damage
the brain and kidneys and ultimately cause death.
4.4.5.4 Mercury: regulatory limits according to EPA– 2 parts per
billion parts (ppb) in drinking water. Exposure to high levels can
permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetuses.
5. Conclusion
Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is a critically important concept in the
evaluation of crop production systems. Determining the fertilizer schedules
for cropping system should be done on basis of direct, residual and
cumulative effects of fertilizer, soil supplying power and efficiency of crops
in utilizing the soil and applied nutrients. SSNM practices including use of
optical sensor, leaf colour chart, chlorophyll meter and crop models help in
deciding need-based nutrient applications and improves nutrient use
efficiencies. Too much fertilizer use leads to environmental losses, including
runoff, leaching and gaseous emissions which leads to soil, air and water
pollution.
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 Singh, S., Pradhan, G. 2020. Earthworms for Eco-friendly Resource
Efficient Agriculture. In: Kumar S., Meena R.S., Jhariya M.K. (eds)
Resources Use Efficiency in Agriculture. Springer, Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6953-1_2.
13. Kumar, S., Jakhar, S. R., Dahiya, S., Jangir, C. K., Meena, R. S. 2017.
Soil sickness and productivity from ecological aspects. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, SPI: 827-831.
14. Kumar, S.,Lakhran, H., Meena, R. S., Jangir, C. K. 2017a. Current need
of sustainable food and forage production to eliminate food and forage
insecurity under current climatic era. Forage Research,44(1): 165-173.
15. Kumar, S., Sheoran, S., Kakraliya, S. K., Kumar, P., Meena, R. S. 2016.
Drought: A Challenge for Indian Farmers in Context to Climate Change
and Variability. Progressive Research – An International
Journal,11(Special-IX): 6243-6246.
16. Meena, R. S., Bohra, J. S., Singh, S. P., Meena, V. S., Verma, J. P.,
Verma, S. K., Sihag, S. K. 2016. Towards the prime response of manure
to enhance nutrient use efficiency and soil sustainability a current need:
a book review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112(1): 1258-
1260.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2015.05.122
17. Meena, R. S., Kumar, S., Bohra, J. S., Lal, R., Yadav, G. S., Pandey, A.
2019. Response of alley cropping-grown sesame to lime and sulphur on
yield and available nutrient status in an acidic soil of Eastern India.
Energy, Ecology and Environment, 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-
019-00113-w.
18. Mosier, A. R., Syers, J. K., Freney, J. R., 2004. Agriculture and the
nitrogen cycle. Assessing the impacts of fertilizer use on food
production and the environment, Scope-65. Island Press, London.
19. Mrunalini, K., Rolaniya, L. K., Datta, D., Kumar, S., Behera, B.,
Makarana, G., Singh, A., Prasad, J. V. N. S., Pratibha, G., Naik, M. R.,
Swamy, G. N., Rao, Ch. S. 2020. Resource conservation technologies
for climate change adaptation and mitigation. In: Ch. Srinivasarao et al.,
(Eds). Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and
Adaptation Strategies, ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural
Research Management, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. pp-1-22.
20. Pampolino, M. F., Witt, C., Pasuquin, J. M., Johnston, A. and Fisher, M.
J., 2012. Development approach and evaluation of the Nutrient Expert
software for nutrient management in cereal crops. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture 88: 103-110.

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21. Rana, S. S. and Rana, M. C., 2011. Cropping system. Department of
agronomy, College of Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh, Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur. 72.
22. Rana, S. S., 2012. Principles and practice of soil fertility and nutrient
management. Department of agronomy, forages and grassland
management, College of agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur.
23. Reddy, T. Y., Reddy, G. H. S., 1992. Principles of agronomy. 5 th edition.
Kalyani publishers.
24. Richards, M. B., Jat, M. L., Lipinski, B. and Sapkota, T., 2015. Site-
specific nutrient management: Implementation guidance for
policymakers and investors. Climate-smart agriculture practice brief.
Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change,
Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
25. Singh, A., Kumar, A., Jaswal, A., Singh, M., Gaikwad, D. S., 2018.
Nutrient use efficiency concept and interventions for improving nitrogen
use efficiency. Plant archives 18(1), 1015-1023.
26. Witt, C., Dobermann, A., 2002. A site-specific nutrient management
approach for irrigated, lowland rice in Asia. Better crops International
16(1), 20-24.
27. Yadav, M. R., Kumar, R., Parihar, C. M., Yadav, R. K., Jat, S. L., Ram,
H., Meena, R. K., Singh, M., Verma, A. P., Kumar, U. and Ghosh, A.,
2017. Strategies for improving nitrogen use efficiency: A review.
Agricultural Reviews 38(1).

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 Chapter - 3
Problematic soils and their management

Authors
Abha Sharma
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Raveena
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Shilpa
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Anusha L
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Rajveer
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chandgothi, Churu, Rajasthan, India

Page | 53
Page | 54
 Chapter - 3
Problematic soils and their management
Abha Sharma, Raveena, Shilpa, Anusha L and Rajveer

Abstract
With the ever-increasing population, the cultivable land is shrinking day
by day, whereas at the same time land under non-agricultural uses is also
increasing. So sustainable crop production is the only option to meet the
food grain demands. Problematic soils one of the non-agricultural lands are
considered as major constraint in sustainable crop production. The problem
soils are those which owing to land or soil characteristics, which cannot be
economically used for cultivation of crops. For obtaining the food security,
sustainable agriculture production is needed, which can only be achieved by
reclamation of problem soils. This can be done by using judicious chemical
formulations and integrated methods. Moreover, cultivation of those crops
should be preferred, which are well adapted to specific problematic soil. So,
proper management and conservation measures with respect to problematic
soils should be prioritized for the sustainable development of the region.
Keywords: Problematic soil, reclamation, formulations.
1. Problematic soils
1.1 Introduction
In India agricultural scenario is rapidly changing in response to various
stresses experienced by cultivated lands and one of the reasons behind is
problematic soils. The soils which are unfavorable for cultivation of field
crops because of one or more unfavorable soil properties/characteristics (viz.
Soluble salts, soil reaction, ESP, water logging, aeration, etc.) adversely
affect the optimum soil productivity are called problematic soils.
Soils which set a limit to crop production due to mineral stress, drought,
acidity, sodicity and waterlogging could be considered as problem soils
(Kumar et al., 2016). A general definition of problem soils could be
visualized as those which have adverse conditions, inherent or man-made
(created), posing severe limitations to successful crop production. Thus, the
soil profiles having high ground water Tables and less permeable argillic

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horizon, eroded soils, sandy soils of low fertility, coastal soils which are
inundated frequently, and the laterite soils (Oxic soils) could be considered
as problem soils (Kumar and Meena, 2016). However, because of the
importance and magnitude of severity, only the saline, acidic, acid sulfate
and sodic soils are discussed here, as they constitute approximately 60
million hectares out of about 140 million hectares of net area under
cultivation in India. Hence, these problematic soils are considered
unsuiTable for agricultural production and needs to be reclaimed as well as
managed in such a way that provide additional area for increasing food
production in the country (Chabbra, 2002).
1.2 Concepts of acids and base
• Arrhenius Acid-Base Theory: The Arrhenius acid-base concept
classifies a substance as an acid if it produces hydrogen ions H (+)
or hydronium ions in water. A substance is classified as a base if it
produces hydroxide ions OH (-) in water. This way of defining
acids and bases works well for aqueous solutions.
• Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Concept: The Bronsted-Lowry theory
classifies a substance as an acid if it acts as a proton donor and as
a base if it acts as a proton acceptor.
• Lewis Acid-Base Concept: The Lewis theory classifies a substance
as an acid if it acts as an electron-pair acceptor and as a base if it
acts as an electron-pair donor.
1.3 Soil reaction
Soil reaction is one of the important properties of the soil solution i.e.
whether it is acidic, alkaline or neutral. Microorganisms & higher plants
respond markedly to their chemical environment. So growth of
microorganisms & higher plants is affected by the soil reaction and the
factors associated with it. In the natural environment, soil pH has an
enormous influence on soil biogeochemical processes. Soil pH is, therefore,
described as the “master soil variable” that influences myriads of soil
biological, chemical, and physical properties and processes that affect plant
growth and biomass yield (Neina, 2019).
2. Acid soils
Acid soil is a base unsaturated soil which has got enough of adsorbed
exchangeable H+ ions that to give a pH lower than 7.0.
• Almost two-third of all acidic soils in the world belongs to Ultisols,
Entisols and Oxisols (Rengel, 2011).

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 • Alkaline when the pH value is above 7.0, neutral at 7.0 and acidic
below 7.0.
In practical terms, soils between pH 6.5 and 7.5 are considered neutral.
Soils in the range of 5.6 to 6.0 are moderately acidic and below 5.5 strongly
acidic. Lower the pH, more acidic is the soil. Each unit pH drop indicates 10
times more acidity. For example: pH 5.0 has 100 times more acidity than pH
7.0.
• Soil acidity is more common in humid regions with rainfall high
enough to leach appreciable quantities of exchangeable base
forming cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+) from surface soils (Reddy,
1999).
2.1 Kinds of soil acidity
• Active acidity: Active acidity may be defined as the acidity which
develops due to H⁺ concentration in the soil solution. The
magnitude of acidity is limited as H⁺ ions remain freely present in
soil solution and produce limited acidity.
• Exchangeable acidity: It may be defined as the acidity which
develops due to adsorbed H⁺ and Al⁺ concentration on the soil
colloids. The magnitude of the acidity is very high. Also called
Potential or Reserve acidity.
• Residual acidity: Residual acidity is that which remains in the soil
after active and exchangeable acidity has been neutralised. It is
generally associated with Al-hydroxy ions and with H and Al atoms
that are bound in non exchangeable forms by organic matter and
silicate clay. It is commonly greater than either active or
exchangeable acidity (N.C. Brady).
• Total acidity: Sum total of active and exchange acidity.
2.2 Major factors contributing acidity to soil
Leaching of Ca and Mg: The heavy rainfall causes leaching of Ca and
Mg from the soil. Soils of humid regions usually contain little or no
weatherable Ca and Mg minerals. Sandy soils often are the first to become
acidic because water percolates rapidly and small reservoir of bases (buffer
capacity) due to low clay and organic matter. However, most acid soils have
been developed as a result of leaching losses and crop removal of bases
(Brady and Weil, 2016).
1. Crop production: Harvesting of crops has its effect on soil acidity

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 development because crops absorb the lime-like elements, as
cations, for their nutrition. When these crops are harvested and the
produce is removed from the field, some of the basic material
responsible for counteracting acidity developed by other processes
is lost and the net effect is increased soil acidity.
2. Parent material: Soils developed from granite material are likely
to be more acidic than soils developed from calcareous shale or
lime stone.
3. Organic matter decay: Decaying organic matter produces H+
causing soil acidity. Carbon dioxide is produced by decaying
organic matter which reacts with water to produce weak carbonic
acid (Jangir et al., 2019). Several organic acids are also produced
by decaying organic matter, but they are also weak acids.
4. Vegetation: Conifers type of vegetation responsible for causing
acidity because needles are rich in silica (about 65% silica) which
on decomposition produce salicylic acid and hence cause soil
acidity.
5. Man-made processes: Application of NH4+ producing fertilizers
(Urea, Ammonium Sulphate) acidify soils through a biological
reaction by which NH4+ is oxidized to NO3- and H+ ions are
produced.
6. Acid forming fertilizers and soluble salts: The use of ammonium
sulphate, (NH4)SO4 and ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 increases soil
acidity. NH4 from these fertilizers when applied to the soil replaces
calcium ions from the exchange complex and the calcium sulphate
is formed which is leachable. Inefficient use of nitrogen is one of
the causes of soil acidification, followed by the export of alkalinity
in produce (Guo et al., 2010). Ammonium based fertilizers are
major contributors to soil acidification. Ammonium nitrogen is
readily converted to nitrate and hydrogen ions in the soil.
7. Alumino-silicate minerals: At low pH values most of the
aluminium is present as the hydrated aluminium ions which
undergoes hydrolysis and releases H+ ions in the solution.
8. Application of sulphur: An ingredient in some fungicides and
fertilizers. S oxidizes to sulphates and H+ ions.
9. Carbon dioxide: Soils containing high concentration of carbon-
dioxide has low pH value i.e. the soil become acidic. Root activity

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 and metabolism may also serve as source of CO2 which ultimately
helps the soil to become acidic due to the formation of Carbonic
acid.
10. Acid rain: Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released by
industrial activities react with water to form acid rain, which
acidifies soils.
2.3 Characteristics of acid soils
• Acid soil with < 7 pH
• Low base saturation
• Low cation exchange capacity
• Low water holding capacity
• Deficient in Ca, Mg & K which are leached beyond root zone
• Also deficient in sulphur and boron (except acid sulphate soils)
• Excessive amount of soluble Al, Fe and Mn which may be harmful
to plant growth (toxic)
• Toxic amount of copper and zinc
• Deficient in available P as it is precipitated in insoluble hydroxyl
phosphates
• Bacteria and actinomycetes will be ineffective and fungi dominate
• Injurious to root growth
• Decomposition of organic matter
2.4 Effect of soil acidity
1. Acid toxicity: The higher H+ ion concentration is toxic to plants
under strong acidic conditions of soils. The acid toxicity includes
toxicity due to acid anions as well as hydrogen ions.
2. Aluminium and hydrogen toxicity: Two main effects of Al and H:
• Injury to roots
• Decreased uptake of Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+
3. Toxicity of different nutrient elements: In acid soils, appreciable
quantities of Fe and Mn are soluble and under highly acidic
conditions they become toxic to plants.
4. Manganese toxicity: Unlike Al, Mn toxicity first shows up in plant
tops. Symptoms vary among plant species, but often are specific for

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 a given species. For example: Stunted, crinkled and chlorotic leaves
in Soybean.
5. Exchangeable bases: As in humid regions exchangeable bases like
Ca and Mg are lost due to leaching and consequently the soils are
deficient in these two cations.
6. Calcium deficiency: Since Ca is fairly immobile inside the plant;
its deficiency first appears at the growing points. In maize, Ca
deficient plant are stunted; young leaves are unable to fully unfurl;
then the leaf tips or margins soon die. An important function of Ca
is the formation of cell walls. Since Ca is fairly immobile inside the
plant, the fruit continues to grow but the growing tip is soft and
dark due to poor cell wall formation. Calcium deficiency causes
blossom end rot in water melon and tomato.
7. Magnesium deficiency: Sandy soils at pH 5.0 are often very low in
Mg. At that pH and below, Mg deficiency observed. The effect of
soil pH on Mg availability is probably due to an antagonism of Al
and H on Mg uptake, particularly when the Al saturation is high.
Neutralization of Al and H is necessary for optimum Mg
availability. When soils are acid and low in available Mg, the use of
dolomitic limestone is the best approach to correct Mg deficiencies.
8. Nutrient imbalances: Phosphorus reacts with soluble Fe and Al
ions and produces insoluble P compounds rendering P unavailable
to plants. In acid soils micronutrient cations Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn is
abundant but Mo is quite unavailable. N, K and S are less available
to plants when soil pH is less than 5.5.
9. Phosphorus deficiency: Older leaves in P-deficient plants are often
purple because of the accumulation of anthocyanins.
10. Microbial activity: Soil pH influences the activity of
microorganisms to a great extent. In general bacteria and
actinomycetes function better at pH values above 6.5. Fungi
however function well in pH ranges. Special purposes bacteria are
needed for nitrification and N-fixation. These processes take place
vigorously only at pH value above 5.5.
2.5 Production constraints
1. Acid soils have poor supply of calcium, magnesium and more
concentrations of Fe & Al (Meena et al., 2019).
2. These soils, therefore, suffer due to deficiency of phosphorus,

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 calcium, magnesium, molybdenum and boron and toxicities of Al &
Fe.
3. These soils have low organic carbon and available nitrogen.
4. Fertilizer use is also limited in these soils.
5. Soils are prone to soil erosion due to their occurrence, generally, on
hilly terrains (Jangir et al., 2017).
6. Crop production; therefore, suffer due poor availability of nutrients,
toxicities of Al and Fe, poor biological activity of soils and frequent
moisture stress (Kakraaliya et al., 2017).
2.6 Management options for improving acid soils
1. Liming is traditionally used to correct soil acidity and to improve
soil productivity.
Liming reaction
➢ When lime (i.e., CaCO3) is added to a moist soil, the following
reactions will occur:
➢ Lime is dissolved slowly by moisture in the soil
CaCO3 + H2O ---→ Ca2+ + 2OH- + CO2 (gas)
➢ Newly produced Ca2+ will exchange with Al3+ and H+ on the
surface of acid soils
2Ca2+ + soil-Al3+ --→ soil-Ca + Al3+
+ soil-H+ soil-Ca + + H+
➢ Lime-produced OH- will react with Al3+ to form Al(OH)3 solid and
with H+ to form water.
Al3+ + 3OH- --→ Al(OH)3 (solid)
H+ + OH- --→ H2O
Liming materials or amendments for acid soils: Naturally occurring
liming materials such as lime stone (CaCO3) or calcite dolomite lime stone
[Ca, Mg(CO3)2], hydrated or slaked lime [Ca(OH)2], coral shells lime.
2. Planting acid tolerant crops: Different plant species (even varieties
within a species) grow best at different pH ranges. For example:
Pineapple grow best at pH below 5.7 and suffers from Fe and/or Mn
deficiencies at higher pH.
3. Use of basic fertilizers like sodium nitrate and slag.

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 4. Reducing leaching of basic cations by adopting appropriate soil and
water management practices.
3. Acid sulphate soils
These soils are extremely acid soils and the acidity is due to the
presence of sulphuric acid, iron and aluminium sulphates and termed as acid
sulphate soils or as such refers to those soils cat clays. When allowed to
develop acidity, these soils are usually more acidic than pH 4.0. Before
drainage, such soils may have normal soil pH and are only potential acid
sulphate soils. Acid sulfate soils are formed when pyritic* (mineral of FeS 2)
estuarine sediments in subsoil are exposed to air, oxidize to form sulfuric
acid (Das and Das, 2015).
A variety of soil minerals react with the acid and release free aluminum,
toxic to crops and marine life. Pyrite is the most common iron disulphide
mineral in rock. It is found most often in metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks where it occurs as either a primary mineral or a fine, widespread
impregnation of subsequent origin. Pyrite is frequently found in association
with coal and shale deposits. Acid sulphate soils are found in coastal areas
where land is inundated by salt water (Dhanya and Gladis, 2017). These soils
are both saline and acidic, occurring in areas which remain submerged under
water for the major part of the year and are situated at a depth of 1 to 1.5
meter below the sea level (Money and Sukumaran, 1973).
In India, acid sulphate soil is, mostly found in Kerala, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Acid sulfate soils are extremely
acidic (at times pH less than 3.0). Soil horizons resulting from the aeration of
soil materials are rich in iron sulfides, (FeS2). Acid sulfate soils can severely
affect engineering works, agricultural productivity, and water quality of
estuarine systems. Acid sulphate soils cause environmental damage as a
result of coastal development. These soils face the problems of extreme
acidity and presence of toxic quantities of Fe, Al and S which usually limit
the crop production and even crop choice in these soils (Indira and
Covilakom, 2013).
3.1 Formation of acid sulphate soils
Lands inundated with water that contain sulphate, particularly salt water,
accumulate sulphur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are bacterially
reduced to sulphides. When the soil is drained and aerated, the S 2- is oxidized
to SO42- by a combination of chemical and bacterial action forming H 2SO4.
The magnitude of acid development depends on the amount of sulphide
present in the soil and the conditions and time of oxidation. If FeS 2 is

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present, the oxidized iron accentuates the acidity but not as much as
aluminium in normal acid soils because the iron oxides are less soluble than
aluminium oxides and so hydrolyze less. Iron staining is often a good
indicator of disturbed acid sulfate soils. When acid sulfate soils are disturbed
and undergo oxidation, the sulfuric acid produced mobilizes iron, aluminum
and heavy metals present in the soil. Toxic amounts of dissolved iron can
then be washed into waterways. This iron can precipitate when in contact
with less acidic water, such as rainwater or seawater. This results in a rust-
colored iron oxide scum or ‘floc’ which can smother vegetation and stain
concrete and soil.
Reactions involved in formation of acid sulphate soils
➢ 2S + 3O2 + 2H2O Microbial oxidation H2SO4

Microbial oxidation
H2S + 2O2 H2SO4
➢ Non biological:
2FeS2 + 2H2O + 7O2 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4

➢ Accelerated by bacteria (Thiobacillus ferroxidans)

4FeSO4 + O2 + 2H2SO4 2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O

➢ Rapid in acid pH (non biological):

FeS2 + 7Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O 15FeSO4 + 8H2SO4
3.2 Characteristics
These soils are usually clays.
• Organic carbon content varies from 1.5 to18 per cent.
• The cation exchange capacity is 10-25 meq/100gm.
• Available nitrogen and phosphorus are low.
• There may be toxicity of iron, aluminium, H 2S in this soil.
• These soils when submerged are nearly neutral in reaction but when
these are drained and dried they become extremely acidic and lethal
to crop plants.

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3.3 Management of acid sulphate soils
Management techniques are variable depending on
• The extent of acid formation,
• The thickness of the sulphide layer,
• Possibilities of leaching and draining the land.
General approaches for reclamation are
➢ Keeping the area flooded
➢ Controlling water Table
➢ Liming and leaching
These management techniques are extremely variable and depend on
many specific factors i.e., the extent of acid formation, the thickness of
sulphide layer, possibilities of leaching or draining the land etc. In general
approaches for reclamation are-
1. Liming and leaching: Liming is the primary way to reclaim any
type of acid soil. Soils are drained and leached to remove the acid
materials the soils are then limed, fertilized with nitrogen,
phosphorus and crops grown in wet season.
If these soils are leached during early years of acidification, lime
requirement is lowered. Leaching however is difficult because of the high
water Table commonly found in this type of soil and low permeability of the
clay. Sea water is sometimes available for preliminary leaching.
2. Keeping the area flooded: Maintaining the reduced condition of
flooded (anaerobic) soil inhibit acid development, which requires
oxidation. This solution almost limits the use of the area to rice
growing. Unfortunately if drought occurs, acidification of these can
be there in short periods. The water used to flood the potential acid
sulphate soils often develop acidity and injure crops.
3. Controlling water Table: If a non-acidifying layer covers the
sulphuric horizon, keep only the sulphuric layer under water
(anaerobic).
4. Agronomic practices for the management of acidic soils
These soils can be managed in two ways
▪ By growing crops suitable for a particular soil pH or,
▪ By ameliorating the soils through the application of amendments
which will counteract soil acidity.

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 ▪ In general the fertility status of acid soils is very poor and under
strongly to moderately acidic soils the plant growth and
development affect to a great extent.
▪ Grow acid tolerant plant species and varieties
▪ Rice has good tolerance to acidity since flooding of rice fields raises
the pH to almost neutrality.
▪ Short duration rice grown in the uplands tolerates acidity.
▪ Minor millets and finger millets are quiet tolerant to acidity
▪ Bengal gram, lentil, ground nut, maize, sorghum and field pea show
medium response to liming.
▪ Application of 10-20 per cent (1/10th) lime requirement dose mixed
with FYM in rows below the seeds or behind the plough at the time
of sowing the crop is beneficial.
4. Salt affected soils
Soils in which concentration of salts is so high as to adversely affect
plant growth and crop productivity are called salt affected soils. Some
amounts of salts are always present in the soil. When the concentration of
these salts is low, they are not harmful for the growth of plants. But with the
increase in salt content of the soil to high levels, the plant growth adversely
affected which, in turn, decreases the productivity of agricultural crops. The
extent of reduction in growth and decrement in productivity, however,
depend upon many factors such as kind and content of salt constituents, soil
texture, distribution of salts in the soil profile, the species of plant grown,
level of soil - water - crop management and climatic condition.
According to the FAO Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service,
over 6 per cent of the world’s land is affected by either salinity or sodicity.
The term salt affected refers to soils that are saline or sodic, and these cover
over 400 million hectares, which is over 6 per cent of the world land area.
The salt-affected soils always existed on the globe, only its presence was felt
with increasing pressure on cultivated lands (Sharma and Chaudhari, 2012).
• Saline soils: soils with high amount of water soluble salts.
• Sodic soils/Alkali soils: soils containing high exchangeable sodium
percentage and those influenced by sodium salts capable of alkaline
hydrolysis e.g. carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium.

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 Table 1: Classification of salt affected soils

Classification EC (dS/m) pH ESP (%)

Non saline <4 < 8.5 < 15
Saline >4 < 8.5 < 15
Sodic <4 > 8.5 > 15
Saline-Sodic >4 < 8.5 > 15

5. Saline soils
Saline Soils (Synonymous: Solonchak (Russian term), Saline non
sodic, White alkali). Saline soils contain sufficient concentration of soluble
salts in the root zone soil which adversely affects the crop productivity or
simply, the accumulation of water-soluble salts in the soil which restrict the
crop production is called saline soil. The amount of soluble salts present in
the soil is determined by the electrical conductivity or individual analysis of
salts present in the soil. Among the salts present in the soil, Ca, Mg, Na and
K are the dominant cations whereas CO2, CO3, Cl, SO4 are the dominant
anions in arid and semi-arid region of the world. The process of
accumulation of soluble salts in the soils is known as Salinization (Dagar,
2005).
Various environmental stresses viz. high winds, extreme temperatures,
soil salinity, drought and flood have affected the production and cultivation
of agricultural crops (Lakhran et al., 2017; Bajiya et al., 2017; Gupta and
Kumar, 2018; Kumar et al., 2019; Mrunalini et al., 2020), among these soil
salinity is one of the most devastating environmental stresses, which causes
major reductions in cultivated land area, crop productivity and quality
(Yamaguchi and Blumwald, 2005; Shahbaz and Ashraf, 2013). Salinity is
one of the most brutal environmental factors limiting the productivity of crop
plants because most of the crop plants are sensitive to salinity caused by high
concentrations of salts in the soil, and the area of land affected by it is
increasing day by day (Shrivastava and Kumar, 2015).
5.1 Characteristics of saline soils
Soils having EC value > 4 dSm-1, ESP value < 15% and pH <8.5 is
known as saline soils. It is also known as Solonchak. The saline soil if
having surface incrustation of white coloration is called white alkali soil.
These soils contain chloride, sulphate, bicarbonates and nitrates of Ca, Mg
and K. In this soil pH varies 7.5 to 8.5. Total soluble salt content is > 0.1%.
Physical condition of these soils is satisfactory (remain in a flocculated
condition). Occurrence of saline soils in arid regions is due to less rainfall
and high evaporation rates.

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5.2 Nature of soluble salts in soils
1. Carbonates
a) Calcium Carbonate: It has very low solubility (13.1 mg/l) but in
presence of carbon dioxide it forms calcium bicarbonate, whose
solubility varies (60-140 mg/l) depending upon amount of CO2. It is
not directly harmful to plants.
b) Magnesium carbonate: It has greater solubility than CaCO 3. Its
occurrence in free form is very rare and is available in as insoluble
compound combined with calcium as dolomite.
c) Sodium carbonate: It is highly soluble (170 g/l) and therefore very
toxic to plants. Generally found in arid climates may be due to
biogenetic formation, underground water, weathering of sodium
feldspar or hydrolysis of exchangeable sodium and subsequent
reaction with CO2.
2. Sulphates
a) Calcium sulphate: Also known as Gypsum having low solubility
(1.9 g/l). It forms massive indurated underground layers which can
obstruct water movement or penetration of roots in sub-soils.
b) Magnesium sulphate: It has high solubility (262 g/l). It is most
common component and is toxic to plants.
c) Sodium sulphate: Its solubility is 170 g/l and highly dependent on
temperature. Its toxicity is less than that of MgSO4. In cold seasons,
much sodium sulphate may not occur in soil solution, the amounts
can double it in hot seasons. This property is utilized in leaching
operation in the reclamation of saline soils.
3. Chlorides
a) Calcium chloride: It is seldom present in soil solution unless the
total saline contents are very high (400-500 g/l). It is highly soluble
salt.
b) Magnesium chloride: Owing to high solubility (353 g/l), it is one of
the most harmful salts for plants.
c) Sodium chloride: Also known as common salt, common component
of saline soil. Its solubility is 264 g/l and which does not much
change with temperature. In the presence of excess of NaCl, plants
do not grow normally.

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5.3 Causes of salt accumulation
1. Geologic factors: From a subsoil bed of salts. The flowing water of
the rivers brought down after the dissolution from the weathering
rocks and deposit along with the alluvium. The decomposition and
disintegration of soil minerals through release of salt as well as
formation of the soils. Redistribution through the canal water.
2. Climatic factors: Rainfall appears to have greater effect than
annual temperature in determining salinity. Soluble salts will
accumulate wherever evaporation exceeds total precipitation, either
alone or in combination with irrigation.
3. Hydrologic factors: Salt accumulation is associated with certain
land relief types connected geomorphologically to low lands or their
component parts, viz., flood plains, deltas, coastal terraces and
lakes; and hydrologically to regions of high water-tables. At such
places run-off is negligible and drainage water evaporates leaving
the salts on the surface.
4. Quality of underground waters: Underground waters in arid,
semiarid and coastal areas of India are of poor quality. EC ranges
from 2000-10,000 micromhos/cm. wherever water-table is high;
such waters become a potential source of danger for creating the
problem of soil salinity.
5.4 Salinity effects on plant growth
1. High osmotic pressure of the soil solution:
It can increase the osmotic potential and hence decrease water
availability; because of high osmotic potential plant root find difficulty in
absorbing high quantity of water and it is due to presence of soluble salts in
soil. The osmotic effect increases the potential forces that hold water in the
soil and makes it more difficult for plant roots to extract water. During dry
period, salt in soil solution may be so concentrated as to kill plants by
pulling water from them (exosmosis). Due to high salt concentration, plants
have to spent more energy to absorb water and smaller quantity of energy is
left for growth in function, seriously affected in cell elongation, leaves
become deep green color, cell becomes flaccid and loss of turgidity of the
cell. Specific-ion effect: At low concentration, NaHCO3 and soluble borates
become toxic. At high concentration, fruit plants can tolerate sufficient
amount of SO4-2 but not Cl- (Sensitive).

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2. Nutritional imbalance
• HCO3 induced Fe deficiency
• Na induced Ca deficiency
• Mg induced Ca deficiency
5.5 Effect of salinity on nutrient availability
Effect of excess salinity on nitrogen metabolism: Nitrogen
fertilization on saline soils is often necessary because losses of nitrogen due
to leaching of nitrate form. In addition, rate of nitrification of ammonia is
often significantly reduced due to the large direct toxic effects of Cl - and the
total amount of salt on the activity of nitrifying bacteria.
• Effect of excess salinity on phosphorus metabolism: In the saline
soil, phosphorus availability is to a greater extent dependent on the
length and area of the root system (which is limited due to salinity)
and antagonistic effects of excess phosphorus chloride on the
uptake of phosphorus by the root system.
• Effect of excess salinity on potassium metabolism: In conditions
of high salinity, plants may show signs of potassium deficiency due
to antagonistic effects of Na+ and Ca2+ on K+ absorption and/or
abnormal Na+/K+ or Ca2+/K+ ratio. In such circumstances, the
application of potassium fertilizers can increase the yield of plants.
5.6 Amelioration of saline soils
Deep ploughing, sub-soiling methods- break the impermeable layer,
hard pan or cemented sub soil layer existing at various depths in soil profile
to improve the internal drainage of the soil and to facilitate the transportation
of salts dissolved in water to deeper layers.
1. Sanding- Incorporation of sand in salt affected soils increase
permeability and to improve water relations in the root zone.
2. Scraping- is adopted to remove the few centimeters of salt
encrustation.
3. Leaching: Leaching is most often accomplished by ponding fresh
water on the soil surface and allowing it to infiltrate. Leaching is
effective when the salty drainage water is discharged through
subsurface drains that carry the leached salts out of the area under
reclamation.

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4. Cultural methods
• Proper drainage.
• Use of salt free irrigation water. Pre-sowing irrigation with
good quality water; it helps to leach out salts from the top soil.
This helps in promoting better seed germination and seedling
establishment.
5. Planting or sowing of seeds on the ridges
• It is better to place plants on the ridge shoulders rather than the
ridge top because water evaporation will concentrate more salts
on the ridge top or center of the bed.
• If the crop is irrigated via alternate furrows, then it is better to
plant only on one shoulder of the ridge closer to the furrow that
will have water.
6. Mulching
• Mulching with crop residue, such as straw, reduces evaporation
from the soil surface which in turn reduces the upward
movement of salts (Hingonia et al., 2018).
• Reduced evaporation also reduces the need to irrigate.
Consequently fewer salts accumulate.
7. Deep Tillage
• Accumulation of salts closer to the surface is a typical feature
of saline soils. Deep tillage would mix the salts present in the
surface zone into a much larger volume of soil and hence
reduce its concentration and impact.
• Many soils have an impervious hard pan which hinders in the
salt leaching process. Under such circumstances “chiselling”
would improve water infiltration and hence downward
movement of salts.
8. Cropping sequences: which include crops such as rice, berseem
and those requiring frequent irrigations reduce salinity effectively,
where drainage is adequate. Therefore, knowledge of the expected
salt balance of the root zone under various crop rotations will be
extremely helpful in planning the best cropping sequences during
and after reclamation (Jangir et al., 2017; Kakraaliya et al., 2018).

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 9. Growing salt tolerant crops
▪ High salt tolerant: Barley, Sugarbeet.
▪ Moderately salt tolerant: Wheat, Rice, Sorghum and Maize.
▪ Low salt tolerant: Beans, Radish, White clover.
▪ Sensitive crops: Tomato, Potato, Onion, Carrot.
10. Farming systems can change to incorporate perennials in rotation
with annual crops (phase farming), in mixed plantings (alley
farming, intercropping), or in site-specific plantings (precision
farming) (Munns et al., 2002; Meena et al., 2018; Sharma et al.,
2019). Although the use of these approaches to sustainable
management can ameliorate yield reduction under salinity stress,
implementation is often limited because of cost and availability of
good water quality or water resource (Rani et al., 2019; Kumar et
al., 2020, 2020a; Meena et al., 2020; Punia et al., 2020; Rani et al.,
2020). Evolving efficient, low cost, easily adaptable methods for
the abiotic stress management is a major challenge.
6. Sodic soils
Salt-affected soils occupy 6.73 M ha area in India of which ~56% are
sodic and the remainder 44% saline. Sodic soils in large parts of Indo-
Gangetic plains have naturally formed due to rapid alternate wetting and
drying conducive to alkali hydrolysis, sodium saturation and high pH
development (Sharma et al., 2016).
• EC value < 4 dsm-1, ESP is > 15%, SAR > 13, pH > 8.5
• Contain less Cl-, SO42- but high HCO3-, CO3- - and OH- of Na.
• Contain less than 0.2 per cent harmful soluble salts.
• Physical condition is very poor and unfit for cultivation (main
problem is effect of sodium on flocculation and aggregation of soil
particles).
• These are called as black alkali soils (dissolved organic matter and
salt accumulation at the soil surface).
• Also known as Solonetz.
6.1 Problems associated with sodic soils
Dispersion of soil colloids: Na+ acts as a deflocculating agent.
• Caustic influence: high sodicity due to Na2CO3 and NaHCO3.

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 • 2Na+ + CO32- + H2O => 2Na+ + 2OH– + H2CO3
• Concentration of OH- ions increases the soil pH.
• Specific ion effect: deficiency of cations like Ca++ and Mg++. Active
sodium ions interfere with plant nutrition and metabolism.
• Availability of plant nutrients: Due to high pH, availability of
phosphorus and micronutrients Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn become low.
• Plant suffers oxygen deficiency as soil structure is adversely
affected due to the dominance of sodium.
6.2 Reclamation of sodic soils
Application of CaSO4 (gypsum), 6-8 qt/ha

• Sulphuric acid

Other amendments: FeSO4, FeS2 (pyrite).

• Organic amendments: Use of organic manures and green
manuring.
• Alkali tolerant crops: Wheat, Cotton, Barley, Dhaincha, Tomato,
Sugarbeet, Cowpea, Mustard and Paddy.
• Singh and Gill (1990) demonstrated the ameliorating effects of
different tree species on a degraded sodic soil and demonstrated
their effectiveness in reducing soil pH and increasing soil fertility.
For community lands, different agro-forestry models such as silvi-
pasture, silvi-agriculture, silvi-multi-pasture and agri-horti models
were evaluated on varying degree of salinity (Singh and Dagar,
1998).
7. Saline-sodic soils
EC value > 4dSm-1, ESP is > 15%, SAR > 13, pH < 8.5

Page | 72
 • Plant growth in these soils is adversely effected by excess salts and
Sodium (Na+).
• These soils exhibit physical conditions intermediate between saline
and sodic soils.
• As long as the salts remain high, these soils will remain flocculated.
(Flocculation- Process by which colloidal particles tend to attract
each other and coagulate like a bigger particle)
• Don’t have the serious physical properties that sodic soils have.
• Problems similar to saline soils.
• Can become sodic very easily with improper management.
7.1 Saline-sodic soil management
• Similar to sodic soil management
Leach with low sodium, saline water to exchange Na+
• This creates a saline soil
• Then manage as a saline soil e.g. Leach out the salts with clean
water
• Easier to manage than sodic soil
• Very critical to use a high salt, low sodium water or it will become
sodic
7. Conclusions
In case of problematic soils, salinity and acidity are one of the most
severe environmental factors limiting the productivity of agricultural crops.
Acid soils are widespread in many regions of the world. Their occurrences
are caused by natural processes and/or man-made processes (adding NH4+
producing fertilizers to soils; releasing acid forming gases to the atmosphere)
acid soils are infertile because of: Al and/or Mn toxicities and Ca and/or P
deficiencies. Acid soils can be managed by liming or growing acid tolerant
crops. In the same manner most crops are sensitive to salinity caused by high
concentration of salts in the soil. As yield of crop production had been
reduced due to salinity, the cost of production had gradually increased. The
high concentration of salts in the soil solution may reduce the removal of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium so it is necessary to add these elements
in the form of fertilizers. Salt affected soils represent opportunity that can be
exploited to increase agricultural production and productivity to ensure
national food and nutritional security.

Page | 73
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 Chapter – 4
Dryland agriculture

Authors
Raj Kishori Lal
Genetics and Plant breeding, CSIR-Central Institute of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow - 226 015,
India
Anand Mishra
Genetics and Plant breeding, CSIR-Central Institute of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow - 226 015,
India
Pankhuri Gupta
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Biotechnology
Division, AcSIR Headquarters, CSIR-HRDC Campus, Sector-
19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002,
India
CS Chanotiya
Laboratory of Aromatic Plants and Chiral Separation, CSIR-
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP),
Lucknow - 226 015, India
S Sarkar
CSIR-IIIM, Jammu, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow - 226 015, India

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Page | 80
 Chapter - 4
Dryland agriculture
Anusha L, Raveena, Shilpa and Alpana Paul

Abstract
Dryland agriculture is the agriculture which limits the crop growth to a
part of the year due to lack of sufficient moisture. 68 percent of the
cultivated area in Indian agriculture comes under dryland, which contributes
about 44 percent of the total food production and plays a critical role in
India’s food security. A vast majority of the small scale farmers depend on
the dry regions for their livelihood. According to the Fourth five year plan of
India, dry lands are defined as areas which receive rainfall ranging from 375
mm to 1125 mm and with very limited irrigation facilities. Dry regions are
economically fragile regions which are highly vulnerable to environmental
stress and shocks. In order to ensure long term sustainability for dry land
agriculture in India, various components are to be taken into consideration
like socio-economic resources, irrigated watershed development,
improvement of rain water use efficiency, diversification of agriculture
through livestock farming alternative land uses and integrated soil-nutrient-
water-crop management.
Keywords: Dryland, socio-economic.
1. Introduction
The earth’s land surface is covered by dry lands farming about 41 per
cent which is inhabited by 2 billion people (about one third of world
population). Dry farming as a practice antedates history, but the usage of the
term in its present form and meaning probably started in Utah (Western U.S.
state) in 1863. Dr. John A Widtsoe, one of the earliest to take up dry farming
research defines the term as ‘the profitable production of useful crops
without irrigation on lands that receive annually a rainfall of 50 cm or less’.
According to the Fourth five year plan of India, dry lands are defined as
‘areas which receive rainfall ranging from 375 mm to 1125 mm and with
very limited irrigation facilities’ (Roshini and Vijayan, 2016). A mode of
farming practiced in regions of slight or insufficient rainfall, that relies

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mainly on tillage methods rendering the soil more receptive of moisture and
on the selection of suitable crops.
(http://www.dictionary.com/browse/dryland-farming)
2. Classification of dryland agriculture area under drylands
A) Based on annual rainfall
Constituent Dry farming Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Annual rainfall (mm) < 750 750 to 1150 > 1150
Growing
< 75 days 75 to 120 days > 120 days
season(days)
Arid and Semi-arid Sub-humid and
Growing regions Arid regions
regions Humid regions
Dry spell- Prolonged Prolonged
No dry spell
Crop failure Most common Less frequent
Moisture and soil
Moisture and soil Proper drainage and
conservation
Special practices conservation Soil conservation
practices Drainage –
practices practices
in black soils

B) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific distinguished dryland agriculture into dryland farming and
rainfed farming
Constituent Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Rainfall (mm) <800 >800
Moisture availability to
Shortage Enough
the crop
Growing season (days) <200 >200
Arid and semiarid as
well as uplands of sub-
Growing regions Humid and sub-humid regions
humid and humid
regions
Single crop or
Cropping system Intercropping or double cropping
intercropping
Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

3. Area under drylands

I. Globally it is about 6150 mha i.e., 41.3% of the global terrestrial
area

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Source:
http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/environmentbook/aridlanddegradation.html
Fig 1: Global distribution of drylands
II. In India out of the total cultivated area of 143 mha the area under
drylands is about 85 mha, which comes to 60%.

Source - https://makanaka.wordpress.com/2013/10/

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 Fig 2: Dryland area in different regions of India

Region States Per cent area

Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and
Cold and northern region 60-81
Himachal Pradesh,

Rajasthan and Gujarat 66-88

Arid western Region
Semi arid to arid central Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
76-82
and southern region Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamandu
Sub humid to humid Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
33-73
eastern region Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal
Humid to per humid north
Assam and north-eastern hill states Up to 90
eastern region

Fig 3: State wise distribution of arid regions (%) (Source- Reddy, 2011)

Fig 4: State wise distribution of semi-arid regions (%) (Source- Reddy, 2011)
3. Dry climates and their classification
The term “arid” is derived from a Latin word, “arere” which means
‘dry’. Aridity refers to a condition of deficiency of water due to either
insufficient precipitation or excess water loss over supply. The degree of
aridity can be assessed from climatic parameters and plant criteria. More

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than 50 classifications of agro-climate was made by many scientists. Some
of the important classifications are discussed below:
I. Thornthwaite and Mather (1955)
They have taken the Moisture Index (Im) as the criteria for classification
of dry climates
Im = [(P-PE)/PE] 100
Where,
P = Precipitation,
PE = Potential Evapo-transpiration
Im Quantity Climate classification
100 and above per humid
20 to 100 Humid
0 to 20 Moist sub humid
-33.3 to 0 Dry sub humid
-66.7 To -33.3 Semi arid
-100 to -66.7 Arid
II. Troll (1965)
Based on thermal and hygric variables and number of humid months,
climate is classified and said to be of agricultural use. Humid month is one
having mean rainfall exceeding the mean potential evapotranspiration.
ICRISAT classified the Semi-arid tropics (SAT areas) in India by adopting
this classification. According to this classification, a climate which has 5 to
10 arid months (a month where precipitation is less than PET) or 2 to 7
humid months is called semi-arid tract (SAT), whereas humid climate will
have 7 to 12 humid months and arid climate has less than 2 humid months.
Humid months Climate classification
12.0 to 9.5 Tropical rainforest
9.5 to 7.0 Humid Savannah
7.0 to 4.5 Dry Savannah (Wet – dry SAT)
4.5 to 2.0 Thorn Savannah (Dry SAT)
2.0 to 1.0 Semi desert (Arid)
1.0 to 0.0 Desert (Arid)

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III. Papadakis (1961)
Moisture Index (H) based on precipitation, soil moisture storage and
PET was developed.
H = [P + W] / E
where,
P = Monthly precipitation
E = Monthly PET
W = Water stored from previous rainfall
H value Climate
Less than 0.25 Arid
0.25 to 0.50 Dry
0.50 to 0.75 Intermediate
0.75 to 1.00 Intermediate humid
1.00 to 2.00 Humid
More than 2.00 Wet
IV. Hargreaves (1971)
Moisture Availability Index (MAI) is used for the classification. It is the
ratio of dependable precipitation to potential evapotranspiration. It is a
measure of adequacy of precipitation in supplying crop water demand.
MAI = dependable precipitation (75% probable rainfall) / potential
evapotranspiration
MAI Climate classification
0.0 to 0.33 during all months Very arid
More than 0.34 for 1-2 months Arid
More than 0.34 for 3-4 consecutive months Semi-arid
V. Steiner et al., (1988)
After careful consideration of several definitions, Steiner et al. (1988)
consider aridity index concept of the United Nations Conference on
Desertification based on the balance between precipitation (P) and
evapotranspiration (ETP) to be appropriate for wide scale adoption.
According to this definition the areas with P/ETP ratio between 0.03 and
0.20 are arid and areas with the ratio between 0.2 and 0.5 are semi-arid.

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VI. FAO classification
This classification is based on 'growing period concept' of the FAO.
Areas having a growing period between 1 and 74 days are classified as arid
and those with a growing period between 75 and 119 days are semiarid.
(Growing period is the number of days during a year when precipitation
exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration, plus a period to use an
assumed 100 mm of water from excess precipitation (or less, if not available)
stored in the soil profile).
VII. ICAR classification of agro-climatic zones
ICAR while establishing the dryland centers in different agro-climatic
zones of the country in 1970, used the simple formula of Thornthwaite
(1955) for estimating the moisture index.
Moisture Index = 100 [(P-PE)/PE]
Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) gave only six classifications while the
ICAR (Krishnan and Mukhtar Singh, 1968) had eight moisture indices with
eight moisture belts indicating eight zones in India. The scale adopted in
defining climatic zones in terms of moisture indices are
Zone Moisture Index Moisture belt
1 < -80 Extremely dry
2 -60 to -80 Semi dry
3 -40 to -60 Dry
4 -20 to -40 Slightly dry
5 0 to -20 Slightly moist
6 0 to +50 Moist
7 +50 to +100 Wet
8 > +100 Extremely wet
VIII. All India coordinated Research Project on dryland
Agriculture of ICAR has divided climate into three types based
on moisture deficit index (MDI)
MDI = [(P-PET)/PET]
Where,
PET is estimated based on temperature as PET= 2T where T is average
temperature in °C

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Climate MDI
Sub humid 0 to 33.3
Semi-arid - 33.3 to 66.6
Arid > - 66.6
Importance of climatic classification
• Crop planning: Diversification and introduction of high value crops,
evaluating their suitability on particular land mass.
• Irrigation plan: Development of irrigation plans based on the
agricultural and climatic condition.
• Research and Development: Development of location specific high
yielding strains of crops and livestock keeping in view the suitability
of climatic condition and land mass position.
3. Progress of Dryland Agricultural Research in India
Though dryland farming is as old as agriculture, the systematic research
work was started only from 1923 with the start of Research Centre at Manjri
near Pune, in Bombay province by V.A. Tamhane. Later Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research (presently Indian Council Agricultural Research)
started research schemes at Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Punjab
provinces. Around 1933, systematic work was started on different aspects of
crop production under rainfed conditions. The findings of the period were
related to rainfall analysis. It was found that rainfall was not only scarce but
also erratic. The dry spells during the crop period ranged from 20 to 55 days.
Therefore, the emphasis on research was given to conserve soil moisture and
to reduce evaporation. Based on the studies conducted between 1933 and
1943, package was developed for better crop production under rainfed
conditions.
The important practices are
• Formation of contour bunds.
• Repeated harrowing in black soils to conserve moisture.
• Addition of farm yard manure to maintain the soil fertility.
• Wider spacing for crops grown on residual moisture.
The package of practices were named after the province from which
they were developed as Bombay dry farming practices, Madras dry farming
practices, Hyderabad dry farming practices and Punjab dry farming
practices. The adoption of these practices was low due to marginal increase

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in yield. Government programmes mainly concentrated on contour bunding
which provided employment during drought periods. During 1954, the soil
conservation training and demonstration centres were established by Indian
Council of Agriculture Research at eight locations. These centres
concentrated on soil conservation techniques and training of officers on soil
conservation, while crop production received low importance. During 1970,
ICAR started All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland
Agriculture at 23 locations spread all over India. Under the scheme, an
integrated approach was adopted to solve the problems of dryland
agriculture, by including the disciplines of agronomy, soil science, plant
breeding and agricultural engineering. The important practices developed
under the scheme are contingent cropping, efficient crops and cropping
systems, water harvesting and supplemental irrigation, drought resistant
varieties, fertilizer recommendation and agricultural implements. Watershed
approach was followed to popularise these technology by including soil
conservation practices with improved dryland practices, alternate crops and
other ancillary enterprises. In 1983, 47 model watersheds were developed.
Based on the success of this approach in increasing the productivity of
drylands, the national watershed development programme for dryland
agriculture was started throughout the country.
The chronology of events in dryland agricultural research in India is as
follows
• 1920 - Scarcity tract development given importance by the Royal
Commission on Agriculture
• 1923 - Establishing Dry farming Research Station at Manjri (Pune)
by Tamhane
• 1933 - Research Stations established at Bijapur and Solapur
• 1934 - Research Stations established at Hagari and Raichur
• 1935 - Research Station established at Rohtak (Punjab)
• 1944 - Monograph on dry farming in India by N.V. Kanitkar
(Bombay, Hyderabad, Madras Dry Farming Practices)
• 1953 – Establishment of Central Soil Conservation Board
• 1954 – Establishment of Central Soil Conservation Centres
• 1970 - Research Centres established under AICRPDA in 23
locations
• 1972 - Establishment of ICRISAT

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 • 1976 - Establishment of Dryland Operational Research Projects
• 1983 - Starting of 47 model watersheds under ICAR
• 1984 - Initiation of World Bank assisted Watershed Development
Programmes in four states. Establishing Dryland Development
Board in Karnataka.
• 1985 - Birth of Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
(CRIDA) at Hyderabad.
• 1986 - Launching of NWDPRA programmes by Government of
India in 15 states.
CRIDA - 1985
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA)
Pooling of expertise and leveraging the strengths of AICRPDA network
eventually resulted in the establishment of CRIDA at Hyderabad, on April
12, 1985 to provide leadership in basic strategic research in dryland
agriculture while continuing research on location specific ORP’s at
AICRPDA centres. At present the AICRPDA centres are located at 25
places.
Mandate/objectives of CRIDA
• To conduct basic and applied researches that will contribute to the
development strategies for sustainable farming systems in the
rainfed areas.
• To act as a repository of information on rainfed agriculture in the
country
• To provide leadership and coordinate network with state
agricultural universities for generating location specific
technologies for rainfed areas
• To act as a centre for training in research methodologies in the
fields basic to management of rainfed farming systems
• To collaborate with relevant national and international agencies in
achieving the above objectives
• To provide consultancy
5. Importance of Dry Farming in Indian Agriculture
i) About 70% of rural population lives in dry farming areas and their
livelihood depend on success or failure of the crops

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ii) Dryland Agriculture plays a distinct role in Indian Agriculture
occupying 60% of cultivated area and supports 40% of human
population and 60% livestock population.
iii) The contribution (production) of rainfed agriculture in India is
about 42 per cent of the total food grain, 75 per cent of oilseeds, 90
per cent of pulses and
iv) about 70 per cent of cotton.
v) By the end of the 20th century the contribution of drylands will
have to be 60 per cent if India is to provide adequate food to 1000
million people. Hence tremendous efforts both in the development
and research fronts are essential to achieve this target.
vi) More than 90 per cent of the area under sorghum, groundnut, and
pulses is rainfed. In case of maize and chickpea, 82 to 85 per cent
area is rainfed. Even 78 percent of cotton area is rainfed. In case of
rapeseed/mustard, about 65.8 per cent of the area is rainfed.
Interestingly, but not surprisingly, 61.7, 44.0, and 35.0 per cent area
under rice, barley and wheat, respectively, is rainfed.
vii) At present, 3 ha of dryland crop produce cereal grain equivalent to
that produced in one ha irrigated crop. With limited scope for
increasing the area under plough, only option left is to increase the
productivity with the modern technology and inputs, since the per
capita land availability which was 0.28 ha in 1990 is expected to
decline 0.19 ha in 2010.
viii) The productivity of grains already showed a plateau in irrigated
agriculture due to problems related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity
build up and raising water table (Lakhran et al., 2017; Bajiya et al.,
2017; Kumar et al., 2019; Mrunalini et al., 2020). Therefore, the
challenges of the present millennium would be to produce more
from drylands while ensuring conservation of existing resources.
Hence, new strategies would have to be evolved which would make
the fragile dryland ecosystems more productive as well as
sustainable (Kumar et al., 2017a; Kakraliya et al., 2018; Rani et al.,
2019; Meena et al., 2020; Punia et al., 2020). In order to achieve
evergreen revolution, we shall have to make grey areas (drylands)
as green through latest technological innovations.
ix) Drylands offer good scope for development of agroforestry, social
forestry, horti-sylvi-pasture and such other similar systems which

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 will not only supply food, fuel to the village people and fodder to
the cattle but forms a suitable vegetative cover for ecological
maintenance (Meena et al., 2018).
6. Constraints for crop production in dry farming regions
1. Climatic constraints
A) Rainfall characteristics: Among the different climatic parameters
rainfall is an important factor influencing the crop production in dry
regions.
i) Variable rainfall: Rainfall varies both in time and space
dimension. Annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year and
naturally its coefficient of variation is very high. Generally,
higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation. In other
words, crop failures due to uncertain rains are more frequent in
regions with lesser rainfall. The average annual rainfall of India
is 1192 mm where as in Andhra Pradesh it is 890 mm. Based
on the average annual rainfall, the India can be divided into
four zones. More than one third of total geographical area in
India receive rainfall less than 750 mm.
Classification of India into different zones based on rainfall
Zone Average annual rainfall (mm) Percent of geographical area
I. (Very low rainfall area) < 350 13
II. (Low rainfall area) 350 to 750 22
III. (Medium rainfall area) 750 to 1125 36
IV. (High rainfall area) > 1125 29
ii) Intensity and distribution: In general, more than 50 percent
of total rainfall is usually received in 3 to 5 rainy days. Such
intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to
surface runoff. This process also accelerates soil erosion.
Distribution of rainfall during the crop growing season is more
important than total rainfall in dryland agriculture.
iii) Aberrations or variations in monsoon behaviour
• Late onset of monsoon: If the onset of monsoon is delayed,
crops/varieties recommended to the region cannot be sown
in time. Delayed sowing lead to uneconomical crop yields.
• Early withdrawal of monsoon: This situation is equally or

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 more dangerous than late onset of monsoon. Rainy season
crops will be subjected to terminal stress leading to poor
yields. Similarly, post-rainy season crops fail due to
inadequate available soil moisture, especially during
reproductive and maturity phases.
• Prolonged dry spells: Breaks of monsoon for 7-10 days
may not be a serious concern. Breaks of more than 15 days
duration especially at critical stages for soil moisture stress
leads to reduction in yield. Drought due to break in
monsoon may adversely affect the crops in shallow soils
than in deep soils.
B) High atmospheric temperature: Because of high atmospheric
temperature the atmospheric demand for moisture increases causing
high evapotranspiration losses resulting in moisture stress.
C) Low relative humidity: Low relative humidity results in high ET
losses causing moisture stress whenever moisture is limiting.
D) Hot dry winds: Hot dry winds causes desiccation of leaves
resulting in moisture stress. High turbulent winds especially during
summer months cause soil erosion resulting in dust storms and loss
of fertile soil.
E) High atmospheric water demand: Due to high atmospheric water
demand the potential evapotranspiration (PET) exceed the
precipitation during most part of the year.
2. Soil Constraints
The different soil groups encountered in dryland areas are black soils,
red soils and alluvial soils. The constraints for crop production are different
in different soil groups. The predominant soil group is alluvial where the
problems for crop production are not so acute as in red and black soil. The
different soil constraints for crop production are
1. Inadequate soil moisture availability: The moisture holding
capacity of soils in dry regions is low due to shallow depth
especially in alfisols (red soils), low rainfall and low organic
matter content.
2. Poor organic matter content: The organic matter content in most
of the soils under dryland conditions is very low (< 1%) due to
high temperature and low addition of organic manures. Poor
organic matter content adversely affects soil physical properties
related to moisture storage (Jangir et al., 2017, 2019).

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 3. Poor soil fertility: Due to low accumulation of organic matter and
loss of fertile top soil by soil erosion the dry land soils are poor in
fertility status (Jangir et al., 2017; Jakhar et al., 2018). Most of the
dry land soils are deficient in nitrogen and zinc.
4. Soil deterioration due to erosion (wind, water): In India nearly
175 mha of land is subjected to different land degradations, among
them the soil erosion is very predominant. The erosion causes loss
of top fertile soil leaving poor sub soil for crop cultivation.
5. Soil crust problem: In case of red soils, the formation of hard
surface soil layers hinders the emergence of seedlings which
ultimately affect the plant population. Crusting of soil surface after
rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, due to high run
off.
6. Presence of hard layers and deep cracks: Presence of hard
layers (pans) in soil and deep cracks affect the crop production
especially in case of black soils.
3. Socio-economic constraints
The economic condition of the dryland farmers is very poor because
a) Less access to inputs
b) Non availability of credit in time
c) The risk bearing capacity of dryland farmer is very low
Hence the dryland farmers resort to low input agriculture which results
in poor yields.
Problems for crop production in dry farming regions
1. Traditional cultivation practices
The existing management practices adopted by the farmers are evolved
based on long term experience by the farmers.
The traditional management practices are
a) Ploughing along the slope
b) Broadcasting seeds/ sowing behind the country plough leading to
poor as well as uneven plant stand
c) Monsoon sowing
d) Choice of crops based on rainfall
e) Application FYM in limited quantity

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 f) Hand weeding
g) Mixed cropping
h) Use of conventional system of harvesting
i) Traditional storage system
2. Heavy weed infestation
This is the most serious problem in dryland areas. Unfortunately the
environment congenial for crop growth is also congenial for weed growth
(Dahiya et al., 2017). Weed seeds germinate earlier than crop seeds and try
to suppress the crop growth. The weed problem is high in rainfed areas
because of continuous rains and acute shortage of labour. The weed
suppression in the early stage of crop growth is required to reduce the
decrease in crop yields.
3. Lack of suitable varieties
Most of the crop varieties available for cultivation in dry lands are
meant for irrigated agriculture. There are no any special varieties exclusively
meant for dryland areas. Hence still more efforts are required to develop
varieties in different crops exclusively meant for dryland agriculture (Kumar
et al., 2017).
7. Drought and drought management strategies
Low rainfall or failure of monsoon rain is a recurring feature in India
(Kumar et al., 2017). This has been responsible for droughts and famines.
The word drought generally denotes scarcity of water in a region. Though,
aridity and drought are due to insufficient water, aridity is a permanent
climatic feature and is the culmination of a number of long term processes.
However, drought is a temporary condition that occurs for a short period due
to deficient precipitation for vegetation, river flow, water supply and human
consumption. Drought is due to anomaly in atmospheric circulation.
Definition
There is no universally accepted definition for drought.
a) Early workers defined drought as prolonged period without rainfall.
b) According to Ramdas (1960) drought is a situation when the actual
seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation.
c) American Meteorological Society defined drought as a period of
abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to
cause a severe hydrological imbalance in the area affected.

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 d) Prolonged deficiencies of soil moisture adversely affect crop growth
indicating incidence of agricultural drought. It is the result of
imbalance between soil moisture and evapotranspiration needs of an
area over a fairly long period so as to cause damage to standing crops
and to reduce the yields.
e) The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a situation
occurring in any area where the annual rainfall is less than 75% of
normal rainfall.
Classification
Drought can be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of
occurrence and using some specific terms.
1. Based on duration
Permanent drought: This is characteristic of the desert climate where
sparse vegetation growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is possible
only by irrigation during entire crop season.
Seasonal drought: This is found in climates with well defined rainy and
dry seasons. Most of the arid and semiarid zones fall in this category.
Duration of the crop varieties and planting dates should be such that the
growing season should fall within rainy season.
Contingent drought: This involves an abnormal failure of rainfall. It
may occur almost anywhere especially in most parts of humid or sub humid
climates. It is usually brief, irregular and generally affects only a small area.
Invisible drought: This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an
area. When rainfall is inadequate to meet the evapotranspiration losses, the
result is borderline water deficiency in soil resulting in less than optimum
yield. This occurs usually in humid regions.
2. Based on relevance to the users (National Commission on
Agriculture, 1976)
Meteorological drought: It is defined as a condition, where the annual
precipitation is less than the normal over an area for prolonged period
(month, season or year).
Atmospheric drought: It is due to low air humidity, frequently
accompanied by hot dry winds. It may occur even under conditions of
adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition when plants show
wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day when transpiration exceeds
absorption temporarily for a short period. When absorption keeps pace with
transpiration the plants revive. (Mid day wilt).

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 Hydrological drought: Meteorological drought, when prolonged results
in hydrological drought with depletion of surface water and consequent
drying of reservoirs, tanks etc. It results in deficiency of water for all sectors
using water. This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a
whole for bringing crops to maturity.
Agricultural drought (soil drought): It is the result of soil moisture
stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and
evapotranspiration of a crop. It is usually gradual and progressive. Plants can
therefore, adjust at least partly, to the increased soil moisture stress. This
situation arises as a consequence of scanty precipitation or its uneven
distribution both in space and time.
Relevant definition of agricultural drought appears to be a period of
dryness during the crop season, sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the
yield. The extent of yield loss depends on the crop growth stage and the
degree of stress. It does not begin when the rain ceases, but actually
commences only when the plant roots are not able to obtain the soil moisture
rapidly enough to replace evapotranspiration losses.
3. Based on time of occurrence
Early season drought: It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or
due to long dry spells after early sowing
Mid season drought: Occurs due to long gaps between two successive
rains and stored moisture becoming insufficient during the long dry spell.
Late season drought: Occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop
water stress at maturity stage.
4. Other terms to describe drought
Relative drought: The drought for one crop may not be a drought
situation for another crop. This is due to mismatch between soil moisture
condition and crop selection. For eg. a condition may be a drought situation
for growing rice, but the same situation may not be a drought for growing
groundnut.
Physiological drought: Refers to a condition where crops are unable to
absorb water from soil even when water is available, due to the high osmotic
pressure of soil solution due to increased soil concentration, as in saline and
alkaline soils. It is not due to deficit of water supply.
Impacts of Drought
1. Direct impacts or primary impacts- are usually physical /
material impacts

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 ▪ Reduced agricultural production
▪ Increased fire hazard (forest fire)
▪ Depleted water levels
▪ Higher livestock and wildlife mortality rates
▪ Threat to wildlife and aquatic habitats
2. Indirect impacts - Direct impacts have multiplier effects through
the economy and society, they are referred to as indirect impacts.
▪ Reduction in agricultural production that may result in reduced
income for farmers and agribusiness
▪ Price rise - Food, Fodder and Fuel (rise in inflation)
▪ Increase in Unemployment
▪ Reduced purchasing capacity and demand for consumption
▪ Increased menace of migration
Effect of drought on crop production
a) Water relations: Alters the water status by its influence on
absorption, translocation and transpiration. The lag in absorption
behind transpiration results in loss of turgor as a result of increase
in the atmospheric dryness.
b) Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due
to reduction in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area
and increase in assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of
translocation).
c) Respiration: Increase with mild drought but more serve drought
lowers water content and respiration.
d) Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and inter cellular
spaces, thicker cell wall, greater development of mechanical tissue.
Stomata per unit leaf tend to increase.
e) Metabolic reaction: All most all metabolic reactions are affected
by water deficits.
f) Hormonal Relationships: The activity of growth promoting
hormones like cytokinin, gibberlic acid and indole acetic acid
decreases and growth regulating hormone like abscisic acid,
ethylene, etc., increases.
g) Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of nitrogen is

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 affected. Since dry matter production is considerably reduced the
uptake of NPK is reduced.
h) Growth and Development: Decrease in growth of leaves, stems
and fruits. Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering
while it advances if drought occurs after flowering.
i) Reproduction and grain growth: Drought at flowering and grain
development determines the number of fruits and individual grain
weight, respectively. Panicle initiation in cereals is critical while
drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen. Drought at grain
development reduces yield while vegetative and grain filling stages
are less sensitive to moisture stress.
j) Yield: The effect on yield depends hugely on what proportion of
the total dry matter is considered as useful material to be harvested.
If it is aerial and underground parts, effect of drought is as sensitive
as total growth. When the yield consists of seeds as in cereals,
moisture stress at flowering is detrimental. When the yield is fibre
or chemicals where economic product is a small fraction of total dry
matter moderate stress on growth does not have adverse effect on
yields.

Crop Adaptations
The ability of crop to grow satisfactorily under water stress is called

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drought adaptation. Adaptation is structural or functional modification in
plants to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

1. Escaping drought
Evading the period of drought is the simplest means of adaptation of
plants to dry conditions. Many desert plants, the so called ephemerals,
germinate at the beginning of the rainy season and have an extremely short
life period (5 to 6 weeks) which is confined to the rainy period. These plants
have no mechanism for overcoming moisture stress and are, therefore, not
drought resistant. Germination inhibitors serve as safety mechanism
(Abscisic acid).
In cultivated crops, the ability of a cultivar to mature before the soil
dries is the main adaptation to growth in dry regions. However, only very
few crops have such a short growing season to be called as ephemerals.
Certain varieties of pearl millet mature within 60 days after sowing. Ex:
HHB 67, MBH 163, Moti 1, Moti 2 etc Short duration pulses like cowpea,
green gram, black gram can be included in this category. In addition to
earliness, they need drought resistance because there may be dry spells
within the crop period of 60 days. The disadvantage about breeding early
varieties is that yield is reduced with reduction in duration.

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2. Drought avoidance
Stress avoidance is the ability to maintain a favourable water balance,
and turgidity even when exposed to drought conditions, thereby avoiding
stress and its consequences. A favourable water balance under drought
conditions can be achieved either by : (i) conserving water by restricting
transpiration before or as soon as stress is experienced; or (ii) accelerating
water uptake sufficiently so as to replenish the lost water.
3. Drought tolerance
Plants actually tolerate water stress conditions by modifying their
metabolic processes through following ways-
a) Resistance to metabolic strains: In spite of water stress conditions
these plants resist any adverse effect on metabolic processes. Most
of the xerophytic plants are capable of growing under desert due to
these characteristics.
b) Minimizing protein loss: Normal plant lose their protein content
under severe water stress conditions. The plants having capacity to
avoid protein loss under water stress conditions may tolerate water
stress successfully.
Strategies for drought management
i) Adjusting the plant population
The plant population should be lesser in dryland conditions than under
irrigated conditions. The rectangular type of planting pattern should always
be followed under dryland conditions. Under dryland conditions whenever
moisture stress occurs due to prolonged dry spells, under limited moisture
supply the adjustment of plant population can be done by
a) Increasing the inter row distance - By adjusting more number of
plants within the row and increasing the distance between the rows
reduces the competition during any part of the growing period of
the crop. Hence it is more suitable for limited moisture supply
conditions.
b) Increasing the intra row distance - Here the distance between
plants is increased by which plants grow luxuriantly from the
beginning. There will be competition for moisture during the
reproductive period of the crop. Hence it is less advantageous as
compared to above under limited moisture supply.

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ii) Mid-season corrections
The contingent management practices done in the standing crop to
overcome the unfavourable soil moisture conditions due to prolonged dry
spells are known as mid season conditions.
a) Thinning - This can be done by removing every alternate row or
every third row which will save the crop from failure by reducing
the competition
b) Spraying - In crops like groundnut, castor, redgram, etc., during
prolonged dry spells the crop can saved by spraying water at weekly
intervals or 2 per cent urea at week to 10 days interval.
c) Ratooning - In crops like sorghum and bajra, ratooning can
practiced as mid season correction measure after break of dry spell.
iii) Mulching
It is a practice of spreading any covering material on soil surface to
reduce evaporation losses. The mulches will prolong the moisture
availability in the soil and save the crop during drought conditions.
iv) Weed control
Weeds compete with crop for different growth resources ore seriously
under dryland conditions. The water requirement of most of the weeds is
more than the crop plants. Hence they compete more for soil moisture.
Therefore the weed control especially during early stages of crop growth
reduce the impact of dry spell by soil moisture conservation.
v) Rain Water harvesting and lifesaving irrigation
The collection of run-off water during peak periods of rainfall and
storing in different structures is known as water harvesting. The stored water
can be used for giving the life saving irrigation during prolonged dry spells.
8. Management of Drylands
The dryland management implies, the judicious use of all the resources
i.e. land, water, vegetation in an area for providing an answer to alleviate
drought, moderate floods, prevent soil erosion, improve water availability
and increase food, fodder, fuel and fibre on sustained basis. This can be
attained by –
i) Runoff Control (Soil and Water Conservation)
ii) Soil Fertility Management
iii) Fitting Crops to the Available Growing Period

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 a) Choice of crops and varieties – cropping systems in drylands
b) Contingent crop planning for aberrant weather conditions
i) Runoff control (Soil and Water Conservation)
Soil and water conservation measures consist of agronomical and
mechanical methods. Agronomic methods are supported with mechanical
measures where land slope exceeds permissible limits and runoff gains
erosive velocities.
a) Contour tillage
All agricultural operations such as ridging, ploughing, harrowing,
sowing, trenching, etc., are recommended to be done on the contour
wherever possible or at least generally across the direction of the slope
where holdings are very small. Even though the operation is very simple, it
plays a major role in retarding the process of soil erosion through runoff. It
also conserves soil, and due to increased time of concentration, more
rainwater seeps through the soil profile to recharge ground water. Summer
ploughing leaves the soil highly absorbent of initial rains.
b) Dead furrows
When all tillage operations are complete, it is advisable to leave a deep
dead furrow at every 10 m interval. This should remain in position until the
crop is harvested. Dead furrows aid in reducing the runoff velocity and they
also conserve water.
c) Strip cropping
Raising Erosion Permitting Crops (EPC) with Erosion Resistant Crops
(ERC) having abundant adventitious root system and providing high
percentage of canopy in strips in a ratio of 2:1 or 3:1 (i.e. 20 to 10 rows or 30
to 10 rows) helps in trapping soil from EPC strips to ERC strips. The
increased resistance to runoff in ERC results in higher volume of water
percolating through soil profile, due to increased time of (on-ground)
concentration. The close-growing ERC strips are generally legumes which
fix nitrogen in the soil and enrich it. The canopy of the ERC also protects the
soil from beating action of rain drops.
d) Agro-horticulture
Marginal lands do not produce good annual crop returns even in normal
season. These kinds of soils are best used for raising trees of economic value
and creating permanent assets. Some of these lands are also very good for
raising dryland horticultural crops such as mango, ber, pomegranate,

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tamarind etc. A part of the land could be earmarked specially for planting
mixed tree species known in the area for providing fuel, fodder and timber
for household needs and agricultural implements. Trees provide stable and
sustained income every year, especially in drought years.
e) Role of vegetation
Vegetation is crucial in preserving productive soil and conserving rain
water for sustaining life. Soil and water need to be preserved for crop
production (both annual and plantation crops) as well as plants that give fuel,
fodder, fruits, industrial raw materials, medicinal and aromatic plants and the
like. Minor vegetation such as creepers, shrubs, various kind of grasses,
legumes and plants like Agave, which yield fibre have an important role
when grown in gullies of various kinds and also on upstream and
downstream sides of mechanical structures such as gully checks, water
harvesting structures, etc. These provide reinforcement and extend the life
span of the structures by binding the soil through the network of their root
systems. These plants also provide fodder to animals in the area.
f) Weeding
Frequent weeding is an important part of dryland agriculture. Line
sowing and mechanical weeding, with appropriate size of blade harrows,
remove unwanted vegetation which competes with the main crop. It is not
uncommon to see the dryland farmer hitching several blade harrows to one
yoke and a pair of bullocks. Weeding within rows can be done using hand
hoes. Removal of unwanted vegetation helps the main crop obtain greater
accessibility to soil moisture and plant nutrients for its own growth.
g) Mulching
Mulches are ground covers that prevent the soil from being washed
away, reduce evaporation, increase infiltration, and control growth of
unwanted weeds. Mulch can be organic crop residue, pebbles, or materials
such as polythene sheets. Mulching prevents the formation of hard crust after
each rain. Organic mulches add plant nutrients to soil upon decomposition.
Use of blade harrows between rows also creates “dust mulch” by breaking
the continuity of capillary tubes of soil moisture (black soils).
h) Mechanical measures
Where the slope of the soil is more than permissible, mechanical
measures such as bunding, terracing and trenching are recommended in
addition to agronomic methods. Agronomic methods are used in inter-
bunded areas and mechanical practices complement to help boost crop yields
in rainfed drylands.

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ii) Soil fertility management
a) Organic matter addition
Indian soils are very poor in organic matter, especially in drought-prone
areas. This can be improved by leaving the crop residue in situ (on the
fields). Adding organic manures such as farmyard manure and compost
every year as basal application to the soil improves the physical condition of
the soil considerably. Soil – Air, Soil – Temperature, and Soil – Moisture
relationships are well balanced with the presence of organic matter. Organic
matter improves the activities of soil microorganisms and also provides the
much needed micro plant nutrients of all kinds, besides nitrogen, phosphorus
and potash. Addition of large amounts of chemical fertilizers to dryland
crops should be discouraged as it damages the soil due to:
• Excessive depletion of scarce soil moisture for its own
transformation;
• Reduction in all soil microorganism activity; and
• Destruction of soil structure
b) Good nutrient management
By balanced use of organic manures and fertilizers as source of
nutrients.
iii) Fitting crops to the available growing period
a) Selection of drought-resistant varieties
It is important that varieties which have proven genetic character to
withstand longer periods of drought are chosen so that the crops can do well
even in situations where the intervals between rainy days are long.
b) Early maturing varieties
Where the distribution and the amount of rain is unpredictable, it is
important to select varieties which have a shorter duration life cycle (seed to
seed) to cut down the water requirements of the crop. In drought-prone areas,
the success rate of short duration crops is greater than long-duration crops.
c) Seed rates
Normal season: Sowing is done with the normal seed rate. However, if
there is a drought during the plant’s growth period and wilting is likely to
occur, selective thinning is recommended to reduce the plant population to
effectively use the scarce soil moisture among fewer plants.

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 Late season: Where the monsoon is moderately delayed, normal
cropping with reduced seed rate is advised.
d) Line sowing
Line-sowing on contours is essential. It arrests runoff and conserves soil
being eroded. It helps in the use of labour-efficient implements in weeding
(i.e., removal of unwanted vegetation through use of different sizes of blade
harrows between the rows).
e) Wider spacing
In all drought-prone areas, the most important objective is to raise a
successful crop under scarce soil moisture conditions. One of the
recommended practices is wider spacing between rows and between plants
within the row. This reduces plant population and competition between
plants for scarce soil moisture. Fewer plants have greater access to limited
available soil moisture.
f) Mixed/Inter cropping
Mixed cropping of different crops along with the main crops, such as
millets and different legumes, is an insurance against the vagaries of the
monsoon. The different root systems of mixed crop feed at different depths
of the soil. Moreover, mixing cropping provides small quantities of grain of
different kinds for home consumption at different times.
Choice of crops and varieties – cropping systems in drylands
1. Choice of crops
Traditional cropping pattern in the dry farming areas is dominated by
food grains viz., millets and pulses. In a predominantly subsistence type of
farming system, such dominance of food crops is natural. The choice of
crops for drylands is affected by
a) Rainfall quantity and distribution
b) Time of onset of rainy season
c) Duration of rainy reason
d) Soil characters including amount of rain water stored in the soil
e) Farmer's requirements
The major focus of research under AICRPDA has been on the
identification of most efficient crops for each dry farming region. The
criteria for choice of crops for dry farming regions comprise the following

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 a) Tolerance to drought
b) Fast growth during initial period to withstand harsh environment
c) Genetic potential for high yield
d) Short or medium duration to escape terminal drought
e) Adaptability to wide climatic variations
f) Responsive to fertilizers
For many dry farming regions of India, more suitable crops than
existing ones have been identified. However, the acceptance and adoption of
the practice of crop substitution by dry land farmers is poor since in most
instances the new crops replace food crops.
Traditional
Region Yield (q/ha) Alternate crop Yield (q/ha)
crop
Bellary Cotton 2.0 Sorghum 26.7
Varanasi Wheat 8.6 Chickpea 28.6
Ranchi Upland rice 28.8 Sorghum 44.5
Agra Wheat 10.3 Mustard 20.4
Hissar Wheat 3.2 Eruca sativa 16.1
Bijapur Wheat 9.4 Safflower 18.5

2. Selection of suitable varieties

In most crops of dry farming regions, traditional local varieties still
dominate. The preference for these local varieties is based on their
pronounced drought tolerance. But they are usually longer in duration
susceptible to moisture stress at maturity. They have low yield potential even
under favourable rainfall. They do not respond significantly to improved
management practices such as nutrient supply. The criteria now adopted for
selection of crop varieties for dry lands include drought tolerance, short or
medium duration, high yield potential, response to nutrient supply, high
water use efficiency, moderate resistance to pest and diseases (Dahiya et al.,
2017; Gupta and Kumar, 2018). Suitable varieties for all dry land crops have
been developed in all the dry farming regions and have proved their high
yield potential.
3. Choice of cropping system
Choice of suitable cropping system must aim at maximum and
sustainable use of resources especially water and soil. Cropping systems
depend on rainfall quantity, length of rainy reason and soil storage capacity.
The broad guidelines in choosing a cropping system for dry lands are given
below

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 Growing
Rainfall Profile storage Suggested cropping
Soil type season
(mm) capacity (mm) system
(weeks)
Single rainy season
Alfisols,
350-600 20 100 cropping sorghum /
Shallow vertisols
maize /soybean
Single cropping
Deep aridisols,
sorghum
350-600 Entisols 20 100
/maize/soybean in
(alluvium)
kharif / rabi
Single post rainy
350-600 Deep vertisols 20 100 season cropping
sorghum
Intercropping
Alfisols, Sorghum + pigeon
600-750 20-30 150
vertisols, entisols pea
Cotton + black gram
Double cropping with
Entisols, monitoring
Deep vertisols, Maize–safflower
750-900 30 200
Deep alfisols, Soybean – chickpea
Inceptisols Groundnut-horse
gram
Assured double
cropping
> 900 As above > 30 > 200
Maize – chick pea
Soybean – safflower

Inter cropping systems suitable for drylands

Base crop duration Intercrop duration
Crops Geometry
(days) (days)
Sorghum + Lablab 6-8:2 100-120 150-180
Sorghum + Redgram 6-8:1 100-120 180
Sorghum + Cowpea 2:1 100-120 80
Cotton + Black gram 2:1 150-185 65-75
Groundnut + Redgram 6-8:1 105 180
Groundnut + Castor 6-8:1 105 150-180
Bengalgram + Coriander 4:1 100 80
Maize + Cowpea 2:1 100-110 75-80
Ragi+ Cowpea +
6:1:1 100 75 + 180
Redgram

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Important double cropping systems of different location
Water availability
Soil type Region Double cropping system
(days)
Maize – Chickpea
Vertisols MP 210-230
Soybean – Wheat
Maharashtra 190-210 Sorghum-Safflower
Cowpea – Sorghum
Karnataka 130-150
Greengram – Safflower
Rice – Chickpea
200-230
Inceptisols UP Pearl millet – Chickpea
180-200
Blackgram – Mustard
Maize – Chickpea
Oxisols Bihar 160-180
Groundnut – Barley
Cowpea – Ragi
Alfisols Karnataka 190-220
Soybean – Ragi
Alfisols and aridisols < 120 No double cropping

Contingent crop planning for aberrant weather conditions

1. Effect of aberrant weather conditions on crops
Rainfall behaviour in dry farming areas is erratic and uncertain. The
deviations in rainfall behaviour commonly met within dry areas include
delayed onset, early withdrawal and intermediary dry spells during rainy
season. The adverse effect of these rainfall aberrations on crop growth vary
with the degree of deviation and the crop growth stage at which such
deviations occur. Suitable manipulations in crop management practices are
needed to minimize such adverse effects of abnormal rainfall behaviour.
These management decisions, constitute contingency planning. Such
management practices done after crop establishment and in the middle of
crop growth are called mid-season or mid-term corrections.
Rainfall aberration Effect on crops
1. Delay in onset of Length of cropping season or cropping duration is reduced -
rainfall crop sowing is delayed
2. Intermediate dry spells
a. Immediately after Germination will be affected, plant population will be
sowing reduced
b. At vegetative phase Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion, branching or
tillering
c. At flowering Affects anthesis and pollination, grain / pod number is
reduced
d. At ripening Grain filling and grain size reduced
3. Early withdrawal or Moisture stress at maturity grain filling is affected (terminal
cessation of rainfall stress)

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2. Contingency cropping
Contingency cropping is growing of a suitable crop in place of normally
sown highly profitable crop of the region due to aberrant weather conditions.
In dryland agriculture, contingency of growing another crop in place of
normally grown crop arises due to delay in the onset of monsoon. Depending
upon the date of receipt of rainfall, crops are selected. It is assumed that the
rainfall for the subsequent period is normal and depending upon the
economic status of the farmer, certain amount of risk is taken to get good
profits if season is normal or better than normal.
Contingency cropping is highly location specific due to variation in
amount and distribution of rainfall. Especially in arid regions, the spatial
distribution of rainfall is highly variable. It is common to observe that
rainfall received varies from field to field in the same location. Temperature
gradually falls from August onwards reaching minimum in November and
December. Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and
time of occurrence of rainfall aberration.
1. Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction
a) Delay exceeding-4 weeks
Delay in South west monsoon Groundnut
Normal - June Ragi / Pearl millet
Delay - July Little millet / Cowpea
Delay – August
Delay in North east monsoon Cotton / Sorghum
Normal - October Sunflower / Pearl millet / Ragi
Delay - Early November Coriander / Bengalgram
Delay - Late November
b) Delay of 1 to 2 weeks Alternate varieties of short duration of same crop
E.g. Sorghum Co 19 (150 days)-Co 25 (110 days),
Red gram local (180 days)-Co 5 (130 days)
2. Intermediary dry spell
a. Immediately after sowing • Gap filling with subsequent rains if stand
reduction is less than 20%.
• Re-sowing if stand reduction is more than 20%,
mulching between crop rows.
• Stirring soil surface to create dust mulch to
reduce evaporation(only in vertisols).
b. At vegetative phase • Mulching
• Antitranspirant spray
• Spraying potassium chloride
• Thinning of 33-50% population
c. At flowering • Antitranspirant spray
• Harvesting for fodder and ratooning with

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 subsequent rains in millets (e.g sorghum)
d. At ripening • Antitranspirant spray
• Harvesting for fodder
• Harvesting at physiological maturity
3. Early withdrawal of rainfall • Antitranspirant spray
• Harvesting for fodder (millets)
• Harvesting at physiological maturity

Crops have to be selected with suitable crop duration to coincide with

the length of the growing season. Generally short duration pulses like
greengram, blackgram and cowpea may suit the situation. However if the
monsoon turns to be extraordinarily good, opportunity is lost if only short
duration crops are sown. Farmers with economic strength and motivation for
high profits with some amount of risk can go for crops of long duration. The
long duration crops with flexibility or elasticity in yield are more suitable.
For example, pearlmillet, and sorghum can be ratooned if monsoon extends.
Sunflower can be introduced for higher profits with certain amount of risk.
Crops like sorghum, pearlmillet, can be grown for grain if monsoon extends
and if not, fodder can be obtained.
9. Conclusion: It is evident that though India registered phenomenal
increase in agriculture production on irrigated lands due to the
emergence of green revolution in the mid-sixties, yet, planners and
irrigation experts feel that increasing agricultural production either
through area expansion or irrigation development has reached a
saturation point. The projected increase in population has
necessitated the country to set a food grain target of 310.8 million
tonnes at present level of consumption by 2030. Keeping in view
the ever increasing population and increasing demand for food,
fodder and fuel/fire wood, there is dire need to exploit production
potential of drylands by adopting recommended or appropriate
technologies in order to meet the projected needs. Intensive
irrigated agriculture is imperative for survival but improved dryland
agriculture is necessary for production stability and equity (Gautam,
1987)
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 Chapter – 5
Distribution of water logging soils, problems and
their management

Authors
Raveena
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Abha Sharma
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Anusha L
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Shilpa
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Rajveer
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chandgothi, Churu, Rajasthan, India

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Page | 116
 Chapter - 5
Distribution of water logging soils, problems and their
management
Raveena, Abha Sharma, Anusha L, Shilpa and Rajveer

Abstract
Waterlogging occurs over a vast region of the world, adversely affecting
about 10% of the global land area and reducing crop yields by as much as
80%. Submerged soils are soils that are saturated with water for a sufficient
long time in a year. The soil is intermittently saturated with water, oxidation
of organic matter is slow and it accumulates in the "A" horizon.
Waterlogging also causes a sharp decrease in the soil redox potential,
resulting in very significant changes to the soil chemical profile. Effects
include a changed availability of mineral substances, reduction of manganese
(Mn4+), iron (Fe3+), and sulfate (SO42-), increased solubility of potentially
toxic metals and production of toxic compounds by plant roots and microbial
anaerobic metabolism. Waterlogging is a condition of soil in which excess of
water limits gas diffusion. It subjects plants to the stresses of low light, limits
gas diffusion, diffusion of soil nutrients, mechanical damage and increased
susceptibility to pest and diseases. Thus growth and development of most
plants except for rice and other wetland species are impeded under
waterlogged conditions. Rice unlike other cereal crops can grow well in
submerged fields and highly tolerant of excess water stress, from
submergence. Various methods are utilized for quantifying plant responses
to reducing soil conditions that include measurement of radial oxygen
transport, plant enzymatic responses, and assessment of anatomical/
morphological changes. Except rice, water-chestnut, sesbania and jute, yield
of other crops severely affected by waterlogging and submergence.
Waterlogging can be efficiently controlled by forming different land
configuration, mechanical as well as bio-drainage, levelling of land,
controlling irrigation and different flood control measures. Tolerant or
resistant varieties and proper nutrient management would be much more
effective during management of waterlogged soil.
Keywords: Submerged soils, redox potential.

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1. Introduction
Waterlogging occurs over a vast region of the world, adversely affecting
about 10% of the global land area (Setter and Waters 2003) and reducing
crop yields by as much as 80% (Shabala 2011). Submerged soils are soils
that are saturated with water for a sufficient long time in a year. The soil is
intermittently saturated with water, oxidation of organic matter is slow and it
accumulates in the "A" horizon. In the second horizon Fe and Mn are
deposited as rusty mantels or streaks if the diffusion is rapid, they are
deposited as concretions. Under waterlogging condition, soil gas exchange is
severely impeded. This results in a significant depletion of free oxygen (O 2)
and accumulation of carbon oxide (CO2) due to microbial and root
respiration (Bailey-Serres and Voesene 2008). Waterlogging also causes a
sharp decrease in the soil redox potential, resulting in very significant
changes to the soil chemical profile. Effects include a changed availability of
mineral substances, reduction of manganese (Mn 4+), iron (Fe3+), and sulfate
(SO42-), increased solubility of potentially toxic metals and production of
toxic compounds by plant roots and microbial anaerobic metabolism
(Kozlowski 1997 and Shabala 2011). Waterlogging is a condition of soil in
which excess of water limits gas diffusion. It subjects plants to the stresses of
low light, limits gas diffusion, diffusion of soil nutrients, mechanical damage
and increased susceptibility to pest and diseases. Thus growth and
development of most plants except for rice and other wetland species are
impeded under waterlogged conditions. Rice unlike other cereal crops can
grow well in submerged fields and highly tolerant of excess water stress,
from submergence.
Waterlogged soils are those soils that are saturated with water for a
sufficiently long time in a year to give the soil the following distinctive gley
horizons resulting from oxidation-reduction processes: -
A) Partially oxidized A horizon high in organic matter.
B) Mottled zone in which oxidation and reduction alternate and,
C) Permanently reduced zone which is bluish green in colour.
Water logging is one of the major problems of land degradation in India.
Main factors responsible for disrupting the balance of inflow and outflow of
water leading to water logging are: -
1. Unscientific management of soil,
2. Water and crops in irrigated lands and,
3. Obstruction of natural drainage system by various developmental
activities.

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 Surface water logging affects daily life activities such as agriculture,
transport, construction etc. Due to reduced bearing capacity, agricultural
machinery cannot operate well in the fields.
Water logging causes destruction of roads and structures due to reduced
bearing capacity of waterlogged soil and uplift pressure. The major problem
of waterlogged soils is lack of oxygen. Underground roots, like all tissues,
require oxygen for respiration. In a normal soil, gas exchange takes place
readily through air-filled spaces between soil particles. In water, the rate of
diffusion of oxygen is very low, and in consequence waterlogged soils are
generally virtually lacking in free oxygen. One of the most widespread
mangrove trees, Rhizophora, adapts to such anoxic soils by keeping much of
the root mass above the mud surface, surrounded by air. The stretches of
these aerial roots close to the soil carry numerous gas-exchange pores, or
lenticels, whereas the underground portions are honeycombed with air-filled
spaces.
2. Different types of water logging in the field
Riverine flood water logging: - In the rainy season, flood may come to
the nearby land from the river having excess flood water.
Oceanic floodwater logging: - Ocean water spreads in the nearby land
and cause waterlogging.
Seasonal water-logging: - Run-off water accumulates in the low lands
and depression in the rainy season.
Perennial water-logging: - Deep water, swamp etc, get rain water, runoff
water and seepage water from canal causing perennial water-logging.
Sub soil water-logging: - High water table in the rainy season is
normally unsuitable for root growth.
3. Factors affecting formation of water-logging
According to the Dahiya et al. (2018), the followings are the factors
responsible for the formation of water-logging conditions –
Climatological factor: - Due to high rainfall water accumulates on the
soil surface.
Flood: - Flood water is usually causing water-logged situation in the
field.
Seepage from canal: - Ground water levels are closer to the surface due
to seepage from canal.

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 Land shape: - Saucer-shaped land gets water from high-lands which
results into water-logging.
Uncontrolled and unwanted irrigation: - excess irrigation may cause
accumulation of water on the soil surface.
Drainage: - poor drainage system is responsible for water-logging in the
field.
4. Waterlogged area in India
In India waterlogging of soils are more acute in northern Indo-Gangatic
plains. Large areas get flooded during the monsoon season. There are also
extensive low-lying areas in the rice growing coastal belts of eastern and
southern. According to the Ministry of Agriculture an area of about 6 million
hectare are suffering due to water logging.
5. Characteristics of waterlogged Soil
• Reduced oxygen level
• Greater amount of soil solution
• Reduced aerobic microbial activity
• An altered chemical status of soil
6. Changes take place in submerged Soils
6.1 Chemical
• Under acid soils, pH increases and reduction of pH occurs in sodic
soils
• Reduction in redox potential
• Increase in specific conductance
• Nutrient availability
Under acid soils, pH increases and reduction of pH occurs in sodic
soils: - increase in pH of acid soils is mainly determined by reduction of Fe
and Mn oxides, which consume hydrogen ions. Decrease in pH of alkaline
soils may be due to release of carbon-dioxide during decomposition of
organic matter, increased concentration of carbon-dioxide produces
hydrogen ions reacting with soil water and decreases the soil pH.
Reduction in redox potential :- When a soil is submerged, drop in
potential will observe and within a few weeks negative potentials are
observed in most of soils. A low Eh harms germination and seedling
emergence but not growth of well established plants. A chain of reactions is

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initiated upon soil flooding leading to reduced (low) soil redox potential (Eh,
mV) conditions. These reactions include physical, chemical and biological
processes that have significant implications for wetland plants. Physical
processes include restriction of atmospheric gas diffusion in the soil leading
to depletion of soil oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide. Shortly after
flooding, the limited supply of oxygen in soil pore spaces is depleted rapidly
by roots, microorganisms, and soil reductants. This process leads to oxygen
depletion and reduction in soil oxidation reduction potential (Eh) followed
by a chain of soil chemical changes. The processes that follow include
denitrification, reduction of iron, manganese and sulfate, and changing soil
pH and Eh. For example, in a typical series of reductions NO 3− is reduced to
N2, Mn+4 to Mn+2, Fe+3 to Fe+2, SO42− to H2S, S2+ or HS− (depending upon
pH) and accumulations of acetic and butyric acids that are produced by
microbial metabolism. Low pH benefits rice by increasing the availability of
N, P, Si, Fe, Mn, and Mo. Reduction of a submerged soil proceeds in a
sequence. Oxygen is the first to be reduced followed by nitrate, Mn etc.
Wetlands characterized by more or less permanently waterlogged
soils are temporarily and spatially very heterogeneous with alternating cycles
of oxidation and reduction of sulfur, iron, nitrogen, and carbon. The electron
acceptors used by microorganisms depend on the redox potential, pH, and
availability of electron acceptors and comprise oxygen, nitrate, manganese,
iron, sulfate, and carbon dioxide in a sequential chain. In mesoscale systems,
there may be an overlap of different redox processes.
Especially water level fluctuations may have large implications for the
redox potential as illustrated by a soil profile along a hydrological gradient.
Soil oxygen concentrations generally show an inverse linear relation to the
redox potential with a redox potential of about 250 mV at 10% oxygen
saturation and ∼0 mV at 1–2% oxygen saturation. The change from aerobic
to anaerobic metabolism occurs at oxygen concentrations below 1%. In
wetlands, redox potentials vary considerably during the season in areas with
changing water table depth. For example, in riparian meadows the dynamics
of the soil redox potential follows the seasonal fluctuations in stream stage
and water table. This may also have important implications for the diversity
of plants. In relation to nutrient retention and release, wetlands on non-
calcareous soils retain phosphorus under aerobic conditions by oxidized iron,
manganese, and aluminum minerals. Under anaerobic conditions, phosphate
is released to the interstitial water by the same mechanisms as in lake
sediments. Iron and manganese are reduced to more soluble forms when the
redox potential is reduced. The critical redox potential depends on pH and is
around 300 mV at pH 5, 100-300 mV at pH 6-7 and 100 mV at pH 8.

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 In some parts of the world it has become common to establish new
wetlands in order to increase recreational areas, widely abundance or the
retention of nutrients. Water table fluctuations and variable hydraulic loading
can alter soil redox conditions and thereby the phosphorus availability in
these wetlands because of the direct relation between the redox potential and
the reduction of ferric phosphate. Wetlands constructed on lands used for
agricultural purposes for a number of years resulting in accumulation of
phosphorus may be ineffective in reducing phosphorus levels in effluents.
In relation to global warming and the emission of greenhouse gasses
such as methane (CH4) from wetlands, the redox potential may be a good
indicator of expected changes in the water table and increasing soil
saturation and flooding periods. Thus, the soil redox potential is a good
quantitative indicator of anoxic conditions, which is important for the
production and uptake of methane. Significant methane production can
usually only occur under strongly reducing conditions (redox
potential ≤ 150 mV). Correspondingly, swamp areas and wetlands will have
considerably higher methane concentrations and production than drier areas
have. The major part of the diffusive flux of methane from deeper strata
may, however, be immobilized or oxidized to CO 2 in surface layers of
freshwater wetlands and will therefore not necessarily escape to the
atmosphere.
Increase in specific conductance:- Specific conductance of the solution
of most soils increases after submergence attains a maximum and decline to
a fairly stable value, which varies with the soil. Increase in conductance
during the first few weeks of flooding is due to release of Fe +2 and Mn+2 from
the insoluble Fe+3 and Mn+4 oxide hydrates. Decline after sometime is
mainly due to precipitation of Fe+2 as Fe3O4nH2O, and Mn+2 as MnCO3
(Manganous carbonate).
Nutrient availability:- Nutrient availability is affected in waterlogged
soil. Increase in availability of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron,
manganese, molybdenum and silicon. Decrease in concentration and
availability of zinc, copper, sulfur. Uptake of nitrogen may increase if
properly managed or applied in the reduced soil layer.

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 Chemical Reduction Sequence Following Submergence

O2
Oxidized NO3-
H2O
Slightly MnO2
N2
Reduced
Mn2+
Moderately
Reduced
Fe3+

Fe2+
Strongly
Reduced SO4-2
CO2
H2S
CH4
Reaction sequence following submergence
Reaction sequence after draining

6.2 Physical changes

▪ Drastically retards gas exchange between soil and air
▪ Accumulation of carbon dioxide
▪ Causes swelling of colloids
▪ Reduction of permeability
▪ Compaction

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 ▪ Diffusion of molecular oxygen and development of aerobic and
anaerobic layer
Drastically retards gas exchange between soil and air :- Immediately
after submergence, the normal process of gaseous exchange between soil and
air is restricted. The entry of oxygen and other atmospheric gases in the soil
is severely restricted. The escape of soil gases by diffusion is also affected to
the same degree. The concentration of O2 in the soil is reduced to a very low
value, while CO2 is increased, especially if conditions are favorable for
biological activity. Soil gases like CO2 and methane accumulate due to
submergence.
Accumulation of carbon dioxide :- Due to presence of large amounts
of carbonic acid, the chemical equilibrium in soil-water system containing
high amount of Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, and Mn+2 affects. The partial pressure of
CO2 will determine the solubility of all these cations.
Swelling of Colloids :- When a dry soil is flooded, soil colloids absorb
water and swell. The rate of water sorption and volume increase of mineral
soils depend on the clay content, type of clay mineral, and the nature of the
adsorbed cations. Swelling is usually complete in one to three days. The
higher the clay content the greater the swelling. The expanding-lattice type
of clays (montmorillonite and beidellite) swells more than the fixed-lattice
type (kaolinite and halloysite).
Reduction of permeability :- Flooding decreases percolation rate in
soils of low permeability even without puddling. This has been attributed to
dispersion of soil particles, swelling, aggregate destruction, and clogging of
pores by microbial slime. In porous, non-swelling soils, flooding (by
providing greater head of water) increases percolation (Wickham and Singh
1978).
Compaction :- is the increase in soil density caused by dynamic
loading. When soil moisture increases causes cohesion among the soil
particles decreases, this leads to compaction. In compacted soil bulk density,
micro-voids, thermal conductivity and diffusivity increases. Macro-voids,
hydraulic conductivity, and water intake rate decreases.
Development of aerobic and anaerobic layer :- This situation may
result in the formation of two distinctly different layers being formed in a
waterlogged soil. On the top is an oxidized or aerobic surface layer where
oxygen is present, with a reduced or anaerobic layer underneath in which no
free oxygen is present.

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7.3 Biological changes
In submerged soils, aerobic micro-organisms become quiescent or die,
and facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria proliferate. In the absence of
oxygen, many facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria oxidize organic
compounds with the release of energy in a process called “anaerobic
fermentation”. In the submerged soils, organic-matter decomposition is
retarded because of lower carbon assimilation rates of anaerobic bacteria.
7. Problems associated with waterlogged soils
7.1 In soil
➢ Reduced soil aeration
➢ High water table
➢ Accumulation of harmful salts
➢ Reduced nutrient uptake
➢ Accumulation of toxic substances
➢ Destruction of soil structure
7.2 In plant
➢ It causes delay in normal cultivation operations,
➢ Maize, chilly, tobacco, tomato, and pulses are most susceptible crop
to water logging,
➢ Germinating seed and seedling stage are sensitive to water logging,
➢ Injury due to water logging is severe under warm weather condition
and sunshine hours,
➢ Water uptake reduces and root permeability decreases due to
oxygen shortage.
➢ Root respiration changes aerobic to anaerobic resulting in
accumulation of toxic substances like Ethanol, alcohol de-
hydrogenase.
7.3 Environment (methane emission)
Also referred to as biomethanation. It is the formation of methane by a
group of microbes called methanogenic bacteria or methanogens. Methane is
produced as an anaerobic break- down of organic matter and is produced in
the absence to free oxygen. This process is estimated to contribute about
25% of the total budget of global methane emission.

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 Pathway of Methane Emission

Pathways of methane emission in

waterlogged condition

Diffusion Ebullition
Aerenchyma

8. Controlling factors on methane emission from wetlands

• Water table
• Temperature
• Substrate composition
9. Methane mitigation opportunities within the rice cultivation
• Temporary drainage of rice field
• Direct seeding
• Crop rotation
• Improved tillage practices
• Use rice cultivars with low methane emission potential
Response of crop to excess water :- Lack of oxygen can directly affect
the carbohydrates metabolism of roots and ethanol is produced while,
Oxygen deficiency in the roots also impairs the synthesis of phytohormones
such as cytokinins and gibberellins. These anaerobic metabolic activities
include substances, which are toxic, to plants such as ethylene, methane,
H2S, cyanide, butyric acid, lactic acid and number of other fatty acids. Plants
affected by these toxins are impaired in growth and often show wilting
symptoms (Cooke R. 2016).
Low levels of oxygen in the root zone trigger the adverse effects of
waterlogging on plant growth. Waterlogging of the seedbed mostly affects
germinating seeds and young seedlings. Established plants are most affected

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when they are growing rapidly. Therefore, if a soil becomes waterlogged in
July, final yields may not be greatly reduced; soils are cold, the demand for
oxygen is low and plant growth is slow at this time of year. Prolonged
waterlogging during the warmer spring period could be more detrimental,
however the probability for this to occur is much lower than waterlogging in
July. When plants are growing actively, root tips begin to die within a few
days of waterlogging (Ramfrez JA and Finnerty B. 1996). The shallow root
systems that then develop limit the uptake of nutrients (particularly nitrogen)
and water, particularly when the soil profile starts to dry in spring (Kumar et
al., 2017). As a result plants may ripen early and grains may not fill
properly. Nitrogen is lost from waterlogged soils by leaching and
denitrification (degassing). Denitrification leads to the gaseous loss of
nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere, which is a major greenhouse gas
(Lakhran et al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2019; Mrunalini et al., 2020). These
losses, together with the lowered ability of plants to absorb nutrients from
waterlogged soil, cause the older leaves to yellow. Waterlogging also
directly reduces nitrogen fixation by the nodules of legume crops and
pastures.
Lack of oxygen in the root zone of plants causes their root tissues to
decompose. Usually this occurs from the tips of roots, and this causes roots
to appear as if they have been pruned. The consequence is that the plant’s
growth and development is stalled. If the anaerobic circumstances continue
for a considerable time the plant eventually dies. Most often, waterlogged
conditions do not last long enough for the plant to die. Once a waterlogging
event has passed, plants recommence respiring. As long as soil conditions
are moist, the older roots close to the surface allow the plant to survive.
However, further waterlogging-induced root pruning and/or dry conditions
may weaken the plant to the extent that it will be very poorly productive and
may eventually die. Many farmers do not realise that a site is waterlogged
until water appears on the soil surface. However, by this stage, plant roots
may already be damaged and yield potential severely affected. Waterlogging
occurs when the soil profile or the root zone of a plant becomes saturated. In
rainfed situations, this happens when more rain falls than the soil can absorb
or the atmosphere can evaporate.
10. Nutrient imbalance in waterlogged soil
10.1 Nitrogen :- Major part of the nitrogen in the flooded soils is lost
through leaching and denitrification. In submerged soil, the
absence of oxygen inhibits the activity of Nitrosomonas.
Microorganism that oxidize ammonical nitrogen and therefore
mineralization stops at the NH+4 form.

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 10.2 Phosphorus :- in waterlogged soil, increase in concentration of
water soluble phosphorus. Availabiliy of applied as well as native
phosphorus increase in the soil. Iron and aluminium phosphate
release phosphate as pH increases, while calcium phosphate
liberate phosphate as pH decreases.

10.3 Potassium :- present in normal soils in four forms:-

1. Soluble
2. Exchangeable
3. Non-exchangeable
4. Mineral K
In submergence, soluble ferrous and manganous ions increase and
exchangeable K+ is then displaced into the soil solution. The increase in
soluble K is closely related to the ferrous ion content of the soil solution.
This may leads to greater availability of K+.
10.4 Sulphur :- In flooded soils, SO42− ion is reduced to hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) by anaerobic microbial activities. Furthermore, in
flooded soils, Fe3+ reduction to Fe2+ precedes SO42− reduction. Fe2+

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 will always be present in the soil solution by the time H 2S is
produced, so that H2S will be converted to insoluble iron sulfide
(FeS). This reaction protects microorganisms and higher plants
from the toxic effects of H2S. Availability of sulphur is reduced in
submerged soils due to formation of sulphide because rice likes
other plants, absorb sulphur in the form of SO42−.
10.5 Iron and manganese :- The most important chemical change that
takes place when a soil is submerged is the reduction of iron and
manganese. Increase in its solubility. The reduction of iron and
manganese is a consequence of the anaerobic metabolism of
bacteria and appears to be chiefly a chemical reduction by
bacterial metabolites.
10.6 Zinc :- The transformation of Zn in submerged soils is not
involved in the oxidation-reduction process like that of iron.
Submergence will decrease availability of Zn due to following
reasons:-
1. Formation of franklinite (ZnFe2O4)
2. Formation of insoluble compound sphalerite (ZnS)
3. Formation of smithsonite (ZnCO3)
10.7 Copper :- Submergence decreases the availability of copper in
lowland soil due to association with soil oxides. The concentration
of Cu remains constant up to 4th weeks and then decreased
markedly. Redox potential has an important role on Cu
concentration in soil. At higher redox potential, Cu availability
decreases slightly and at lower redox potential, Cu availability
decreases abruptly. Cu concentration in soil solution decreased
with the duration of submergence.
11. Management of waterlogged soil
11.1 Drainage :- Drainage removes excess water from the root zone
that is harmful for plant growth. Land can be drained by surface
drainage, sub-surface drainage and bio-drainage.
a) Surface drainage : - Is very useful in removing excess water from
land in a controlled manner and as quickly as possible, to an
artificial drainage system or a natural watercourse. This should be
done with no damage to the environment.

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Types of surface drainage include
Ditches or open drains: These vary in size and length and can be formed
by spinner cuts or excavators.
Grassed waterways :- these are usually shallow, varying in width from
narrow to meters wide, but are constructed such that they are often grazed as
part of the paddock. They are sometimes used to bring drain outflows down
slopes to prevent erosion without considerable expense.
Humps and hollows (bedding) :- hump and hollowing is the practice of
forming (usually while renovating pastures) the ground surface into parallel
convex (humps) surfaces separated by hollows. The humped shape sheds
excess moisture relatively quickly while the hollows act as shallow surface
drains.
b) Subsurface drainage :- Once you have taken care of the surface
drainage, you may need to look at improving the drainage through
the soil profile. Subsurface drainage aims to take away only the
surplus water in the soil. Therefore, you need to know what the soil
type is before any works start. Types of Subsurface drainage
include: -
Mole Drains
Mole drains are unlined channels formed in clay subsoil by pulling a
ripper blade (or leg) with a cylindrical foot (or torpedo) attached on the
bottom through the subsoil. A plug (or expander) is often used to help
compact the channel wall. The foot is usually chisel pointed.
Mole drains are used in heavy soils where clay subsoil near moling
depth (400 to 600 cm) prevents downward movement of ground water. Mole
drains do not drain groundwater but removes water as it enters from the
ground surface.
Gravel mole ploughs
Gravel mole ploughs incorporate a hopper to allow finely graded gravel
to fall into the mole channel. These ploughs have been used successfully in
the UK in heavy soils that cannot hold “normal” mole drains.
Experimental results from north east Victoria and Gippsland show they
have promise on unstable clay soils, but are expensive because of the amount
of gravel and close spacing needed. Unfortunately very few of these
machines exist in southern Australia.

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Raised bed cropping
Over the past decade, extensive research efforts have been directed
towards the factors that contribute to waterlogging and soil structure decline
under broad acre cropping regimes. The biggest development has been with
raised bed techniques, which currently cover about 10% of the annual crop
area in the Corangamite region.
Raised beds aim to reduce machinery compaction by using controlled
traffic and to reduce waterlogging by lifting the soil above the saturated
zone. Where used, raised beds have significantly improved soil structure and
reduced waterlogging on cropping land, while significantly increasing
agricultural productivity in high rainfall areas.
11.2 Leveling of land :- Leveling of land in many wetlands removes
water by run off.
11.3 Controlled irrigation :- Excess use of water in the irrigation
results in waterlogged area.
11.4 To check the seepage in the canals and irrigation channels :-
Due to seepage, land becomes water-logged. So canals are lined to
control the seepage. Materials which are commonly used for lining
are cement, bricks, clay, sodium carbonate, asphalt etc.
Transpiration rate in certain trees like Eucalyptus, Accacia,
Zyzyphus, Salix is very high. In transpiration process the
underground water is consumed by trees, thus, lowering the
ground water Table.
11.5 Selection of crops and their proper varieties :- Certain crops
like rice, water-chestnut, can tolerate water-logging up to some
extent (Kumar et al., 2017a). In rice crop, submergence tolerance
varies from one variety to another. Generally, lowland and deep-
water varieties can tolerate water logging but upland rice varieties
do not have this capacity.
Situation of waterlogging Crop Variety
1. Deep water Janki, sudha, jalmagan,
Rice
jaladhi, madhukar
2. Shallow water Rice, water-chestnut Pankaj, radha, rajshree
3. Flood (water logging
Rice BR 13, janki
short period)
4.Water Table near the
Mahsuri, jaishree, sita,
surface and sometimes Rice
kanak, sujata
water-logging

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 sugarcane BO 3,29
jowar T 85
bajara T 55

11.6 Sowing on the bunds or ridges :- In the water-logged areas,

sowing of setaria, berseem and clovers should be done on bunds or
ridges. In this method, there is scope of good aeration near the
roots.
11.7 Increased seed rate and early sowing :- Healthy well grown
plants have better tolerance to waterlogging and recover faster
from waterlogging. Crops will grow faster if planted early, when
temperature and solar radiations are higher. Increased seed rate in
areas susceptible to waterlogging to give some insurance against
uneven germination. It will also increase the competitiveness of
the crop against weeds (Dahiya et al., 2017).
11.8 Flood control measures :- Construction of bunds may check
water flow from the rivers to the cultivable lands.
Why should we go for Rice :- Rice, unlike other cereals, can grow well
in paddy fields and is highly tolerant of excess water stress from
waterlogging. Rice handles waterlogging stress by forming lysigenous
aerenchyma and a barrier to radial oxygen loss (ROL) in roots in order to
supply oxygen to the root tip. These adaptive traits enable rice plant to have
high tolerance to waterlogging compared with other dryland crops. An
advantage of rice is that its genome has been fully sequenced and many tools
for studying its molecular biology and genetics have been developed.
12. Strategies of adaptation to waterlogging
• Formation of aerenchyma :- is essential to the survival and
functioning of plants subjected to water-logging. Aerenchyma
contributes to oxygen supply from shoots to roots and ventilation of
gases (CO2 and CH4) from roots to shoots.
• Formation of barrier to ROL:- ROL reduces the supply of oxygen to
the root apex and thereby cause a decrease in the root length. The
roots of many wetland spp. including rice have the ability to prevent
ROL to the rhizhosphere by forming a barrier in the root peripherel
cell layers exterior to the aerenchyma.
These adaptive traits enhance O2 diffusion through the aerenchyma
towards the root apex by diminishing losses of O 2 to the rhizosphere, thereby
enabling the roots to elongate into anaerobic substrates.

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13. Nutrient management in waterlogged soil
➢ Low fertility is an important constraint in the water-logged area.
The predominant form of inorganic N in lowland soils is NH 4+.
➢ The following concept may increase N-use efficiency in lowland
rice:
A. Deep placement :- Deep placement of N fertilizer increases the
N-use efficiency. Deep placement of urea with spring auger
machine or other machine increases the nitrogen use efficiency
in comparison to hand point placement (Kakraliya et al., 2017;
Sharma et al., 2019).
B. Slow-release fertilizers :- Release their nutrient contents at
more gradual rates that permit maximum uptake and utilization
of the nutrient while minimizing losses due to leaching,
volatilization or excessive growth.” e.g. Urea Formaldehyde,
Neem Coated Urea, Isobutylidene Diurea, Sulphur Coated
Urea.
C. Nitrification-inhibitors: - Chemicals used to inhibit nitrification
process are known as Nitrification Inhibitors. e.g. Sodium
Chlorate, Nitrapyrin.
14. Concept of critical water table depth
Groundwater is characterized as subsurface water and the water-table is
the upper surface of the groundwater. Water-table also marks the boundary
between the saturated and unsaturated zones. Maintaining water-table levels
at an optimum depth to provide the best combination of crop water supply
and aeration within the plant root zone, as well as limiting salt accumulation
near the soil surface should be a goal of any crop production strategy. By
maintaining an optimum water-table depth soils will function optimally and
produce economically sustainable yields (Kakraliya et al., 2018; Rani et al.,
2019; Meena et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2020). Good quality groundwater
can be an excellent source of water for crops if the water-table is at an
optimal depth of about 3 feet and there are drier topsoil conditions. During
the growing season, the groundwater depth should ideally recede to allow the
maximum possible rooting depth for the crops (Sharma DR and Minhas PS.
2015). Optimum water table depths for corn were found 2 to 3 feet deep, 1.5
to 2 feet deep for soybeans and about 2 feet deep for alfalfa.
14.1 Factors affecting water-table depth: - Water-table depth is
affected by the

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 1. Climate :- greater precipitation, ice melt in the spring and summer
and high humidity that prevents water from evaporating can rise the
water table.
2. Soil characteristics :- permeability and composition. Soils with high
clay content are relatively impermeable, while sandy soils allow
water to pass through and raise the water Table.
3. Human activities :- such as clear cutting, farming, pumping,
irrigation can affect the water table.
14.2 Managing water table depth
• In water table management, a target water table level is selected
and water is either added or removes from the field or farm
according to whether the existing water table is higher or lower
than the target respectively.
• There are three forms of water-table management-
1. Controlled drainage
2. Sub-surface drainage
3. Sub-irrigation
14.3 Effect of water table fluctuation
➢ Groundwater quality and water-table depth have a direct impact on
soil health because a rising water-table depth moving excessive
salts/sodium to the surface soil. As water evaporates, salts
accumulate at the surface soil and subsequently crop yields.
➢ Good quality groundwater at an optimum water-table depth can
increase crop yields by providing the much needed water to the
plant roots in the absence of irrigation or rainfall (Hingonia et al.,
2018).
➢ If water-table depth rises close to the surface, more soil pores will
be filled with soil water which depletes oxygen within the plant root
zone.
➢ Plant roots need oxygen to survive and grow. A lack of oxygen
results in shallow root systems and poor plant growth.
➢ For most crops there exists an optimum water table depth, at which
aeration, moisture, and nutrients are such that crop yields can be
maximized.
➢ When the water table rises above this threshold, crop yields begin to
decline.

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 ➢ A shallow water-table depth with poor quality groundwater brings
excessive salts and sodium to the soil surface, thus increasing the
severity and acreage of saline, sodic or saline-sodic conditions.
➢ Water-table at too shallow a depth leads to the depletion of oxygen
around plant roots and poses even greater risk of soluble salts and
sodium near the soil surface. As a result of a shallow water table
reduces nutrient uptake, crop growth, and yield. In general, when a
shallow water table exists, the yields of most crops can be related to
the depth of the water table.
14.4 How to manage shallow water table :- To manage moderately
shallow water-table depth, deep-rooted late-maturing and high
water-using crops, like alfalfa, sunflower and in some cases
sugarbeets, are likely rotational choices. If there is time during the
growing season either before planting or after harvest, cover crops
may be useful in depleting the excessive subsoil water and
lowering the water-table to an optimum depth.
15. Water quality
Water quality deals with the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water in relation to all other hydrological properties
(Dahiya et al., 2017a; Gupta and Kumar, 2018). The characteristics of water
quality have become important in water resource planning and development
for drinking, industrial and irrigation purposes. Water quality is the basic to
judge the fitness of water for its proposed application for existing conditions.
The current information is required, provided by water quality monitor for
optimum development and management of water for its proficient uses
(Haydar et al., 2009). For irrigation waters, the usual criteria include salinity,
sodicity and element toxicities. Besides many important Criteria in assessing
water quality for other uses namely, taste, colour, odour, pH. The quality of
irrigation water depends primarily on the total amount of salt present and the
proportion of Na to other cations and certain other parameter.
15.1 Problems that results from use of poor quality water :-
Salinity :- If the total quantity of salts in irrigation water is high, salts
will accumulate in crop root zone and affect the growth and yield. Decreases
water uptake due to high conc. of soil solution.
Permeability :- some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration into the
soil profile.
Toxicity :- when certain constituent of water are taken up by plants
which accumulates in large quantities and results in plant toxicity.

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15.2 Management and use of poor quality water
1. Application of organic matter such as FYM, compost.
2. Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportion,
so that both the source of water are effectively used to maximum
advantage.
3. Periodical application of organic matter and raising as well as
incorporation of green manure crop in the soil.
4. Irrigating the land with small quantities of water at frequent
intervals instead of large quantity at a time.
5. Drainage facilities must be improved.
6. 6.Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet,
paddy, sorghum, barley, groundnut, tobacco, onion, chillies,
Lucerne.
7. Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the
normally required.
8. Using 20% higher seed rate and quick post sowing irrigation for
better germination.
9. In low rainfall areas leave the field fallow during rainy season when
SAR is more than 20 and irrigation water is highly saline.
10. For pre-sowing irrigation and irrigation during early growth stage
use canal water along with saline water.
11. Use of gypsum for saline water having SAR>20 and rich in silica.
12. Additional phosphorus application when Cl:SO4 ratio >20.
16. Conclusion
Waterlogging of the soil affected lowering of the redox potential,
neutrilized soil pH, NPK deficiency and micronutrient toxicity. Except rice,
water-chestnut, sesbania, and jute, yield of other crops severely affected by
waterlogging and submergence. Waterlogging can be efficiently control by
forming different land configuration, mechanical as well as bio-drainage,
controlling irrigation and different flood control measures. Tolerant or
resistant varieties and proper nutrient management would be much more
effective during management of waterlogged soil.

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Page | 140
 Chapter – 6
Irrigation water management

Authors
Mohit Kingopa
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Anusha L
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Raveena
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Alpana Paul
Department of Soil Science, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rajveer
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chandgothi, Churu, Rajasthan, India

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Page | 142
 Chapter - 6
Irrigation water management
Mohit Kingopa, Anusha L, Raveena, Alpana Paul and Rajveer

Abstract
Irrigation water management is one of the most important factor in
better crop growth. It is timely and adequate application of water to crop as
because over application of irrigation water leds to crop loss due to disease,
insect damage, lack of trace elements. A key factor in proper irrigation water
management is knowing how much water is available to apply or is applied
to a field through an irrigation application system. Many devices are
available to measure open channel or pipeline flows. Irrigation water
management primarily aims to control the volume and frequency of
irrigation water applied to crops, so as to meet crop needs while conserving
water resources. This not only increases water use efficiency but also saves
water for future agricultural program. Irrigation scheduling is the decision
taken that is when to irrigate and how much water to apply. There are several
approaches for irrigation scheduling i.e. soil moisture depletion approach,
plant indices, climatological approach and critical growth approach. There
are three principle methods of irrigation viz. surface, sub surface and aerial,
overhead or sprinkler irrigation. Irrigation water management begins with
knowing how much water is available for irrigation. Adoption of improved
water management practices is an important need of the day. Thus, the
ultimate goal is to manage irrigation water properly to secure balanced water
utilization and proper crop growth.
Keywords: Water use efficiency, irrigation scheduling, sprinkler
irrigation.
1. Introduction
Irrigation water management (IWM) is the act of timing and regulating
irrigation water application in a way that will satisfy the water requirement
of the crop without wasting water, soil, and plant nutrients and degrading the
soil resource. This involves applying water:
• According to crop needs

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 • In amounts that can be held in the soil and be available to crop
• At rates consistent with the intake characteristics of the soil and the
erosion hazard of the site
• So that water quality is maintained or improved
2. Irrigation water management concepts
Field monitoring techniques can be used to establish when and how
much to irrigate. The long existing thumb rule for loamy soils has been that
most crops should be irrigated before more than half of the available soil
water in the crop root zone has been used. It has also been demonstrated that
certain crops respond with higher yields and product quality by maintaining
a higher available soil-water content, especially with clay soils. If the
Available Water Capacity (AWC) of the soil, the crop rooting depth for the
specific stage of growth, and the MAD level are known, then how much
water to apply per irrigation can be determined.
1) Concepts of irrigation water management: The simplest and
basic irrigation water management tool is the equation: Q T = D A
where: Q = flow rate (ft3/s) T = time (hr) D = depth (in) A = area
(acres). For example, a flow rate of 1 cubic foot per second for 1
hour = 1-inch depth over 1 acre. This simple equation, modified by
overall irrigation efficiency, can be used to calculate daily water
supply needs by plants, number of acres irrigable from a source, or
the time required to apply a given depth of water from irrigation
well or diversion. Typically, over 80 percent of IWM concerns can
be at least partly clarified by the application of this equation.
Quantity of water to be applied is often determined by available
water capacity of the soil, planned management allowable
depletion, and estimated crop evapotranspiration (ETc). When
rainfall provides a significant part of seasonal plant water
requirements, irrigation can be used to supplement plant water
needs during dry periods resulting from untimely rainfall events.
Water should be applied at a rate or quantity and in such a manner
to have sufficient soil-water storage, be non-erosive, have minimal
waste, and be non-degrading to public water quality. Irrigations are
timed to replace the planned depleted soil moisture used by the
crop. Effective rainfall during the growing season should be taken
into consideration.
2) When to irrigate: When to irrigate is dependent on the crop water
use rate, sometimes referred to as irrigation frequency (Kakraliya et

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 al., 2017). This rate can be determined by calculation of ETc rate
for specific crop stage of growth, monitoring plant moisture stress
levels, monitoring soil-water depletion, or a combination if these.
Too frequently, crop condition is observed to determine when to
irrigate. When plants show stress from lack of moisture, it is
typically too late (Hingonia et al., 2018). Generally, crop yield and
product quality have already been adversely affected. The over-
stress appearance may also be from shallow roots resulting from
overirrigation or from disease, insect damage, or lack of trace
elements. Certain plants can be excessively stressed during parts of
their growth stage and have little effect on yield.
3) Rainfall management: In moderate to high rainfall areas,
managing the timing of irrigations to allow effective use of rainfall
during the irrigation season is a common practice. The irrigation
decision maker can attempt to predict rainfall events and amounts
(which too often does not work), or the depleted soil water is never
fully replaced with each irrigation. Instead, between 0.5 and 1.0
inch of available water capacity in the soil profile can be left
unfilled for storage of potential rainfall. Rainfall probability during
a specific crop growing period and the level of risk to be taken must
be carefully considered by the irrigation decision maker. Applied
irrigation water should always be considered supplemental to
rainfall events.
4) Water supply limitations: Where water supply is limiting, deficit
or partial year irrigation is often practiced. Partial irrigation works
well with lower value field crops. It does not work well with high
value crops where quality determines market price, especially the
fresh vegetable and fruit market. Typically, water is applied at times
of critical plant stress or until the water is no longer available for
the season. Yields are generally reduced from their potential, but
net benefit to the farmer may be highest, especially when using high
cost water or a declining water source, such as pumping from a
declining aquifer. An economic evaluation may be beneficial.
5) Water delivery: Water supply and delivery schedules are key to
proper irrigation water management. When water users pump from
a well or an adjacent stream or maintain a diversion or storage
reservoir, they control their own delivery. In some areas delivery is
controlled by an irrigation district or company. Delivery by an
irrigation district may be controlled by its own institutional

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 constraints (management) or by canal supply and structure capacity
limitations.
6) Water measurement: A key factor in proper irrigation water
management is knowing how much water is available to apply or is
applied to a field through an irrigation application system. Many
devices are available to measure open channel or pipeline flows.
Too many irrigators consider water measurement a regulation issue
and an inconvenience. The importance of flow measurement for
proper irrigation water management cannot be overstressed.
Typically, less water is used where adequate flow measurement is a
part of the water delivery system and a unit cost billing mechanism
is used.
Need
• Irrigation water management primarily aims to control the volume
and frequency of irrigation water applied to crops, so as to meet
crop needs while conserving water resources.
• This makes it all the more essential to use irrigation water as
efficiently as possible.
• This not only increases water use efficiency but also saves water for
future agricultural program (Dahiya et al., 2017).
The net results of proper irrigation water management
• Prevent excessive use of water for irrigation purposes.
• Prevent excessive soil erosion
• Reduce labor
• Minimize pumping costs
• Maintain or improve quality of ground water and downstream
surface water
• Increase crop biomass yield and product quality
3. Water resources
National water resources
• Annual Precipitation (Including snowfall=1000km 3)4000 Cu. Km
or BCM
• After considering natural evapo-transpiration
• Estimated Average Annual Availability (rivers & Aquifers)
1869Cu. Kmor BCM

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 • Estimated Utilizable Water Resources out of 1869 BCM = 1123 Cu.
KmorBCM
i) Surface Water Resources = 690 Cu. Km
ii) Ground Water Resources = 433 Cu. Km.
Per capita availability of utilizable water
Year 1951 1991 2010 2025 2050
Population (106) 361 846.3 1157 1333 1581
Average water resources
3008 1283 938 814 687
(m3/person/year)

Water resources on Earth

The World Water Balance (1975)
Particulars Amount of water (km3)
Oceans 1,348,000,000
Polar ice, ice-bergs and glaciers 27,820,000
Ground water and soil moisture 8,062,000
Lakes and rivers 225,000
Atmospheric water 13,000
Total 1,384,120,000

Available soil water

Type % mm/m
Fine sand 2-3 30-50
Sandy loam 3-6 40-100
Silt loam 6-8 60-120
Clay loam 8-14 90-210
Clay 13-20 190-300

4. Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is that part of proper irrigation water management
involving the decision, when to irrigate and how much water to apply.
Scheduling tools provide information that irrigation decision makers can use
to develop irrigation strategies for each field on the farm. Such strategies
may be based on long-term data, representing average conditions, or may be
developed as the season progresses, using real time information and short-
time predictions. In both cases information about the crop, soil, climate,
irrigation system, water deliveries, and management objectives must be
considered to tailor irrigation scheduling procedures to a specific irrigation

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decision maker and field condition. An irrigation scheduling tool needs only
be accurate enough to make the decision when and how much to irrigate.
Irrigation scheduling utilizes two important principles
1. When an adequate supply of available moisture is present in the
effective root zone, the rate of consumptive use by a given crop
depends primarily on the stage of growth and climatological
conditions.
2. When the moisture content of the effective root zone is known at
any given time, the moisture content at any later time can be
computed by crediting moisture gained from effective rainfall or
irrigation and subtracting the daily moisture withdrawals during the
elapsed time.
4.1 Approaches for irrigation scheduling
An ideal irrigation schedule must indicate when to apply irrigation water
and how much quantity of water to be applied; several approaches for
scheduling irrigation have been used by scientist and farmers. These are as
under
1) Soil moisture depletion approach
The available soil moisture in the root is a good criterion for scheduling
irrigation. When the soil moisture in a specified root zone depth is depended
to a particular level (which is different for different crops) it is too
replenished by irrigation.
For practical purpose, irrigation should be started when about 50 percent
of the available moisture in the soil root zone is depleted. The available
water is the soil moisture, which lies between field capacity and wilting
point. The relative availability of soil moisture is not same field capacity to
wilting point stage and since the crop suffers before the soil moisture reaches
wilting point, it is necessary to locate the optimum point within the available
range of soil moisture, when irrigation must be scheduled to maintain crop
yield at high level. Soil moisture deficit represents the difference in the
moisture content at field capacity and that before irrigation. This is measured
by taking into consideration the percentage, availability, tension, resistance
etc.
2) Plant basis or plant indices
As the plant is the user of water, it can be taken as a guide for
scheduling irrigation. The deficit of water will be reflected by plants itself

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such as dropping, curling or rolling of leaves and change in foliage colour as
indication for irrigation scheduling. However, these symptoms indicate the
need for water. They do not permit quantitative estimation of moisture
deficit.
Growth indicators such as cell elongation rates, plant water content and
leaf water potential, plant temperature, leaf diffusion resistance etc. are also
used for deciding when to irrigate. Some indicator plants are also a basis for
scheduling irrigation e.g. sunflower plant which is used for estimation of
PWP of soil is used in Hawaii as an indicator plant for irrigation of
sugarcane.
3) Climatological approach
Evapotranspiration (ET) mainly depends upon climate. The amount of
water lost by evapotranspiration is estimated from climatological data and
when ET reaches a particular level, irrigation is scheduled. The amount of
irrigation given is either equal to ET or fraction of ET. Different methods in
Climatological approach are IW/CPE ratio method and pan evaporimeter
method.
In IW/CPE approach, a known amount of irrigation water is applied
when cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) reaches a predetermined level. The
amount of water given at each irrigation ranges from 4 to 6 cm. The most
common being 5 cm irrigation. Scheduling irrigation at an IW/CPE ratio of
1.0 with 5 cm. Generally, irrigation is given at 0.75 to 0.8 ratios with 5 cm of
irrigation water.
4) Critical growth approach
In each crop, there are some growth stages at which moisture stress
leads to irrevocable yield loss. These stages are known as critical periods or
moisture sensitive periods. If irrigation water is available in sufficient
quantities, irrigation is scheduled whenever soil moisture is depleted to
critical moisture level. Say 25 or 50 percent of available soil moisture. Under
limited water supply conditions, irrigation is scheduled at moisture sensitive
stages and irrigation is skipped at non-sensitive stages. In cereals, panicle
initiation, flowering, and pod development are the most important moisture
sensitive stages.
Table: Moisture sensitive stages of important crops

S. No. Crop Important Moisture Sensitive Stages

1 Rice Panicle Initiation, Flowering
2 Wheat Crown Root Initiation, Jointing, Milking

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 3 Sorghum Seedling, Flowering
4 Maize Silking. Tasseling
5 Bajara Flowering, Panicle Initiation
6 Nachani Panicle Initiation, Flowering
7 Ground Nut Rapid Flowering, Pegging, Early Pod Formation
8 Red Gram Flowering & Pod Formation
9 Green Gram Flowering & Pod Formation
10 Black Gram Flowering & Pod Formation
11 Sugarcane Formative Stage
12 Sesamum Blooming stage to Maturity
13 Sunflower Two weeks before & after flowering
14 Safflower From rosette to flowering
15 Soybean Blooming & seed formation
16 Cotton Flowering & Ball Formation
17 Tobacco Transplanting to Full Bloom
18 Chilies Flowering
19 Potato Tuber Initiation to Tuber Maturity
20 Onion Bulb Formation to Maturity
21 Tomato From the Commencement of Fruit Set

5) Plant water status itself

This is the latest approach for scheduling of irrigation. Plant is a good
indicator of a soil moisture and climate factors. The water content in the
plant itself is considered for scheduling irrigation. It is however, not yet
common use for want of standard and low cost technique to measure the
plant water status or potential.
4.2 Crop modelling
• Crop growth models can provide helpful input to the complex
process of on-farm irrigation decision making.
• The use of crop models in irrigation management will likely expand
due to improved modelling capability, better data availability, and
continued emphasis on water conservation and water quality.
• With regard to pre-season water management, the results of
simulation modelling can aid in selecting crops, allocating water to
those crops, and evaluating general irrigation strategies.
• Within a given irrigation season, crop models can provide a tool for
analysing the yield impacts associated with real-time irrigation
scheduling decisions.

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 • Limitations associated with these modelling applications are related
to model incompleteness and uncertainty, spatial variability in the
field, and the difficulty in projecting the final yield response to a
series of individual irrigation decisions.
Crop irrigation system is designed for dry land crops (wheat, maize and
soybean) to provide a practical decision tool for irrigation management.
The main functions
i) Irrigation decision services. To evaluate crop water requirements,
and to make pre-sowing and the real-time irrigation plans based on
the historical weather data and weather forecast information.
ii) To simulate daily change of soil moisture content in the root zone.
iii) To evaluate a given irrigation schedule, and to develop optimal
irrigation schedule in addition.
iv) To modify the planned results according to the measured actual soil
moisture content during crop growth period to enhance the
forecasting accuracy.
v) Database management capability.
4.3 Crop coefficients
• Crop coefficient (Kc) = ET ÷ ETo
ET = crop evapotranspiration
ETo = reference crop ET
• Crop coefficients are properties of plants used in predicting
evapotranspiration (ET).
• The most basic crop coefficient (Kc), is simply the ratio of ET
observed for the crop studied over that observed for the well
calibrated reference crop under the same conditions
Factors affecting Kc
i) Crop type
ii) Stage of Growth
iii) Soil moisture
iv) Health of plants
v) Cultural practices
vi) Crop coefficients are normally determined under highly controlled
conditions of adequate soil moisture, good plant health, and cultural
practices

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 The methodology used for mapping crop coefficients (Kc) in an
operational way includes two different EO techniques (both of them requires
a calibration to access local conditions):
Approach (1)
Kc - NDVI (Cuesta et al., 2005)
• Requires the definition of a linear relationship between NDVI
(Normalised Differences Vegetation Index), derived from
remotely sensed data and Kc.
• According to the definition of the dual crop coefficient approach,
the value of Kc can be split into a first term, Kcb, known as the
basal crop coefficient for crop transpiration and a second term, Ke,
representing the coefficient for soil evaporation.
• The values of NDVI have been utilized to calculate the crop
coefficient by using the following empirical equation:
• Kc=1.25*NDVI+0.2
The analytical approach (2)
Consists of the direct application of the following definition of the crop
coefficient Kc:
𝐸𝑇𝑝
𝐾𝑐 = = 𝑓(𝐾, 𝑇𝑎, 𝑅𝐻, 𝑈; 𝑟, 𝐿𝐴𝐼, ℎ𝐶)
𝐸𝑡𝑜
• ET0 and ETpare given by Monteith’s schematization
• Ta - air temperature
• RH - relative humidity
• U - wind speed
• K - incoming solar radiation
• Vegetation variables (surface albedo, r, the leaf area index, LAI,
and the crop height, hc) are estimated from the processing of
multispectral imagery.
Water production function (Young & Loomis, 2014)
Crop water production is the relationship between obtained marketable
yield and the total amount of water used by plant through evapotranspiration.
Yield response to water can be explained by deriving crop water
production.

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The crop water production function can be derived through following
points
• Expert opinion
• Field experiment
• Statistical analyses of survey data
• Mathematical simulations based on observation
Concepts or terminology
• The total crop water requirement is the maximum amount of water
that a crop can use productively when the soil water content is not
limiting (Brouwer & Heibloem, 1986).
• Evapotranspiration is the combination of two separate processes
whereby water is lost from the soil surface by evaporation and from
the crop by transpiration (Allen, Pereira, Raes, & Smith, 1998).
• “Crop evapotranspiration” and “crop water requirement” are terms
used interchangeably (Schneekloth & Andales, 2009).
• Any amount of available water beyond ET is not consumed by the
crop; therefore, CWPF is defined as the relationship between the
obtained marketable yield and the total amount of water used by the
crop through ET (Doorenbos & Kassam, 1979)
5. Methods of irrigation- surface, surge, subsurface, sprinkler, raingun
sprinkler

There are three principle methods of irrigation viz. surface, sub surface
and aerial, overhead or sprinkler irrigation.
A. Surface irrigation: There are four variations under this method viz.
1) Flooding,
2) Bed or border method (Saras and flat beds),
3) Basin method (ring and basin) and

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 4) Furrow method (rides and furrows, broad ridges or raised beds)
Flooding: It consist of opening a water channel in a plot or field so that
water can flow freely in all directions and cover the surface of the land in a
continuous sheet. It is the most inefficient method of irrigation as only about
20 percent of the water is actually used by plants. The rest being lost as a
runoff, seepage and evaporation. Water distribution is very uneven and crop
growth is not uniform. It is suitable for uneven land where the cost of
leveling is high and where a cheap and abundant supply of water is available.
It is unsuitable for crops that are sensitive to water logging the method
suitable where broadcast crops, particularly pastures, alfalfa, peas and small
grains are produced.
Adaptations
1) An abundant supply of water
2) Close growing crops
3) Soils that do not erode easily
4) Soils that is permeable
5) Irregular topography
6) Areas where water is cheap.
Advantages
1) Can be used on shallow soils
2) Can be employed where expense of leveling is great
3) Installation and operation costs are low
4) System is not damaged by livestock and does not interfere with use
of farm implements.
Disadvantages
1) Excessive loss of water by run of and deep percolation
2) Excessive soil erosion on step land.
3) Fertilizer and FYM are eroded from the soil.
Bed or border method (Sara and flat beds or check basin): In this
method the field is levelled and divided into small beds surrounded by bunds
of 15 to 30 cm high. Small irrigation channels are provided between two
adjacent rows of beds. The length of the bed varies from 30 meters for loamy
soils to 90 meters for clayey soils. The width is so adjusted as to permit the
water to flow evenly and wet the land uniformly. For high value crops, the
beds may be still smaller especially where water is costly and not very

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abundant. This method is adaptable to most soil textures except sandy soils
and is suitable for high value crops. It requires levelled land. It is more
efficient in the use of water and ensures its uniform application. It is suitable
for crops plant in lines or sown by broadcast. Through the initial cost is high
requires less labor and low maintenance cost. This may also be called a sort
of sara method followed locally in Maharashtra but the saras to be formed in
this method are much longer than broader.
Adaptations
1) A large supply of water
2) Most soil textures including sandy loam, loams and clays
3) Soil at least 90 cm deep
4) Suitable for close growing crops.
Disadvantages
1) Fairly large supply of water is needed.
2) Land must be leveled
3) Suited only to soils that do not readily disperse.
4) Drainage must be provided
Basin irrigation: This method is suitable for orchids and other high
value crops where the size of the plot to be irrigated is very small. The basin
may be square, rectangular or circular shape. A variation in this method viz.
ring and basin is commonly used for irrigating fruit trees. A small bund of 15
to 22 cm high is formed around the stump of the tree at a distance of about
30 to 60 cm to keep soil dry. The height of the outer bund varies depending
upon the depth of water proposed to retain (Gupta and Kumar, 2018). Basin
irrigation also requires levelled land and not suitable for all types of soil. It is
also efficient in the use of water but its initial cost is high.
There are many variations in its use, but all involve dividing the field
into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface. Bunds or
ridges are constructed around the areas forming basins within which the
irrigation water can be controlled. Check basin types may be rectangular,
contour and ring basin.
Adaptations
1) Most soil texture
2) High value crops
3) Smooth topography

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 4) High water value/ha
Advantages
1) Varying supply of water
2) No water loss by run off
3) Rapid irrigation possible
4) No loss of fertilizers and organic manures
5) Satisfactory
Disadvantages
1) If land is not leveled initial cost may be high
2) Suitable mainly for orchids, rice, jute, etc.
3) Except rice, not suitable for soils that disperse easily and readily
from a crust.
Furrow method (rides and furrow, broad ridges, counter furrow
etc.): Row crops such as potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, vegetable etc. can be
irrigated by furrow method. Water is allowed to flow in furrow opened in
crop rows. It is suitable for slopy lands where the furrows are made along
contours. The length of furrow is determined mostly by soil permeability. It
varies from 3 to 6 meters. In sandy and clay loams, the length is shorter than
in clay and clay loams. Water does not come in contact with the plant stems.
There is a great economy in use of water. Sometimes, even in furrow
irrigation the field is divided into beds having alternate ridges and furrows.
On slopes of 1 to 3 percent, furrow irrigation with straight furrows is quite
successful. But on steeper slopes contour furrows, not only check erosion but
ensure uniform water penetration.
Adaptations
1) Medium and fine textured soils
2) Variable water supply
3) Farms with only small amount of equipment
Advantages
1) High water efficiency
2) Can be used in any row crop
3) Relatively easy in stall
4) Not expensive to maintain
5) Adapted to most soils.

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Disadvantages
1) Requirement of skilled labour is more
2) A hazard to operation of machinery
3) Drainage must be provided.
B. Subsurface method
Subsurface irrigation or sub-irrigation may be natural or artificial.
Natural sub surface irrigation is possible where an impervious layer exists
below the root zone. Water is allowed in to series of ditches dug up to the
impervious layer, which then moves laterally and wets root zone.
In artificial sub surface irrigation, perforated or porous pipes are laid out
underground below the root zone and water is led into the pipes by suitable
means. In either case, the idea is to raise the water by capillary movement.
The method involves initial high cost, but maintenance is very cheap. There
is a risk of soil getting saline or alkaline and neighboring land damaged due
to heavy seepage.
It is very efficient in the use of water as evaporation is cut off almost
completely. The plant roots do not suffer from logging, there is no loss of
agricultural land in laying out irrigation system and implements can be
worked out freely. This method is however rarely noticed in our country but
followed in other countries like Israel.
C. Drip or trickle irrigation
It involves slow application of water to the root zone. The drip irrigation
system consists of
1) Head
2) Main line and sub line
3) Lateral lines
4) Drip nozzles.
The head consists of a pump to lift water and produce the desired
pressure (about 2.5 atmosphere) and to distribute water through nozzles. A
fertilizer tank for applying fertilizer solution directly to the field along with
the irrigation water and filter which cleans the suspended impurities in
irrigation water to prevent the blockage of holes and passage of drip and
nozzles
Mains and sub mains are normally of flexible material such as black
PVC pipes. Laterals or drip lines are small diameter flexible lines (usually 1

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to 1.25 cm diameter black PVC tubes) taking off from the mains or sub
mains. Laterals are normally laid parallel to each other. Lateral lines can be
up to about 50 meters long and are usually 1.2 cm diameter black plastic
tubing. There is usually one lateral line for each crop row. By laying the
main line along the center line of the field, it is possible to irrigate either side
of the field alternately by shifting the laterals. A pressure drop of 10 percent
is permitted between the ends of lateral.
Drip nozzles are also known as emitters or values and are fixed at
regular intervals in the laterals. These PVC values allow water to flow at the
extremely slow rates, ranging from 2 to 11 liters per hour and they are of
different shapes and design.
The spacing between laterals is controlled by the row-to-row spacing of
the crop to be irrigated. Drip laterals laid on soil surface are buried
underground at the depth of 5 to 10 cm.
Advantages
1) The losses by drip irrigation and evaporation are minimized.
2) Precise amount of water is applied to replenish the depleted soil
moisture at frequent intervals for optimum plant growth.
3) The system enables the application of water fertilizers at an
optimum rate to the plant root system.
4) The amount of water supplied to the soil is almost equal to the daily
consumptive use, thus maintaining a low moisture tension in soil.
Disadvantages
The initial cost of the drip irrigation for large-scale irrigation is its main
limitation. The cost of the unit per hectare depends mainly on the spacing of
the crop. For widely spaced crops like fruit trees, the system may be even
more economical than sprinkler.
D. Sprinkler or overhead irrigation
This method consists of application of water to soil in the form of spray,
somewhat as rain. It is particularly useful for sandy soils because they absorb
water too fast. Soils that are too shallow, too steep or rolling can be irrigated
efficiently with sprinklers.
This method is suitable for areas having uneven topography and where
erosion hazards are great. In sprinkler irrigation, water is conveyed under
pressure through pipes to the area to be irrigated where it is passed out
through sprinklers. The system comprises four main parts

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 i) Power generator
ii) Pump
iii) Pipeline and
iv) Sprinkler
The power generator may be electrical or mechanical. A centrifugal
pump may be used for suction lift up to 37 to 50 cm. A piston type pump is
preferable where water is very deep. The pipe consists of two sections, the
main line and the laterals.
The main line may be permanently burried underground or may be laid
above ground, if it is to be used on a number of fields. The main pipes are
usually made of steel or iron.
The laterals are lightweight aluminum pipes and are usually portable.
The sprinkler nozzles may be single or double, revolving or stationary and
mounted or riser pipes attached to riser. Each sprinkler head applies water to
circular area whose diameter depends up on the size of water, which varies
from ¼ to ¾ inch per hour is determined by selecting the proper combination
of nozzles.
Adaptations
1) A dependable supply of water
2) Uneven topography
3) Shallow soils
4) Close growing crops
Advantages
1) It ensures uniform distribution of water
2) It is adaptable to most kinds of soil
3) It offers no hindrance to the use of farm implements
4) Fertilizers material may be evenly applied through sprinklers. This
is done by drawing liquid fertilizer solution slowly in to the pipes
on the suction side of the pump so that the time of application varies
from 10 to 30 minutes
5) Water losses are reduced to a minimum extent
6) More land can be irrigated
7) Costly land leveling operations are not necessary and
8) The amount of water can be controlled to meet the needs of young
seedling or mature crops.

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Disadvantage
1) The initial cost is rather very high.
2) Any cost of power to provide pressure must be added to the
irrigation harges.
3) Wind interferes with the distribution pattern, reducing spread or
increasing application rate near lateral pipe.
4) There is often trouble from clogged nozzle or the failure of
sprinklers to revolve.
5) The cost of operations and maintainence is very high. Labour
requirement for moving a pipe and related work approximately
nearly one hour per irrigation.
6) It requires a dependable constant supply of water free slit and
suspended matter and
7) It is suitable for high value crops
6. Measurement of irrigation water
Irrigation water management begins with knowing how much water is
available for irrigation. Fact Sheet 1501, discusses water measurement units
and useful factors for converting from one measurement unit to another. The
purpose of this fact sheet is to discuss a few basic methods of water
measurement. Methods of measuring irrigation water can be grouped into
three basic categories—direct, velocity-area, and constricted flow. Choice of
method to use will be determined by the volume of water to be measured, the
degree of accuracy desired, whether the installation is permanent or
temporary, and the financial investment required.
Direct measurement methods
Measuring the period of time required to fill a container of a known
volume can be used to measure small rates of flow such as from individual
siphon tubes, sprinkler nozzles, or from individual outlets in gated pipe.
Ordinarily one gallon or five gallon containers will be adequate. Small wells
can be measured by using a 55 gallon barrel as the container. It is
recommended that the measurement be repeated at least three and preferably
five times to arrive at a reliable rate of flow per unit of time.
Velocity-area methods
Commercial flow meters are available for measuring the total volume of
water flowing through a pipe. These flow meters are relatively expensive;
however, they have a good degree of accuracy if properly installed and

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maintained. Some meters can be purchased, which will indicate
instantaneous rate of flow. The float method can be used to obtain an
approximate measure of the rate of flow occurring in an open ditch. It is
especially useful where more expensive installations are not justified or high
degree accuracy is not required. Select a straight section of ditch from 50 to
100 feet long with fairly uniform cross-sections. Make several measurements
of the width and depth of the test cross-section so as to arrive at an average
cross-sectional area. Using a tape, measure the length of the test section of
the ditch. Place a small floating object in the ditch a few feet above the
starting point of the test section and time the number of seconds for this
object to travel the length of the test section. This time measurement should
be made several times to arrive at a reliable average value. By dividing the
length of the test section (feet) by the average time required (seconds), one
can estimate velocity in feet per second. Since the velocity of water at the
surface is greater than the average velocity of the stream, multiply the
estimated surface velocity by a correction factor (0.80 for smooth lined
ditches, and 0.60 for rough ditches) to obtain the average stream velocity. To
obtain the rate of flow, multiply the average cross-sectional area of the ditch
(square feet) times the average Irrigation Water Measurement 1502-2 stream
velocity (feet per second) and the answer is the rate of flow in cubic feet per
second. The trajectory method of water measurement is a form of velocity
area calculations that can be used for determining the rate of flow
discharging from a horizontal pipe flowing full. Two measurements of the
discharging jet are required to calculate the rate of flow of the water. The
first measurement is the horizontal distance, “X”, (parallel to the centerline
of the pipe) required for the jet to drop a vertical distance “Y” which is the
second measurement. By using “Y” equal to either 6 or 12 inches, the rate of
flow for full pipes can be calculated by multiplying the horizontal distance
“X” (in inches) times the appropriate factor for the nominal pipe diameter.
The following Table contains water discharge factor where “Y” is measured
from the outside of the pipe as indicated in the sketch above. Nominal Factor
When Pipe Diameter Y=6 Y=12 2" 5.02 3.52 3" 11.13 7.77 4" 17.18 13.4 6"
43.7 30.6 8" 76.0 52.9 10" 120.0 83.5 12" 173.0 120.0 For example: A
farmer has a well discharging a full 8" pipe. The horizontal distance (X) is
19" while the jet surface drops 12". What is the well yield? Step 1: Enter the
water discharge factor Table at 8" nominal pipe diameter. Moving to the
right and under the column headed Y = 12" we find the factor to be 52.9.
Step 2: Multiplying this factor 52.9, times the horizontal distance, 19"
calculate the well yield to be 1,005 gpm.

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Constriction flow methods
Methods employing a constriction of pre-determined dimensions are
frequently used for measuring flow in irrigation canals and ditches.
Constricting type measuring devices can generally be placed in one of three
categories—weirs, flumes, and orifices. Generally, only one or two
measurements are required where the dimensions of the constriction are
known. Using these measurements, rate of flow is determined from either a
table, a graph, or by calculation. Due to the wide variety of types and sizes of
constricting devices, flow tables are not included in this publication. The
local County Extension Director or local Soil Conservation Service District
office can obtain such Tables or graphs. Basically, a weir measures flow by
causing the water to flow over a notch of pre-determined shape and
dimensions. They are quite accurate when properly constructed, installed,
and maintained. Weirs do have some limitations. First, they require
considerable drop (difference in head) between the upstream and
downstream water surfaces which is often either not available in flat grade
ditches or is undesirable. Second, it is frequently necessary to construct a
pool or stilling area above the weir so the water loses its velocity. Unless the
water appears practically still, discharge
Water meters
They use metallic or plastic multi – blade propeller which rotate in a
vertical or horizontal plane and geared to a totalizer in such a manner that a
numerical counter can totalize the flow in any desired volumetric units.
Requirements for accurate measurement with water mete
1. Pipe must flow full at all times
2. Rate of flow must exceed the minimum for the rated range
Water flowing through meter should not contain debris or any other
material to avoid obstruction of propeller.
Measuring structures
a) Orifices
• Circular or rectangular opening in the vertical metallic bulk head
through which water flows in open channels is called orifice.
• The edges of the opening are sharp.
• When the cross sectional area of the orifice is small in comparison
to cross sectional area of stream than flow is completely contracted
and the velocity of approach becomes negligible.
Orifice may operate under free flow or submerged conditions

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b) Weirs
A weir means a notch in a wall built across a stream.
• The notch may be rectangular, trapezoidal, or 90ºV (triangular)
Limitations of weirs
• They require considerable drop (difference in head) between the
upstream and downstream water surfaces which is often either not
available in flat grade ditches or is undesirable.
• It is frequently necessary to construct a pool or stilling area above the
weir so the water loses its velocity unless the water appears practically
still.
c) Parshall flume
• It is a self-cleaning device which is used in open channel and
operates with a small drop in head.
• The loss of head for free flow limit is only about 25 per cent of that
of weir.
• It allows reasonably accurate measurement even when partially
submerged. The velocity of the approaching stream has very little
influence on its operation.
Application and distribution efficiencies
In order to determine the irrigation demand at the tertiary unit intake, it
is necessary to allow for the efficiency of application of the water to the
field, and the efficiency of distribution in moving the water from the tertiary
unit intake to the field.
The applicaton efficiency takes account of the following possible losses
in irrigating the crop;
• Over-irrigation, leading to losses of water below the root zone;
• Over-irrigation, leading to losses of water from runoff;
• Lateral seepage from the field (in case of rice fields).
7. Management of water resources (rainfall) Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department (FAO)
The technologies practiced are
• In situ water conservation supplemental irrigation by run-off
recycling
• Watershed management including agriculture

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 • Construction of high tidal-dykes
• Rice-fish integrated farming
• Using pressurized irrigation system
• Groundwater management
• Flood water management
• Management of drainage and water-logging
8. Conclusion
Water is the prime natural resource, which does not have any substitute
in its main uses. In many parts of the world including India, the demand for
available water resources is fast exceeding the economic supply, and the
competition among the various sectors of the economy for the scarce water is
becoming intense. The rapid declining of ground water resources cause a
threat to farming community and forced to adopt better water management
practices to get sustainable production. Adoption of improved water
management practices is an important need of the day. India's crop
production suffers not only from drought but also from indiscriminate use of
irrigation water (Kumar et al., 2017). It is becoming increasingly clear that
with the advent of high yielding varieties the next major advance in our
agricultural production is expected to come through efficient water
management practices like adoption of water saving methods such as micro,
drip or sprinkler irrigation.
References
1. Brouwer, C., Heibloem, M., 1986. Irrigation water management:
irrigation water needs. Training manual 3.
2. Brouwer, C., Prins, K., Heibloem, M., 1989. Irrigation water
management: irrigation scheduling. Training manual 4.
3. Brouwer, C., Prins, K., Kay, M., Heibloem, M., 1988. Irrigation water
management: irrigation methods. Training manual 9.
4. Dahiya, S., Kumar, S., Kumar, S., Khedwal, R. S., Harender,
Chaudhary, C., Ankush. 2017. Management practices for improving
water use efficiency of crops for boosting crop production. In:
Agricultural, Allied Sciences & Biotechnology for Sustainability of
Agriculture, Nutrition & Food Security, edited by Ratnesh Kumar Rao,
P.K. Sharma, M. Raghuraman and J.K. Singh, Mahima Publications,
ISBN: 978-81-926935-8-3, pp. 115-121.

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5. Fereres, E., Goldhamer, D. A., Parsons, L. R., 2003. Irrigation water
management of horticultural crops. HortScience 38(5), 1036-1042.
6. Gupta, A., Kumar, S. 2018. Climate Resilient Agro-Technologies for
Enhanced Crop and Water Productivity under Water Deficit Agro-
Ecologies. In: Sustainable Agriculture, editor: Ram Swaroop Meena.
Scientific publisher. Pp 339-356. 5 A, New Pali Road P.O. Box 91,
Jodhpur - 342 001 India.
7. Hingonia, K., Singh, R. K., Meena, R. P., Kumar, S. 2018 Effect of
mulch and irrigation levels on growth and productivity of barley
(Hordeum vulgare L.) in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Ann Agric Res News
Series, 39(2): 159-164.
8. Kakraliya, S. K., Kumar, N., Dahiya, S., Kumar, S., Yadav, D. D.,
Singh, M. 2017. Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth
dynamics and productivity trend of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under
irrigated cropping system. Journal of Plant Development Sciences, 9(1):
11-15.
9. Kumar, S., Sheoran, S., Kakraliya, S. K., Kumar, P., Meena, R. S. 2016.
Drought: A Challenge for Indian Farmers in Context to Climate Change
and Variability. Progressive Research – An International Journal,
11(Special-IX): 6243-6246.
10. Majumdar, D. K., 2001. Irrigation water management: principles and
practice. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..
11. Panda, R. K., Behera, S. K., Kashyap, P. S., 2004. Effective
management of irrigation water for maize under stressed
conditions. Agricultural water management 66(3), 181-203.

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Page | 166
 Chapter – 7
Scientific cultivation of sesamum

Authors
Surgyan Rundla
Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar (Haryana), India

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Page | 168
 Chapter - 7
Scientific cultivation of sesamum
Surgyan Rundla

Abstract
Sesame is one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world. Today, India
and China are the world’s largest producers of sesame, followed by Burma,
Sudan, Mexico, Nigeria, Venezuela, Turkey, Uganda and Ethiopia. Sesame
crop is a tropical crop and this crop requires hot conditions during its growth
period for best yield. Ideal temperature for sesame cultivation is between 25
ºC-30 ºC. Extreme low and very high temperatures effect the growth. Upon
ripening, sesame capsules split, releasing the seed. Because of this shattering
characteristic, sesame has been grown primarily on small plots that are
harvested by hand.
Keywords: Ripening, shattering.
1. Introduction
Sesamum (Sesamumindicum L.) is the oldest indigenous oilseed crop,
with longest history of cultivation in India. Sesamum is commonly known as
Til in Hindi and belongs to the family Pedaliaceae. It is one of the important
edible oil seeds cultivated in India. It is originated from Ethiopia. It is annual
or perennial herbs with edible seeds which provide excellent food, nutrition,
health care, edible oil and biomedicine. Sesamum seeds are digestive,
rejuvenative, anti-aging and rich source of quality oil for which it is known
as ‘Queen of oilseed crops’. It ranks first for the highest oil content (50%) as
well as seeds are rich source of protein (20.28%), sugar (14-16%) and
minerals (5-7%). The oil cake is an edible cake. A hundred grams of seed
provides 592 calories. It is really the poor man’s substitute for ghee. Among
oilseed proteins, sesamum seed proteins are more nutritious. It is rich in
methionine and tryptophane. Like other oil seeds, it is also deficient in
lysine. The other limiting amino acids are thionine, isoleucin and valine.
Sesamum oil has two constituents namely sesamin and sesamol. They are
responsible for very high stability of oil at room temperature, and frying
temperatures. The sesamin content ranges from 0.07 to 0.6%.

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 Sesamum is grown in almost all parts of the country. In India, it
occupies an area of about 17.47 lakh hectares with production of 8.27 lakh
tones having the productivity of 474 kgha -1 (Anonymous, 2015). More than
85% production of sesamum comes from West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The main
reasons for low productivity of sesamum are its rainfed cultivation in
marginal and sub-marginal lands under poor management and input starved
conditions. However, improved varieties and agro production technologies
capable of increasing the productivity levels of sesamum are now developed
for different agro ecological situations in the country.
2. Climatic requirement
Sesamum is essentially a tropical crop grown in arid and semi-arid
areas. It is generally cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It’s
main distribution is between 25 S and 25 N Latitudes. Its altitude range is
normally below 1250 m although some varieties locally adopted up to 1500
m. Generally, it requires fairly hot conditions during growth for optimum
yield. Ideal optimum temperature for growth is 25-27o C. Extremely low
temperature of 10o C, there is a complete ceasing of growth. Temperatures
>40o C seriously affect the pollination when there is a smaller number of
capsules. If the temperature goes beyond 45 o C or less than 15o C there is a
severe reduction in yield. Sesamum is a short-day plant. High light intensity
increases number of capsules/ plants.
3. Varieties
There are two types of varieties, black seeded and white seeded. It is
generally believed that the white seeded varieties have higher percentage of
oil in the seed than the black seeded ones.
Black seeded varieties: Krishna, Type-22, B-3-1, B-3-2, B-14.
White seeded varieties: Haryana Til-1, TC-25, Kanki White, JT-7, Tapti,
Mirag-1, Purva-1, Type-4, Type-12, Type-13, Punjab Til No.-1, Pratap,
Patan-64.
4. Cropping system
Kharif sesamum is grown both as pure and mixed crop. In north India
sesamum is generally grown mixed with pigeon pea, jowar, pearl millet,
groundnut and maize crops. A pure crop of sesamum is followed by a crop
of linseed, chick pea, barley, lentil, etc. in rabi season.

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5. Soil and field preparation
Sesamum can be grown on a wide range of soils but well drained light
to medium textured soils are preferred. The optimum pH range is 5.5 to 8.0,
acidic or alkaline soils are not suitable. It is highly sensitive to water
logging. Prepare the soil into a fine tilth by ploughing 2-4 times and breaking
the clods.
6. Seed and sowing
The sowing season of sesamum is kharif in arid and semi-arid tropics
and rabi/ summer in cooler areas. A seed rate of 3-4 kg/ ha is adequate to
achieve the required plant population. Seed should be treated with Thiram or
Bavistin @ 2.0 g/ kg seed to protect against seed borne diseases. Wherever
bacterial leaf spot disease is a problem, soak the seed for 30 minutes in
0.025% solution of Agrimycin-100.
Line sowing should be done with seed drills maintaining RxR 45 cm
and PxP 15 cm to promote higher yields. Optimum depth of sowing is 2-3
cm. Broadcasting method can also be used but the seeds should be evenly
distributed. To facilitate easy seeding and even distribution, seed is mixed
with either sand or dry soil or well sieved farm yard manure in 1:20 ratio.
After sowing, seed is covered by shallow ploughing and planting by
cultivator.
7. Manure and fertilizer requirement
Apply well decomposed FYM @ 20-25 t/ ha as basal dressing and
incorporate into the soil along with last ploughing. For obtaining higher
yields in addition to organic manures apply of 30 kg N, 60 kg P 2O5 and 30
kg K2O per hectare. Application of nitrogen and phosphorus increases the
number of capsules per plant and number of seeds per capsules. Apply the
whole quantity of phosphorus and potash at the time of sowing. Urea is
preferable to ammonium sulphate. Nitrogen may be applied in split doses, 50
per cent as basal and one- third at 30 DAS and one-third at 50 DAS.
Placement of fertilizers at seeding using seed drill is more effective than
broadcast application.
Sulphur as a plant nutrient can play a key role in augmenting the
production and productivity of oilseeds in the country as it has a significant
influence on quality and development of oilseeds (Tandon, 1991; Meena et
al., 2019). Patel et al. (2017) recorded significantly highest plant height at 45
DAS and at harvest (57.34 and 96.43 cm), number of branches/ plant (3.26),
number of capsule/ plant (58.67), number of seeds/ capsule (65.18) and seed
yield (711 kg/ ha) with the application of sulphur @ 20 kg/ ha.

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 Table 1: Effect of nitrogen on growth, yield and quality of sesamum

Plant
Dry matter 1000 Seed
height No. of No. of Oil
production/ seed yield
Treatment at branches/ capsules/ content
plant at weight (kg/
harvest plant plant (%)
harvest (g) (g) ha)
(cm)
No nitrogen 78.3 2.02 27.25 35.3 2.32 348 47.44
25 kg N/ ha 91.9 2.08 31.00 47.3 2.63 500 48.35
50 kg N/ ha 98.4 2.44 37.33 55.1 2.95 595 48.37
75 kg N/ ha 100.5 2.67 40.25 58.3 3.13 630 48.65
LSD
5.64 0.22 2.24 2.98 0.27 34 0.75
(P=0.05)
Source: Patel et al., 2014.
8. Irrigation
Usually the crop is grown under rainfed conditions. Water requirement
is 300-350 mm. The crop requires about 50 cm of water during entire growth
period. Give first irrigation after 25-40 days of sowing. Second and third
irrigation should be given at flowering and pod development stage i.e. 45-50
and 60-70 day after sowing. In the case of single irrigation, it can be best
given in the reproductive phase. Stop irrigation just before the pods begin to
mature.
Table 2: Effect of irrigation on growth, yield and quality of sesamum

Plant 1000 Seed

No. of No. of No. of
height at seed yield
Treatment branches/ capsules/ seeds/
harvest weight (kg/
plant plant capsule
(cm) (g) ha)
0.4 IW:CPE 91.79 2.93 54.61 59.37 3.34 592
0.6 IW:CPE 96.36 3.25 59.18 66.72 3.48 748
0.8 IW:CPE 99.33 3.44 60.96 67.54 3.74 794
At branching+
flowering+ capsule
91.85 2.96 55.55 61.34 3.27 622
formation+ seed
filling stages
LSD (P=0.05) 4.18 0.26 3.87 4.22 0.19 55
Source: Patel et al., 2017.
9. Weed management
The weeds like Cyperusrotundus, Echinocloacolona, Cynodondactylon,
Digitariasanguinalis, Digeraarvensis, Trianthemaportulacastrum and
Physalisminima affect the growth and yield of sesamum crop. Sesamum crop
is very sensitive to weed competition during the first 20-25 days. Two

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weeding, one after 15-20 days of sowing and other at 30-35 days after
sowing are required to keep the field weed free and to make moisture and
nutrients available to the crop. When the plants are about 15 cm in height,
thin the crop so as to give a spacing of 15-25 cm between plants. Weeds can
also be controlled effectively by the use of Quizalofop 40 g/ha as post-
emergence (20-25 DAS) + hand weeding and interculture at 45 DAS and
Pendimethalin @ 450 g/ ha as pre-emergence + hand weeding and
interculture at 30 DAS (Sagarka et al., 2014).
Table 3: Effect of integrated weed management on growth, yield attributes and yield
of sesamum
Seed
Dose in g/ ha Plant
Branches/ Capsules/ 100 seed yield
Treatment and time of height
plant plant weight (kg/
application (cm)
ha)
450 (pre-
Pendimethalin 50.6 2.20 36.1 4.93 643
emergence)
Pendimethalin +
Hand weeding & 450 (pre-
62.5 2.87 48.5 5.70 1169
Interculture (30 emergence)
DAS)
Imazethapyr (20- 75 (post-
53.4 2.40 34.1 4.84 709
25 DAS) emergence)
Imazethapyr (20-
25 DAS) + Hand
37.5 (post-
weeding & 46.0 1.93 30.3 4.40 451
emergence)
Interculture (45
DAS)
Imazethapyr (20-
25 DAS) + Hand
75 (post-
weeding & 58.1 2.73 46.5 5.31 900
emergence)
Interculture (45
DAS)
Quizalofop (20- 40 (post-
56.7 2.47 33.9 5.05 735
25 DAS) emergence)
Quizalofop (20-
25 DAS) + Hand
20 (post-
weeding & 58.3 2.60 40.9 5.16 773
emergence)
Interculture (45
DAS)
Quizalofop (20-
25 DAS) + Hand
40 (post-
weeding & 62.7 3.13 49.7 5.75 1213
emergence)
Interculture (45
DAS)
Hand weeding & 47.3 2.20 31.3 4.63 516

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 Interculture (20
DAS)
Hand weeding &
Interculture twice 62.5 2.80 47.4 5.31 1101
(20 and 40 DAS)
Weed-free check 63.9 3.27 50.4 5.92 1378
Weedy check 45.8 1.87 27.8 4.15 321
LSD (P=0.05) 5.9 0.35 6.2 0.53 102
Source: Sagarka et al., 2014.
10. Insect-pest management
Leaf webber, roller and capsule borer
It is serious pest and attacks the crop throughout its growing season. The
young larvae roll together a few top leaves and feed them. In the early stage
of infestation, the plant dies without producing any branch or shoot. In later
stage of attack, infested shoots stop growing. At flowering, larvae feed inside
the flowers and on capsule formation, larvae bore into capsule and feed on
developing seeds.
Management
• Two spray of neem oil @ 2% should be done.
• Three spray of Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/ liter water.
• Use alternate insecticides each time and avoid the usage of same
insecticide every time.
Hawk or dead head moth
The young larvae roll together a few top leaves and feed them. In the
early stage of infestation, the plant dies without producing any branch or
shoot. In later stage of attack, infested shoots stop growing. At flowering,
larvae feed inside the flowers and on capsule formation, larvae bore into
capsule and feed on developing seeds.
Management
• Deep ploughing exposes the pupae for predation to insectivorous
birds.
• Hand picking collection and destruction of caterpillars.
• Two rounds of dusting with Phosalone 4%, first at 30 DAS and
second at 45 DAS.

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Sesamum gall fly
Fully grown larvae make a hole in the bud and damage the flower.
Leading to formation of gall like structure which do not develop into flower/
capsules.
Management
• Spray the crop at bud initiation stage with Dimethoate @ 0.2 ml/
litre water.
• The infested buds should be removed and destroyed to reduce
further incidence of the pest.
Sesamum bud fly
The maggots feed inside the floral bud. The corolla and stamens
degenerate and capsule formation fails. The affected buds wither and drop.
Management
• Two sprayings with neem formulation 0.03%
• Dusting with Phosalone 4%, first at 30 DAS and second at 45 DAS.
Leaf hopper
Curling of leaf edges and leaves turn red or brown. The leaves dry up
and shed. It is vector of sesamum phyllody disease.
Management
• Spray the crop with Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2.0 ml/ liter water.
Aphids
Attack of aphids results in crinkling and curling of leaves. Leaves
appear shiny and sticky due to honeydew excreted by the insects. Later sooty
mold grows on honey dew and leaves have a black coating. Act as vector of
leaf curl disease.
Management
• Seed treatment with Imidacloprid (5 g/ kg seed) keeps the crop free
from sucking pests over a month.
• Spray of Imidacloprid 17.8 SL should be done @ 0.4-0.5 ml/ liter
water.
11. Disease management
Cercospora leaf spot/ White spot (Cercosporasesami, C. sesamicola)
Disease appears as small, angular brown leaf spots of 3 mm diameter

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with gray centre and dark margin delimited by veins. In severity of the
disease defoliation occurs. Under favourable conditions, the disease spreads
to leaf petiole, stem and capsules producing linear dark coloured deep seated
lesions.
Management
• Spray Indofil M-45 @ 2 g/ litre water.
• Grow resistant varieties.
Powdery mildew (Oidium sp., Sphaerothecafuliginia, Leveillula sp.)
Small cottony spots appear on the infected leaves which gradually
spread on the lamina. Defoliation of severely infected plant occurs before
maturity.
Management
• Apply either Sulphur dust @ 25 kg/ ha or Wettable sulphur @ 25
kg/ ha.
Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. Sesame)
Water soaked, small and irregular spots are formed on the leaves which
later increases and turn brown, under favourable conditions. Leaves become
dry and brittle, severely infected leaves defoliate. Plants of all stage are
affected.
Management
• Follow crop rotation.
• Grow resistant varieties.
• Early planting i.e. immediately after onset of monsoon is desirable.
• Destruction of crop residues should be done.
• Steep the seed in Agrimycin-100 (250 ppm) or Streptocycline
suspension (0.05%) for 30 minutes.
• Foliar spray of Streptocycline (500 ppm) as soon as symptoms are
noticed.
• Continue two more sprays at 15 days interval if necessary.
Sesamum phyllody: Phytoplasma
This disease is caused by a mycoplasma-like organism. All floral parts
are transformed into green leafy structures followed by abundant vein
clearing in different flower parts. In severe infection, the entire

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inflorescences is replaced by short twisted leaves closely arranged on a stem
with short internodes, abundant abnormal branches bend down. Finally,
plants look like witches broom. If capsules are formed on lower portion of
plant they do not yield quality seeds. It is transmitted by insect vector i.e.
leaf hoppers (Orosiusalbicintus)
Management
• Remove and destroy the infected plants.
• To control vector, spray Dimethoate @ 2 ml/ litre water.
Leaf curl
This disease is caused by Nicotiana cirus-10 and transmitted by aphids.
Downward curling of leaves is the most spicuous symptom. Infected leaves
remain small in size and brittle. In severely infected plants capsule formation
does not take place.
Management
• Seed treatment with Imidacloprid (5 g/ kg seed) keeps the crop free
from sucking pests over a month.
• Spray of Imidacloprid 17.8 SL should be done @ 0.4-0.5 ml/ liter
water.
12. Harvesting
Depending on the variety, sesamum crop takes 80-150 days for maturity.
The crop is harvested when the leaves, stems and capsules begin to turn
yellow and the lower leaves start shedding. To prevent shedding of seed, the
crop should not become dead ripe in the field. The ripe plants are cut at the
ground level carried to threshing yard, stacked for a week in the sun with the
cut ends upwards.
13. Yield
The yield fluctuates widely depending upon the varieties, method of
cultivation and the weather condition. It should be possible to obtain 8-10
quintals per hectare.
14. Conclusion
Sesamum is an indigenous oilseed crop. It is a great source of protein,
sugar and minerals. It is essentially grown in arid and semi-arid areas.
Sesame seed is a reservoir of nutritional components with numerous
beneficial effects for health promotion in humans. The international demand
for sesame is continuously growing every year due to its increasing usage in

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food articles and pharmaceuticals. The cultivation practices need keeping the
area free from weeds, learning to identify the insect/disease pests that cause
damage to sesame; the practice of crop rotation by planting appropriate crops
in the next season; the use of disease and pest-resistant/tolerant varieties. The
major constraint of its low productivity is non-adoption of improved
technologies by the farmers.
References
1. Anonymous 2015. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Govt.
of India: http:// www. indiastate.com.
2. Meena, R. S., Kumar, S., Bohra, J. S., Lal, R., Yadav, G. S., Pandey, A.
2019. Response of alley cropping-grown sesame to lime and sulphur on
yield and available nutrient status in an acidic soil of Eastern India.
Energy, Ecology and Environment, 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-
019-00113-w.
3. Patel, D.P., Patel, R.A., Ghosh, S., 2017. Effect of irrigation,
vermicompost and sulphur on growth and yield of summer sesamum
(Sesamum indicum L.). Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci.,6(11), 1647-
1652.
4. Patel, H.K., Patel, R.M., Desai, C.K., Patel, H.B., 2014. Response of
summer sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) to different spacings and levels
of nitrogen under north Gujarat condition. Inter. J. Agric. Sci., 10(1),
336-343.
5. Sagarka, B.K., Mathukia, R.K., Panara, D.M., 2014. Integrated weed
management in sesame (Sesamumindicum L.). Agriculture: Towards a
New Paradigm of Sustainability, First impression, Excellent Publishing
House, New Delhi. 31-35.

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 Chapter – 8
Plant genetic resources for sustainable
agriculture

Authors
Manju Kumari
Division of Plant Genetics Resources, ICAR-National Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India
Sushil Chouray
Division of Plant Genetics Resources, ICAR-National Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India
Seema Sheoran
Division of Plant Genetics and Plant Breeding, ICAR-Indian
Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana (Punjab), India

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Page | 180
 Chapter - 8
Plant genetic resources for sustainable agriculture
Manju Kumari, Sushil Chouray and Seema Sheoran

Abstract
Genotypes are the basis which determine the performance of crops
under several biotic and abiotic pressures. Due to global population increase
and climate change the need of the situation is to attain sustainable
agricultural production by increasing productivity with less input (Kumar et
al., 2017, 2017a; Lakhran et al., 2017; Bajiya et al., 2017; Mrunalini et al.,
2020). But due to global climate change the situation demand developing
crop genes which can adapt to the harsh climatic changes. Certain plant
scientists activity like interspecific hybridization, gene bank development,
development of high yielding varieties, can play great role. Plant breeder
scientists should collect and conserve germplasm in gene banks, but also
evaluate them timely. Also plant genetic resources provides food, clothing,
shelter, medicines and other products of economic values for man and
domestic animals. The plant genetic resources are the backbone of
agriculture which play a crucial role in the development of new cultivars
including the restructuring of existing ones. Plant genetic resources (PGR)
for food and agriculture (PGRFA) are vital components of biodiversity. They
meet human needs for food, fiber, shelter, and medicines, and contribute to
trade and cultural traditions. By reducing the loss of plant genetic resources,
it can ensure food security, economic development, and world peace.
Keywords: Genotypes, interspecific hybridization, germplasm, gene
bank, Plant genetic resources.
1. Introduction
Sustainable agriculture refers to the successful management of resources
for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or
enhancing the natural resource base and avoiding environmental
degradation. Genotypes which could perform better under biotic (pathogens,
insects, weeds, nematodes etc.) and abiotic (drought, heat, cold, salinity,
mineral toxicity etc.) pressures are the keys for sustainable agriculture.

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Deforestation, land use changes and industrial revolution leading to burning
of fossil fuels has led to production of greenhouse gases which in turn has
brought a shift in global climate in past few decades. This change has been
predicted to be more intense till 2050, adversely affecting the crop
productivity. It is estimated that, by 2050 the global temperature will be
increased in the range of 1.6 to 6 0C while the rainfall is predicted to be more
uneven with some areas receiving short and others receiving excess rainfall.
The timing of rains and growing periods of crops will be changed. The
duration and frequency of extreme weather events such as cyclones,
thunderstorms, blizzards, dust storms, tornadoes, hails etc. are also predicted
to increase (Jarvis et al., 2008). At the same time, the global population,
which was around 7.7 billion in 2019, could grow to around 8.5 billion in
2030 and 9.7 billion in 2050 (United Nations, 2019). Hence, the food
demand in 2050 is expected to be twice of the level of 2000 (FAO 2012). On
the other hand, the total cultivable land is being reduced due to urbanization,
industrialization and development projects such as dams, roads etc. Out of
the total Indian geographical area of 328 million hectares, we had 185.142
million hectares of cultivable land in 1988-89 which has reduced to 181.95
million hectares in 2016 and this trend is continuous. Therefore, the only
solution which we have is to increase the crop productivity so that more food
could be produced using less amount of land and water. On the contrary, the
crop productivity is also expected to decrease due to climate change (Gupta
and Kumar, 2018; Kumar et al., 2018). Hence we are left with no option
other than to search for genes for adaptability in the plant diversity
conserved in the genebanks to develop climate resilient crops, regenerating
genetic diversity using crop wild relatives and to bring underutilized and
neglected crops to play more significant role in global food basket.
The efforts of plant scientists in combating global hunger in the past
century cannot be underestimated. It is estimated that 50% of the increase in
crop yields in recent years is due to development of new varieties while
irrigation and fertilizer accounts for remaining 50%. An early maturing New
Rice for Africa (NERICA) which has been developed at Africa Rice Centre
(Formerly known as WARDA) using interspecific hybridization between
Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa, has significantly transformed local
economies in several parts of Africa (FAO 2010). However, this success of
modern breeding has compromised with its own future by eliminating the
genetic diversity on which plant breeders depend. It is estimated that 75% of
global plant genetic diversity has been lost in the 20 th century due to
replacement of local varieties and landraces for genetically uniform, high-
yielding cultivars (FAO 2010). Most of the plant varieties in the early era of

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scientific plant breeding were developed by selection of elite genotypes
amongst the heterogeneous populations. When the diversity in the existing
populations exhausted, the breeders started to create variability through
hybridization. It is important to note that atleast one of the parents used in
these hybridization program was the elite cultivar available at that time
which was genetically uniform. Thus, the diversity present in the
heterogeneous base population upon which initial selection was practiced
was gradually lost because hybridization only recombines the existing
variation present in the parents and it cannot create new variation. Higher
yields have always been the primary objective of modern plant breeding. In
the recent years when the yield in most of the crops has reached a plateau,
the emphasis of plant breeding has been shifted to reduce the crop losses
caused by various biotic and abiotic stresses through imparting resistance
against them. It is high time to further strengthen our plant breeding capacity
and to expand breeding programmes to develop varieties with traits needed
to meet the challenges brought by climate change. Moreover, ecologically
sound agricultural systems needs to be developed and judicious use of
remaining biodiversity is required in our approach to sustainability. This task
would obviously require all-round efforts of not only collecting and
conserving germplasm in genebanks, but also their evaluation under
appropriate stress conditions, and identification of the desired genes in
appropriate genetic background. India, being home to several of our
cultivated plants, harbours rich diversity of their wild and weedy forms.
There has been progress in securing PGRFA diversity in the national gene
bank and crop specific institutes. However, much of the diversity of crop
wild relatives and underutilized species relevant for food and agriculture,
still needs to be collected and conserved for present and future use.
2. Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture – definition,
importance and threats
‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ refers to all forms of life on earth
including plants, animals, microorganisms along with the ecosystem in
which they exist and interact. Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) are plant
species which provides food, clothing, shelter, medicines and other products
of economic values for man and domestic animals. The PGR broadly include
landraces, farmers’ varieties, breeding stocks, genetic stocks (DNA/RNA),
obsolete and modern varieties of cultivated plants including their wild and
weedy relatives. They are the backbone of agriculture which play a crucial
role in the development of new cultivars including the restructuring of
existing ones. The farmer’s varieties and landraces are the cultivars which

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have been traditionally grown and evolved by the farmers through selection
in their field. Modern varieties are result of systematically programmed plant
breeding efforts whereas obsolete cultivars are the modern varieties of recent
past which have become out of cultivation. It is important to note that unlike
biological diversity as a whole which has been created by nature, most part
of the crop diversity has been developed by man through artificial
hybridization and selection for which PGR forms the raw material.
Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) are special
group of plants which have importance in food and agriculture. It is
estimated that plants provide some 70 percent of human requirements for
food and agriculture (FAO 2005). Although efforts are being made to
conserve and sustainably use the genetics resources of plants, animals
including fishes, insects and microorganisms but the Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) occupy a special place and are
given priority in national as well as global conservation projects because
they provide food, clothing and shelter for majority of the population of the
world and are facing greatest threat due to habitat loss, global warming,
climate change, population pressures, overgrazing, environmental
degradation and changing agricultural practices. Around 340 million hectare
of the earth’s vegetated surface burns every year and a significant part of
biodiversity is lost (RBG Kew, 2017). Globally, over one billion people
already suffer from chronic hunger and malnutrition (FAO 2012). Further
loss of genetic diversity of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture
will greatly reduce our options for adapting to future climate change thereby
ensuring food security, economic development, and world peace.
3. Activities performed in the management of plant genetic resources
in India
The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi
is the nodal organization which deals with the management of genetic
resources of agriculture and horticultural plant in India while the Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun deals with the genetic resources of forest plant
species. Besides, all crop specific institutes of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) maintains their own germplasm collection of
their mandate crops. Moreover, there are 59 National Active Germplasm
Sites (NAGS) in the crops based ICAR institutes and State Agricultural
Universities which maintain active/working collections of germplasm in
medium term storage. The activities involved in the management of plant
genetic resources include Germplasm Exploration and Collection,
Quarantine and Exchange, Conservation, Characterization and Regeneration,
Evaluation and Cataloguing.

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 Germplasm exploration and collection: Management of the Plant
Genetic Resources requires collaboration of scientists from various
disciplines. The history of exploration for germplasm collection date back to
1926 when N.I Vavilov toured almost entire world to collect more than
2,50,000 germplasm accessions and promulgated the concept of “Centers of
origin of cultivated plants” (Crow et al., 1993). For exploration and
collection of germplasm from field, experts in botany particularly in plant
taxonomy are required since it require accurate identification of the target
species using the morphological traits only and preparation of herbarium
specimens in the field itself. Further, the collectors should also have
knowledge of breeding systems of the target plant species. It is important to
note that the breeding system of wild forms may be different from their
cultivated counterparts. In contrast to self-pollinated species, populations of
cross pollinated species are highly heterozygous and heterogeneous in nature
hence it requires a larger sample size to ensure that maximum possible allelic
diversity has been captured. In general 2000 seeds for self-pollinated and
4000 seeds for cross pollinated species are considered optimum to represent
the genetic diversity present in the population. However, some relaxation
(upto 500 seeds) is given in case of wild and weedy forms which generally
have asynchronous maturity hence small number of seeds may be available
at a particular time. Space is a limitation while collecting germplasm from
field, therefore collection of seed propagated species is relatively easy in
comparison to vegetatively propagated species since seed require lesser
space for temporary storage while the exploration is underway and have
better keeping quality. On the other hand, vegetative propagules are bulky
and fleshy which require more space and special care during temporary
storage. In the early periods, exploration programmes were region oriented.
Since almost all diversity rich countries including India have collected and
conserved most of the crop genetic diversity in their genebanks, the
exploration programmes have now become species oriented. However much
of the diversity found in the form of Crop wild relatives is still
underrepresented in the most genebanks of the world (FAO 2010).
Plant quarantine and exchange: The material collected from field may
be infected with disease and pests. If the material is conserved as such it may
be destroyed during storage. Another risk in storing infected germplasm is
that it may conserve the pathogen or insect along with the germplasm which
may be released in the environment during regeneration or utilization posing
risk of entry of a new pest in an area where it was not present before.
Therefore, the collected material is screened for presence of pathogens using

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microscopic, incubation, transparency and special detection techniques such
as ELISA for viruses, and X-ray for detecting hidden infestation of insects.
Even the most diversity rich countries such as India is not self-sufficient
in available diversity of the genetic resources of plant species, hence they
need mutual give and take of germplasm, and this activity is termed as
Germplasm Exchange.
Germplasm conservation: Once the germplasm accession is found free
from weeds, disease and pests and also found sufficient in quantity it is sent
stored for long term (more than 50 years) in big seed vaults having -20 0C
temperature in case of seed and in liquid nitrogen having -196 0C in case of
vegetatively propagated species which is called cryopreservation. For short
and medium term storage of germplasm of vegetatively propagated species
slow growth plant tissue cultures are employed while for seed propagated
species the material is kept at temperature above 0 0C. A unique identity
number is provided to each accession for cataloguing so that it can be traced
easily in the gene bank and also for easy identification during regeneration
and indent received from breeders for its utilization in breeding programme.
IC (Indigenous Collection) and EC (Exotic Collection) are prefixed for
material collected/received from India and abroad respectively.
Like seed germplasm, the cryopreserved germplasm are also subjected
to stress condition due to high concentration of plant vitrefication solutions
and toxic effects of cryoprotectants. Similarly the tissue cultured germplasm
may also develop genetic variation termed as somaclonal variation. But our
objective is to conserve the germplasm in true to type condition. Hence, for
detection of cryopreservation induced or somaclonal variations, genetic
stability studies are performed using molecular, biochemical and
morphological techniques.
Germplasm regeneration: Since the seed are dried to 3-7% moisture
level for long term storage, they face stress conditions due to which their
viability may get deteriorate. Therefore the germplasm in long term storage
is monitored each 10 year and when the seed viability falls below 85% of
original, the material is regenerated using the seed from actual base
collection. It is important to note that the regeneration must be performed at
the actual site of collection or a site having similar climatic conditions so as
to ascertain that there is no change in the allele frequencies, the so-called
genetic shift. The scientist involved in germplasm regeneration must have
the knowledge of the breeding system of the plant species in question.
Germplasm characterization: Another important aspect of managing

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plant genetic resource is the characterization of germplasm which refers to
full description of the germplasm. A list of crop wise descriptor is made
available by the Biodiversity International (formerly known as The
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute) (IPGRI), Rome, Italy. A
descriptor is a heritable trait of a plant species which is used to describe the
germplasm. Characterization data are useful in genetic diversity studies and
identification of duplicate accessions in the genebank.
Germplasm evaluation: Without knowing the worth of the germplasm,
they cannot be utilized in breeding programs hence the evaluation of
germplasm accessions is carried out for resistance to disease and pests,
protein content, vitamin content or for any other trait which has economic
value for that plant species. Only one third of the global germplasm
accession held in world genebank are characterized hence most of these
germplasm accessions have largely been unused (FAO 2010).
Germplasm cataloguing and utilization: To enhance the utilization of
germplasm conserved in the genebank, core collections have been developed
in several crops including Okra (Mahajan et al., 1996), Mungbean (Bisht et
al., 1998A), Sesamum (Bisht et al., 1998B, Mahajan et al., 2007) which
forms 10% of the original number of accessions but constitute maximum
diversity stored with minimum repetition. A minicore collection comprising
1% of the original number of accessions has also been developed in some
crops such as groundnut (Upadhyaya et al., 2002), Pigeonpea (Upadhyaya et
al., 2006) and sorghum (Upadhyaya et al., 2009). Crop specific germplasm
filed day are also organized where the germplasm is grown in field and plant
breeders are invited to select the germplasm of their choice and provided
from the genebank. Recently NBPGR has developed an electronic database
i.e. PGR Portal, which can be accessed by the plant breeders through its
website http://pgrportal.nbpgr.ernet.in.
4. Strategies for conservation of PGRFA
As soon as the world has recognized the importance of PGRFA, the
scientists started to develop the techniques for their conservation. The easiest
method was perhaps to conserve them where they occur. The conservation of
organisms in their natural habitat is termed as In-situ conservation.
Biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biodiversity
hotspots, gene sanctuaries, community reserves, sacred groves etc. were
some of the early efforts to conserve the biodiversity in-situ.
The diversity of PGRFA occurring in the farmers’ fields is still largely
inadequately documented and managed. Farmers usually grow traditional

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crops and local varieties for various reasons which include, but not limited to
food preference, cultural reasons, local adaptation, market opportunities, or
simply because of the lack of a better alternative. This approach has been
termed as “in-situ on farm conservation” and “conservation through use”.
However, these farmers’ varieties and landraces have been replaced by
modern cultivars and are at very high risk due to increasing food demands
and adaption of modern cultivars in newer areas. Traditionally, farmers in
many parts of the world have been depositing their surplus seed produced in
their field at an informal system developed at local level to exchange it with
another variety of the same or a different crop. These informal systems
managed by local peoples are termed as Community Seed Banks. These seed
banks are important source of germplasm of traditionally grown varieties and
landraces which needs to targeted for their conservation in national
genebanks.
There is now a growing awareness among nations about local crop
diversity, particularly developing countries which still have much of
diversity in farmer’s field. National and international efforts for in situ
conservations have been increasing. Since 1996, protected areas have
expanded by more than 30% leading to an increase in the conservation of
CWR. The number of botanical gardens has increased from about 1500 in
the year 1996 to more than 2500 in 2010. These gardens are important
repositories of crop wild relatives. (FAO 2010).
The conservation of species in outside their natural habitats is termed as
Ex-situ germplasm conservation. This may be achieved thorough seed
genebanks, field genebanks or through plant tissue culture and
cryopreservation. There has been progress in securing PGRFA diversity in a
larger number of national genebanks. The number of genebanks globally has
increased from just eight in 1974 to more than 1750 presently. The total
number of germplasm accessions held in these genebanks has also increased
by more than 20% since 1996 reaching 7.5 million in 2014. It is estimated
that about 70-75% of these accessions are duplicates (FAO 2010, 2014).
The fifteen CGIAR Research Centers have together built up the largest
and most frequently accessed network of genebanks in the world which have
more than 770,000 germplasm accessions. A duplicate collection of world
gene bank has been maintained for safety. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault
which was established in 2008 provides the ultimate global security backup
collection of crop diversity. With a capacity to store 4.5 million accessions,
it currently holds over 1,057,151 accessions collected from all around the
world.

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 As on February 2020, the Indian national gene bank holds 4,45,573
germplasm accessions in the form of seed representing more than 1,584
species. Besides, 1890 accessions belonging to some 133 species are
maintained in in-vitro gene bank and more than 13936 accessions belonging
to around 794 species have been maintained in the National Cryogene bank
(http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/Research_Projects/Base_Collection_in_NGB.asp
x retrieved on 24th May 2020). However, much of the diversity, particularly
of crop wild relatives and neglected crop species still needs to be conserved.
In situ conservation needs more attention since it conserves the whole
ecosystem which permits the evolution of the species as opposed to the ex-
situ conservation which arrest the evolution process from the time the
germplasm is collected from the field and conserved in the gene bank.
However, they are subjected to threat of loss due to habitat destruction,
invasive species and natural calamities such as forest fire, floods etc.
Moreover, ex-situ collections provides easy access to germplasm for their
use in breeding programmes. It is therefore recommended to have a security
backup of the species conserved in in-situ collections as ex-situ collections
in the gene bank.
5. Climate change: evidence, impacts and mitigations
Agriculture is a sector which provides livelihood for the 60% population
of India and it is also the sector which is most influenced by the climate
change (Mahdi et al., 2019). Climate change is now a reality as evident from
the fact that 19 of the hottest years in the history of earth have been observed
since 2001 with the exception of the year 1998. The year 2016 ranks as
warmest followed by 2019 as the second warmest. The changes observed in
the earth’s climate since the preindustrial period in the early 1900s, are
mainly due to human activities, particularly burning of fossil fuels which
causes emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrous
oxide. Amongst the all gases that cause the greenhouse effect, carbon
dioxide plays a major role. Carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is at its
highest in 0.65 million years and are increasing at rapid rates. From 408.84
PPM in June 2017 to 410.88 PPM in June 2018, it reached at 413.38 PPM in
April 2020 (https://climate.nasa.gov/). There have been a continued increase
in CO2 levels and other key greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere
during 2015-2019, with CO2 growth rates nearly 20 percent higher than the
previous five years. This trend is not expected to begin reversing by 2030.
On the other hand, the “Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5 0C above pre-
Industrial Levels” (2018), demonstrates that we must limit global warming

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to 1.5 0C by the end of this century to avoid irreversible and catastrophic
impacts. This means that carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions need to decline by
about 45 percent by 2030 and reach net zero in 2050 (United Nations,
2019B). Since the early 20th century, earth’s global temperature has
increased about 1 0C (1.08 0F) and it is further increasing with an average
rate of 0.2 0C per decade. Natural processes such as El-Nino, Volcanic
activities, changes in the sun’s energy output and variation in earth’s orbit
may also contribute to changes in Earth’s temperature. Due to increasing
global temperature, the Arctic sea ice is declining at a rate of 12.85% decade
relative to its 1981 to 2010 average. Similarly the ice sheets in both
Antarctica and Greenland have been losing mass since 2002 with an average
rate of 427.00 Giga tonnes/ year. The global average sea level has also risen
by 7 inches over the past 100 years with an annual increase of 3.3 mm per
year due to intake of water for melting ice and expansion of sea water as it
warms (https://climate.nasa.gov/).
The impact of future climate change on crop productivity has been
predicted. It has been estimated that almost 22% of the wild relatives of
important food crops of peanut, potato and beans will become extinct by
2055 because of a changing climate (FAO 2010). Climate change in the
semi-arid parts of the world is likely to reduce the length of growing season
and force large regions of marginal agriculture out of production (Jarvis et
al., 2008, Mahdi, et al., 2019). Increase in growing season temperatures will
reduce the crop yield; reduced and more uneven rainfall will reduce the
availability of irrigation water leading to increased frequency and severity of
droughts; Spread of new and existing crop pests & diseases will increase
harvest loss and; rise in sea level will lead to increased soil salinity in coastal
areas (Sutton et. al., 2013). The crop yields in the Asian continent could
decrease by up to 30% in Central and South Asia while they could increase
by up to 20% in East and South-East Asia (Jarvis et al., 2008). The impact
on water availability will be particularly more severe for India since 54% of
the total ground water wells in India are decreasing with 16% of them
decreasing by more than a meter in a year (Mahdi et al., 2019).
The extent of heat stress during the growing season is variable across the
crop species. Rice yield decreases by 10% with every 1°C increase in
growing-season minimum temperature (Peng et al. 2004, Prasad et. al.,
2006). A novel QTL (Quantitative Trait Locus) “qEMF3” (Early-Morning
Flowering) has been identified in wild rice Oryza officinalis, and has been
transferred in many rice cultivars to mitigate heat-induced spikelet sterility at
the flowering stage (Hirabayashi et al., 2015). Another wild rice species

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Oryza coarctata, commonly found on the banks of coastal rivers in India is
the only and extreme halophytic species in the genus Oryza (Bal et. al.,
1986). After the complete genome sequencing of O. coarctata, several
stress-specific genes have been revealed which will be useful in breeding salt
tolerant rice cultivars (Mondal et. al., 2018). Similarly, drought and salt
tolerant genes and QTLs have been identified in Triticum dicoccoides and
Hordeum spontaneum, the progenitors of cultivated wheat and barley
respectively (Nevo et. al., 2010).
6. Crop wild relatives: reservoir of genetic diversity
Crop wild relatives (CWRs) are wild plant species that are genetically
related to cultivated crops (https://www.bioversityinternational.org/cwr). In
other words, they are the wild ‘cousins’ of our cultivated crops that contain
useful diversity for adapting crops to a range of environmental conditions.
CWRs are distributed across a wide range of habitats, such as deserts,
wetlands, grasslands, salt marshes, mountains etc. and have developed many
different strategies for surviving in these adverse climatic conditions. The
genetic traits that allow these species to thrive in extreme habitats are a
valuable resource for plant breeding in the context of climate change. Unlike
the cultivated crops whom evolution has been directed by man as per his
needs, the CWRs have been continue to evolve in the wild without human
intervention leading to development of traits such as drought/pest resistance
or tolerance to other biotic/ abiotic stresses. Breeders, since the beginnings
of agriculture have been crossing them with domesticated crops to
incorporate resistance against pests and diseases, improve the yields and
nutritional quality and improved tolerance to abiotic stresses such as heat,
cold, drought and salt tolerance which expands crop cultivation into
marginal land. Since, modern breeding has narrowed down the genetic base
in most of the crop species and there are many crops which have intrinsic
low level of genetic diversity due to domestication bottlenecks. Therefore,
the wild relatives of crop plants are now being used for genetic enhancement
of domesticated germplasm through prebreeding approach which consist of
crossing the adopted germplasm line with a suitable wild relative to broaden
the genetic base of the modern cultivars. Hence, Crop wild relatives are the
keys for sustainable agriculture. It is reported that there are as many as 800
crop plants that are cultivated in India (Singh et. al., 2018). Early studies on
genetic diversity of crop wild relatives have revealed the presence of at least
326 wild crop relatives in India (Arora and Nayar, 1984; Arora, 2000).
However, recent reports suggest the occurrence of more than 958 species of
wild relatives of cultivated plants in India (Singh, A. K. 2017).

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 The importance of crop wild relatives is not limited to their use in plant
breeding to broaden the genetic base or to impart certain traits which are not
found in the cultivated germplasm. They have high nutritional value and
wide range of ecosystem plasticity, so they can be cultivated with minimal
external inputs (i.e. pesticides, fertilizers etc.) and agronomic practices than
the modern crop varieties.
It is not always essential that a trait which is visible is only present and
can be transferred from a wild species to the cultivated species. Sometimes a
trait is not originally visible in the wild species itself but appears in its
progeny. For instance, Oryza rufipogon a wild relative of Asian rice has
lower grain yield than the cultivated Oryza sativa but the transcriptome
analysis of the hybrid produced by these two species has revealed that a
yield gene Os11Gsk has been received by the hybrid from Oryza rufipogon
(Thalapati et. al., 2012). Hence the genetic diversity in crop wild relatives
may not be only hidden, but also somewhat unexpected.
Like other plant species, the CWR are also prone to extinction due to
habitat loss by overgrazing or invasive alien species. The Pecos sunflower
(Helianthus paradoxus) possesses adaptation to saline soils and has great
potential in breeding salt-tolerant cultivated sunflowers (Lexer et. al., 2004),
but this species is endemic to salt marshes in the Chihuahuan Desert of
North America (Bush et. al., 2006) and is threatened to extinction due to
livestock grazing and invasive species.
7. The crop wild relatives project
The Crop Wild Relatives Project entitled “Adapting Agriculture to
Climate Change: Collecting, Protecting and Preparing Crop Wild
Relatives” is the largest ever global effort for collection, conservation and
facilitating the use of CWR in plant breeding for food security
(https://www.cwrdiversity.org/). This 10-year project was launched in 2011
with funding from the Government of Norway. The Project focuses on
collecting and conserving the wild relatives of 29 priority crops and pre-
breeding for 19 crops, selected based on their importance and occurrence on
Annex 1 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture (ITPGRFA). The initiative is led by the Global Crop Diversity
Trust (Crop Trust) in partnership with Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew's
Millennium Seed Bank and in collaboration with national and international
agricultural research institutes. All crop wild relatives collected as part of
this project are conserved in the national collections of the country of origin,
Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank, the appropriate CGIAR international

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collection, and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Besides the germplasm of
CWR, the project has developed many useful resources such as CWR
occurrence database, atlas, gap analysis results and pre breeding data which
are publicly available at website https://www.cwrdiversity.org/ to promote
their use at the maximum possible extent.
8. Underutilized crops or neglected crops or potential crops
Scientific efforts to discover new plant species is a continuous process.
On an average, nearly 2000 new plant species are discovered annually. As
per the recent phytogenic classification in the year 2016, the flowering plants
i.e. angiosperms, have been classified in 412 families and there are a total of
452 families of vascular plants. However, the plants that provide 80% of the
plant derived calories at global level belongs to only 17 plant families (RBG,
Kew 2017). Amongst the total 250,000 species of higher plants identified
globally, plant genetic resources comprise 40%, while the plants cultivated
as agricultural or horticultural crops cover only 2.8%. Among these only 30
species provide more than 90% of calories or protein to human nutrition
hence it has been said that they “feed the world” (FAO, 2010). Further, 12
crops currently supply 80% and just four crops, namely, rice, wheat, potato
and maize supply nearly 60% of plant-derived calories and protein (FAO,
2010). This skewed reliance over a limited number of crops has also led to
their skewed representation in terms of number of accessions and wild and
weedy relatives in the genebanks (FAO 2010).
Climate change may increase the importance of plant species that have
previously been underutilized or considered to be of minor importance. It is
surprising that even after availability of a larger number of plant resources,
man has been largely dependent on a handful of crop species. If these species
fails to perform in changing climate or due to epidemics, the entire world
would be at risk of global famine. Therefore, it is high time to include more
crops in global food basket. Today it is widely accepted that our food system
needs diversification and we must include a greater use of agricultural
biodiversity on our farms and on our plates. Production needs to focus on a
diverse range of nutritious foods rather than the increased volume of a few
crops.
Underutilized crops are “crop” itself which are directly used as food
unlike the wild relative of crops which are used for genetic enhancement of
crop plants through restoration of genetic diversity. They are either grown in
a small geographic area or were gown in past but now out of cultivation due
to adoption of improved varieties of major crops. The most significant part

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of bringing underutilized and minor crops to play a major role in combating
global hunger is that, they are almost untouched by the modern plant
breeding hence possesses a broad genetic base and are expected to perform
better in the climatic conditions which we are expected to face in future. On
the other hand the most challenging part is perhaps people’s food habit due
to which these crops have been neglected. Non availability of improved
cultivars, lack of awareness about these crops in other areas and non-
availability of standardized package of practices is another reason for their
negligence (Kumar et al., 2016, 2016a). To deal these issues, India has setup
a Coordinated Research Network on these crops with National Bureau of
Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi as head quarter and several state
agricultural universities as its centres. A list of mandate crops of the research
network is given in Table 1.
Table 1: List of mandate crops of ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Network on
Potential Crops

Food Crops Pseudocereals Grain amaranth (Amaranthus spp.)

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.
Chenopodium (Chenopodium spp.)
Job’s tear (Coix lacryma-jobi)
Food legumes/ Rice bean (Vigna umbellata)
pulses Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis)
Faba bean (Vicia faba)
Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
Oilseeds Perilla (Perilla frutescens)
Paradise tree (Simarouba glauca)
VegeTables Kankoda (Momordica dioica)
Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
Fodder Crops Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.)
Salt bush (Atriplex spp.)
Fodder tree species
Energy, Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)
Hydrocarbon Guayule (Parthenium argentatum)
and Industrial
Plants Jatropha (Jatropha curcas)
Tumba (Citrullus colocynthis)
Paradise Tree (Siimarouba glauca)
Perilla (Perilla frutescens)
Source: NBPGR Website
http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/AICRN_on_PC.aspx (retrieved on 24th May 2020)

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9. Conclusion
Plant genetic resources are the foundation of agricultural productivity
and sustainability. The key challenge in sustainable development is to
increase food production to meet the needs of growing populations while
mitigating genetic erosion that leads to the loss of crucial PGRFA. To meet
this challenge, it is necessary to develop a sustained national research and
development program that focuses on these resources. This will make
precious crop genetic resources accessible and available to breeders,
researchers, and farmers and will support the development of new crop
varieties and new uses for traditional crops. The results will be improved
food security and livelihoods for the farmers. PGRFA play a critical role in
sustainable development.
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 Chapter – 9
An insight of bioinformatics in agriculture

Authors
Shweta Kumari
Division of Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics
Research Institute, New Delhi, India
Seema Sheoran
Division of Plant Genetics and Plant Breeding, ICAR-Indian
Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana (Punjab), India
Kavita Rani
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India

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Page | 200
 Chapter - 9
An insight of bioinformatics in agriculture
Shweta Kumari, Seema Sheoran and Kavita Rani

Abstract
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that been used for in silico
analyses of biological queries using mathematical and statistical techniques.
It includes gene mapping, gene sequencing, varietal information database,
and development of tools which include computer programs that help to
reveal fundamental mechanisms underlying biological problems related to
the structure and function of macromolecules, biochemical pathways, disease
processes, and evolution.It also deals with the study of genomics, proteomics
and metabolomics in various plant species. The ultimate goal of sustainable
agriculture is increasing the volume of the agricultural produce, increasing
the nutritional content, and implanting disease resistance in plants etc. The
study of plant genomics includes understanding the genetic and molecular
basis of all biological processes in plants that are relevant to the species. This
understanding is fundamental to allow efficient exploitation of plants as
biological resources in the development of new cultivars with improved
quality and reduced economic and environmental costs. Bioinformatic tools
and databases stores and analyze the plant genetic resource that can be used
to produce stronger, more drought, disease and insect resistant crops and
improve the quality of produce making them healthier, more disease resistant
and more productive. A bioinformatics programme can now be envisioned as
a highly important tool for plant improvement.
Keywords: Bioinformatics, gene mapping, gene sequencing, genomics,
proteomics.
1. Introduction
Bioinformatics represents a new field of science which makes use of
computer databases and computer algorithms to analyze proteins, genes, and
the complete collections of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that comprises an
organism (the genome). Evolution in Next-generation sequencing
technology, proteomics, and other large scale molecular biology efforts

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results into enormous quantities of sequence data and structural data, to
understand this data in biological meaningful manner arise a major
challenges in biology (Pevsner, 2015). “PaulienHogeweg, a Dutch system
biologist, was the first person who used the term “Bioinformatics” in 1970,
referring to the use of information technology for studying biological
systems” (Mehmood, 2014). “Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that
develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data and
combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, as wells as engineering
to analyze and interpret biological data. Bioinformatics has been used for in
silico analyses of biological queries using mathematical and statistical
techniques.”The bioinformatics software’s uses advanced technology of
computer science that assist it to understand biological mechanism related to
the structure and function of macromolecules, biochemical pathways, disease
processes, and evolution (Pevsner, 2015).
1.1 Bioinformatics: A conceptual view
The field of bioinformatics in abstraction can be visualize in three
perspective: the cell, organism and evolution (Pevsner, 2015). The
information archives in each organism i.e., the building block of a living cell
is carried by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
protein. This DNA and RNA (in case of some viruses) forms genetic
material inside the cell as it carries the information of inheritance. The
genetic materials (DNA or RNA) contains four basic building blocks or
Nitrogenous bases where order or sequence of theses bases forms the
instruction in the genome:
Nucleic Acid Nitrogenous bases Base Complement
Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G),
DNA A=T, G ≡ C
Thymine (T)
Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G),
RNA A=U, G ≡ C
Uracil (U)

DNA of a cell consists of thousands of genes and flow of genetic

information through genes encode protein which ultimately determine
function of the cell. The process underlying the conversion of DNA
sequence to the protein sequence is called “the central dogma of molecular
biology”. It was first proposed by Francis Crick in 1958, composed of two
major steps, as shown in (Figure 1). The first step is transcription, in which
the information in the DNA of every cell is converted into a messenger RNA
(mRNA). The second is translation, in which the base sequence of the
mature mRNA is ‘read’ and converted into amino acid sequences which
makes specific protein. The information contained in the nucleotide

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sequence of the mRNA is read as three-letter words (triplets) called codon
(Ghosh, 2008).
In short the central dogma of molecular biology is that DNA is
transcribed into RNA and translated into protein. The field of molecular
biology has its major attention on individual genes, messenger RNA
(mRNA) transcripts as well as noncoding RNAs, and proteins. Whereas the
bioinformatics deals with the complete collection of DNA i.e., genome,
complete collection of RNA i.e., transcriptome, and the complete collection
of protein sequences i.e., proteome of any organism (Henikoff, 2002). Rapid
evolution in genomic technology and molecular biology together generates
enormous amount of biological information which ultimately produce both
great opportunities and great challenges.
Central dogma of molecular biology

Central dogma of Genomics

Fig 1: Central dogma of molecular biology

A bioinformatics approach to molecular sequence data involves the
application of computer algorithms and computer databases to molecular and
cellular biology. Such an approach is sometimes referred to as functional
genomics. This typifies the essential nature of bioinformatics: biological
questions can be approached from levels ranging from single genes and
proteins to cellular pathways and networks or even whole genomic responses
(Ideker et al., 2001). Our goals are to understand how to study both
individual genes and proteins and collections of thousands of genes or
proteins.

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2. Branches of bioinformatics
The characterization of these three types of components and the
associated development of analytical methods lead to the establishment of
the three closely related branches of bioinformatics: genomics,
transcriptomics and proteomics.
2.1 Genomics
Genomics play a significant role in modern biological research in which
the nucleotide sequences of all the chromosomes of an organism are mapped
and the location of different genes and their sequences are thereby
determined. This involves extensive analysis of the nucleic acids through
molecular biology techniques before the data are ready for processing by
computers. It is a science that attempts to describe a living organism in terms
of the sequence of its genome (its constituent genetic material). A large
number of bacterial genomes have already been fully sequenced and put in
the public domain. Haemophilus influenzae was the first bacterium to be
sequenced in 1995. The sequencing of bacterial genomes was followed by
the first sequenced eukaryotic organism, the unicellular genetic model
system Saccharomyces Cerevisiae. In December 1998, the first multicellular
organism was added to the list, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, which
is now considered as a model organism to provide us with information about
unique functions in organisms of greater complexity. The sum of all these
information is enormous and its potential in our understanding of life
processes can be explored with the help of genomics, almost synonymous
with bioinformatics (Ghosh, 2008; Manzoni, 2018).
Completion of Arabidopsis thaliana genome sequence and rice genome
sequence (Oryza sativa sp. Japonica Nipponbare) and tomato genome
sequence (Solanum lycopersicum) are major break throughs in plant
genomics. Major sequencing efforts were started with these model crop
species genome and then extend to other non-model species. Model species
acts as a platform to pass functional information to their closely related
species. However, the range of sequenced plant genome size varies from
small 63.6 Mb (Genliseaaurea) to extremely large 22.18Gb (Pinus taeda)
which is about seven times larger than human genome and almost 82 percent
of its genome is occupied by duplicated regions in comparison to only 25
percent in human. Plant genome is usually known for having lots of
complexities like large genome size, higher ploidy level, higher
heterozygosity, and abundant repetitive regions including various kinds of
duplicated regions. Most of the current assembly algorithms, somehow,

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struggle to deal with so many complexities, hence it requires to remove or to
alleviate these complexities by either preparing large sequencing insert
libraries or use of mate paired reads or sequence DNA samples from
homozygous lines or combination of these. There are reportedly more than
three dozen of plant species so far sequenced completely as more updated
genome information available in available database. However, the role of
bioinformatics has become crucial with the availability of complete genome
sequences and floods of sequence data. Without bioinformatics tools it is
almost impossible to organise and analyze these huge amounts of data
(Gajula, 2016).
2.2 Transcriptomics
The transcriptome is the complete set of all RNA molecule, in one or a
population of biological cells or in an organism. The study of the
transcriptome is transcriptomics. This study helps us to depict the expression
level of genes, often using techniques such as sequential analysis of gene
expression (SAGE) or DNA microarrays, that is capable of sampling tens of
thousands of different mRNAs at a time. Gene expression varies in disease
states or in response to a variety of signals, both intrinsic and environmental.
With the advances in new sequencing technologies and various
bioinformatics tools now it became possible to identify novel genes or to
assess gene expression in uncharacterized plants (Manzoni, 2018; Mochida,
2010; Gajula, 2016).
2.3 Proteomics
The second product of genome expression is the proteome, it comprises
all the proteins present in a cell at a particular time. Proteomics involves the
sequencing of amino acids in a protein, determining its 3D structure and
relating it to the function of the protein. The applications of bioinformatics in
the field of proteomics extended to amino acid sequence analysis,
determination of splice variant, polymorphism, and post translational
modifications, identification of protein binding partners etc. Two-
dimensional gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry and protein microarrays
are the major technologies in in the field of proteomics and bioinformatics
tools plays crucial role in interpreting and getting meaningful information
from the data coming out of these respective instruments. Bioinformatics
tools playing major role in protein structure prediction as well in relation to
their sequence while establishing a link between the genome and the
proteome. This application is very much important for plant biotechnology
research especially to understand the relation between structure and function

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of the proteins in a plant cell. With the development of more accurate
algorithms for predicting protein structures it is possible to translate
complete genome DNA sequence data into protein structures and predict
corresponding functions: such an advancement can provide the vital link
between the genetics of an organism and its expressed phenotype. A
comparison of the numbers of current plant protein sequences with predicted
structures suggests that there is much scope for research in this area. The
potential for bioinformatics to structure and integrate omic data relies on an
ability to model both the proteome and its interactions. There are several
successful case studies being reported on protein structure prediction,
modelling and simulation that helps in understanding protein functional
mechanism and protein interactions (Manzoni, 2018; Mochida, 2010; Gajula,
2016).

Fig 2: Over view of the progressive advance in the methods to study genes,
transcripts and proteins in the in formatics sciences.
2.4 Metabolomics
Metabolomics deals with the analysis (typically high throughput or
broad scale) of small-molecule metabolites and polymers. At the application
level, metabolomics involves identification and characterization of a broad
range of metabolites through reference to quantitative biochemical analysis.
The importance lies in quantitative identification of metabolites that are
direct gauge of desired phenotype (Gajula, 2012). The bioinformatics tools
are essential at each step from screening to saving the data as the metabolites
ultimately represent the dynamics of a cell.
3. Scope / research area of bioinformatics
Bioinformatics consists of two subfields: the development of

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computational tools and databases and the application of these tools and
databases in generating biological knowledge to better understand living
systems. Bioinformatics can be applied in several fields such as :-
3.1 Gene identification and sequence analyses
Sequence analyses refer to the understanding of different features of a
biomolecule like nucleic acid or protein, which give to it its unique function.
First, the sequences of corresponding molecules are retrieved from public
databases. After refinement, if needed, they are subjected to various tools
that enable prediction of their features related to their function, structure,
evolutionary history or identification of homologues with a great accuracy.
The areas of sequence analysis include sequence alignment, sequence
database searching, motif and pattern discovery, gene and promoter finding,
reconstruction of evolutionary relationships, and genome assembly and
comparison. These types of analyses are particularly useful for identification
of promoter, terminator, or un-translated regions involved in the expression
regulations, recognition of a transit peptide, introns, exons or an open
reading frame (ORF), and identification of certain variable regions to be
used as signatures for diagnostic purposes. There are number of tools
developed for this purpose, some of the important tools (enlisted in Table
with function).
Moreover, the availability of DNA sequence and encrypted knowledge
does not tell us directly how these genetic information leads to the
observable traits and behaviors (phenotypes). This can be inferred with
comparative genomics, a field of biological research in which the genome
sequences of different species and wide varieties of organisms from bacteria
to human are compared to understand the evolutionary mechanism and
forces at the molecular level. In comparative genomics the preserved order
of genes on chromosomes of related species which descent from a common
ancestor is termed as synteny region which are defined with various
available tools.
Table 1: Tools for primary sequence analysis

Tools Description
BLAST It is a search tool, used for DNA or protein sequence search
based on identity.
HMMER Homologous protein sequences may be searched from the
respective databases using this tool.
Clustal Omega Multiple sequence alignments may be performed using this
program.

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ProtParam Used to predict the physico-chemical properties of proteins.
JIGSAW To find genes, and to predict the splicing sites in the selected
DNA sequences.
ORF Finder The putative genes may be subjected to this tool to find Open
Reading Frame (ORF).
PPP Prokaryotic promoter prediction tool used to predict the
promoter sequences present up-stream the gene
Genscan Used to predict the exon-intron sites in genomic sequences.
Softberry Tools Several tools are specialized in annotation of animal, plant, and
bacterial genomes along with the structure and function
prediction of RNA and proteins.

3.2 Sequence databases

A most important task for bioinformatics is to make sense of the
enormous quantities of sequence data as well as structural data that are
generated by genome-sequencing projects, proteomics projects, and other
large-scale molecular biology efforts. (Pevsner, 2009). Biological sequence
database refers to a vast collection of information about biological molecules
such as nucleic acids, proteins and polymers, each molecule to be identified
by a unique key. The stored information is not only important for future use
but also serves as a tool for primary sequence analyses. With the
advancement of high throughput sequencing techniques, the sequencing has
reached to a whole-genome scale, which is generating a massive amount of
data every day. The submission and storage of this information to become
freely available to the scientific community has led to the development of
various databases worldwide. Databases contain a variety of information;
and therefore are classified into Primary, Secondary, or Composite
databases, depending upon the information stored in them. The data in a
primary database is obtained through experimentation such as yeast-two
hybrid assay, affinity chromatography, XRD or NMR approaches such as
related to sequence or structure. SWISS-PROT, UniProt and PIR, GenBank,
EMBL, DDBJ and the Protein Databank (PDB) are examples of primary
databases. A secondary database contains information that is derived from
the analysis of data stored in primary databases like conserved sequences,
active sites of a protein family or conserved secondary motifs of protein
molecules. Examples of secondary databases include SCOP, CATH,
PROSITE, eMOTIF A composite database contains information derived
from different primary sources. Examples of composite databases include
NRDB (non-redundant database), which contains data obtained from
GenBank (CDS translations), PDB, SWISS-PROT, PIR, and PRF. Similarly,
the INSD (International Nucleotide Sequence Database) is another example

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of composite database, which is collection of nucleic acid sequences from
EMBL, GenBank, and DDBJ. The UniProt (universal protein sequence
database) represents another example, which is also a collation of sequences
derived from various other databases PIRPSD, Swiss-Prot, and TrEMBL.
The important databases along with their function enlisted in table.
Table 2: List of important databases

Database Description
Nucleotide Databases
DNA Data Bank of Japan It is the member of International Nucleotide
(DDBJ) Sequence Databases (INSD) and is one of the
biggest resources for nucleotide sequences
European Molecular Biology Repository of DNA and RNA sequences that is
Laboratory (EMBL) complementary to GenBank and DDBJ
GenBank It is the member of International Nucleotide
Sequence Databases (INSD) and is a nucleotide
sequence resource
Protein Databases
Uniprot One of the largest collection of protein sequences.
Protein Data Bank Major resource of proteins containing information
of experimentally determined structures of nucleic
acids,
proteins, and other complex assemblies
Prosite Provides information on protein families, conserved
domains and actives sites of the proteins.
Pfam Collection of protein families
SWISS-PROT A section of the UniProt Knowledgebase containing
the manually annotated protein sequences
InterPro Describes the protein families, conserved domains
and actives sites
GenomeDatabases
Ensemble Plants An integrative resource presenting genome scale
information for a growing number of sequenced
plant species
Phytozome A comparative hub for plant genome and gene
family data and analysis
PIR An integrated public resource to support genomic
and proteomic research
Miscellaneous Databases
TAIR The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR)
maintains a database of genetic and molecular data
for the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.
KEGG Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes is a

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 knowledge base for systematic analysis of gene
functions, linking genomic information with higher
order functional information
Rfam A collection of RNA families, represented by
multiple sequence alignments

3.3 Phylogenetic analyses

Phylogenetic analyses are procedures used to reconstruct the
evolutionary relationship among a group of related molecules or organisms,
to predict certain features of a molecule with unknown functions, to track
gene flow, and to determine genetic relatedness. This all could be
represented on a genealogic tree or tree of life. The underlying principle of
phylogeny is to group living according to the degree of similarity: greater the
similarity, closer the organisms would appear on a tree. A phylogenetic
comparative analysis is widely used to control for the lack of statistical
independence among species. The methods to construct a phylogenetic tree
are divided into threemajor groups: distance methods, parsimony methods,
and likelihood methods. None of the methods is perfect; each one has its
own particular strengths and weaknesses. For example, the distance-based
trees are easy to` set up but not that accurate. The maximum parsimony and
maximum likelihood methods are (in theory) the most accurate, but they take
more time to run. The distance-matrix methods such as Neighbour Joining
(NJ) or Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic mean (UPGMA)
are the simplest.
Tools Description
MEGA (Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Builds phylogenetic tress to study the
Analysis) evolutionary closeness
PAML A package of programs for phylogenetic
analyses of DNA or protein sequences
using maximum likelihood.
PHYLIP A package for phylogenetic studies
TreeView Software to view the phylogenetic trees,
with the provision of changing view
iTOL (Interactive Tree of Life) Online tool for the display, annotation and
management of phylogenetic tree

3.4 Predicting protein structure and function

Protein molecules begin their life as shapeless amino acid strings, which
ultimately fold up into a three-dimensional (3D) structure to become
biologically active. The folding of the protein into a correct topology is a
pre-requisite for any protein to perform its biological functions. Therefore,

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information of 3D structure of a protein is necessary to gain an insight into
the function of a specific protein. Usually, 3D structures are determined by
or related techniques like NMR. However, these techniques are expensive,
difficult and time consuming and are often hampered by the poor
heterologous expression, and attempts to obtain good crystals. Therefore,
very few structures obtained using X-ray crystallography and NMR
spectroscopy are submitted to PDB. Information of tertiary structures on
genome scale level for many proteins is therefore lacking. Alternatively, a
protein’s 3D structure can be predicted using various bioinformatics tools,
and consequently has become one of the important topics in the field of
bioinformatics.
Tools Description
ExPASy (Expert Protein The proteomics server for in-depth protein
Analysis System) knowledge and analysis
CATH (Class Architecture Protein structure classification databases, provides
Topology/fold information on the evolutionary relationship of
Homology/superfamily protein domains
SCOP (Structural classification Classification of protein structural domains based
of Proteins) Databases on similarities of their structure and amino acid
sequences
Swiss-Pdb Viewer An interface allowing to analyze several protein at
the same time

4. The applications of bioinformatics in agriculture

Sustainable agricultural production and food security are two important
issues of concern in response to population increase, environmental
degradation and climate change. The ultimate goal of the field is to enable
the discovery of new biological insights as well as to create a global
perspective from which unifying principles in biology can be discerned. At
the beginning of the "genomic revolution", a bioinformatics concern was the
creation and maintenance of a database to store biological information, such
as raw nucleotide and amino acid sequences. Now the science of
bioinformatics is gaining increasing importance in life science specially in
the field of molecular biology and plant genetic resources. Evolutionary
biology looks at the molecules of different organisms and determines
whether they share a common evolutionary history. This process has the
potential to uncover relationships between life forms never considered
before. By using bioinformatics to track this data, evolutionary biologists can
gain new insights into the causes of and cures for various diseases.
The study of plant genomics includes the understand the genetic and

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molecular basis of all biological processes in plants that are relevant to the
species. This understanding is fundamental to allow efficient exploitation of
plants as biological resources in the development of new cultivars of
essential crops with improved quality and reduced economic inputs and
environmental costs. This knowledge is also vital for the development of
new plant diagnostic tools. Traits considered of primary interest are,
pathogen and abiotic stress resistance, quality traits for plant, and
reproductive traits determining yield. Collection and storage of plant genetic
resource can be used to produce stronger, more drought, disease and insect
resistant crops and improve the quality of livestock making them healthier,
more disease resistant and more productive (Kumar et al., 2016a). A
bioinformatics programme can now be envisioned as a highly important tool
for plant improvement.
4.1 Model plant species
A model organism is a species that are suitable and extensively studied
in experimental research to understand any biological phenomena. These
organisms contains some specific properties that make them ideal for
research purposes which includes short life spans, rapid reproduction,
inexpensive and they can be easily manipulated at the genetic level. Some of
the model organism that is used in studies are: Thale cress (Arabidopsis
thaliana), Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), Fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), Nematode worm (Caenorhabditis elegans). Among plants
Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa are two first major plant species
whose genomes completely sequenced with large international effort and
collaboration. Arabidopsis has smallest genome (about 135 million bases,
anchored to five chromosomes) among flowering plant, which make it
suitable to study many plant developmental processes. There are multiple
genes shared by most of the plants and the study of model organism like A.
thaliana facilitates our understanding of gene expression and function in
response to those genes. Oryza sativa, a staple food in many developing
countries consist the smallest genome amongst all the cereals: 430
Mbarranged on 12 chromosomes has gained the status “model organism” for
cereal biology as it is easier to modify genetically (Agarwal, 2015).
4.2 Application of bioinformatics in plant breeding
Bioinformatics is associated with nearly aspects of sciences including
plant breeding. According to Sleper and Poehlbman definition, “plant
breeding is the art and science of changing the genetic structure of plants in
order to produce desired characteristics” (Heidari, 2017).In thepast decade,

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humans have practiced artificial selection of plant varieties that are desirable
for their use and created new plants by altering natural plants to meet their
needs in terms quality, quantity and farming practices. However, quantitative
traits involved in resistance to various diseases, insects and quality have
proven to be extremely difficult to improve with artificial selection. The
arriving of genomic technology signaled new transformation in life sciences
which dramatically changes the scale and scope of our experimental question
and application in plant breeding. The scale and high resolution power of
genomics enables to achieve a broad as well as detailed genetic
understanding of plant performance at multiple levels of aggregation.
Breeders will routinely use computer models to formulate predictive
hypotheses to create phenotypes of interest from complex allele
combinations, and then construct those combinations by scoring large
populations for very large numbers of genetic markers (Imran.m, 2018). As
the resolution of genetic maps in the major crops increases, and as the
molecular basis for specific traits or physiological responses becomes better
elucidated, it will be increasingly possible to associate candidate genes,
discovered in model species, with corresponding loci in crop plants.
Appropriate relational databases will make it possible to freely associate
across genomes with respect to gene sequence, putative function, or genetic
map position.
4.3 Bioinformatics and plant biotechnology
The growth of the biotechnology industry in recent years is
unprecedented, and advancements in molecular modeling, disease
characterization, pharmaceutical discovery, clinical healthcare, forensics,
and agriculture fundamentally impact economic and social issues worldwide.
As a result, with people confidence and development of biotechnology,
bioinformatics also reached to new heights among all the biological sciences.
There exists a number of applications of bioinformatics for accelerating
research in the area of biotechnology that include automatic genome
sequencing, gene identification, prediction of gene function, prediction of
protein structure, phylogeny, drug designing and development, identification
of organisms, vaccine designing, understanding the gene and genome
complexity, understanding protein structure, functionality and folding
(Kumar.A, 2017). With more and more microarray profiles data, scientists
can test plants for differences in gene expression or protein profiles under
different stress conditions, such as drought, disease, or insect infestation. For
example, if certain genes are expressed in high amounts during these stress
conditions, then they may hold the key to a plant's survival under stress and

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they may be used to improve other plants that may not have the same gene
(Kushwaha, 2017).
4.4 Bioinformatics and insect resistance
Many plants can be engineered to create insect resistant by incorporating
the specific desired genes. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterial species
naturally found in soil, has an application in increasing the soil fertility and
ensures plant protection against pests. It makes protein that activates toxins
in immature insects (Larvae) which breaks down their gut, ultimately insect
die of infection and starvation (Kumar et al., 2016). After mapping its
genome, researchers utilized its genes by inserting it into plant to make it
resistant against insects. For example, corn, cotton and potatoes have been
engineered to make resistant against pest. The effective use of Bt genes
creates potential inside plant genome to resist insect outbreak, and also
reduced the quantity of insecticides being utilized. Thus the profitability and
nutritional value of plants will increase likewise and will be useful for
human wellbeing (Kushwaha, 2017; Agarwal, 2015).
4.5 Improved nutritional quality
Gene-Diet-Disease interaction of nutritional genomics aims to study the
susceptible genes and provide dietary interventions for individuals at risk of
such diseases. Scientists have recently succeeded in transferring genes into
rice to increase levels of Vitamin A, iron and other micronutrients.
Bioinformatic tool helped to produce such golden rice that can fight against
vitamin A deficiencies. This work could have a profound impact in reducing
occurrences of blindness and anemia caused by deficiencies in Vitamin A
and iron respectively. Scientists have inserted a gene from yeast into the
tomato, and the result is a plant whose fruit stays longer on the vine
(Kushwaha, 2017) (Agarwal, 2015). Information obtained from the model
crop systems has been used to suggest improvements to other food crops.
Arabidopsis thaliana (water cress) Oryza sativa (rice), Triticum
aestivum(wheat) and Zea mays (Maize) are examples of available complete
land plant genomes.
4.6 Growth in poorer soils
Bioinformatics play an important role to detect the metal from
metagenomic sequencing obtains from contaminated soil. Soil arguably
houses the most complex microbial communities because of its ancient
history, complex sets of interrelating gradients, and protective, isolating and
relatively resource poor and stable physical structure. This results in an
incredibly diverse set of gene sequences; at least at the scale soils are

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normally sampled. The challenge is no longer sequence yield, but the
analysis of those sequences, and especially so due to the short sequence
products of current sequencing technologies.
Progress has been made in developing cereal varieties that have a
greater tolerance for soil alkalinity, free aluminum and iron toxicities. These
varieties will allow agriculture to succeed in poorer soil areas, thus adding
more land to the global production base. Research is also in progress to
produce crop varieties capable of tolerating reduced water conditions
(Agarwal, 2015).
4.7 Bioinformatics in plant disease management
Pathogen trait is considered as a primary interest of plant bioinformatics.
The contribution of bioinformatics advances made possible the mapping of
the entire genomes of many organisms in just over a decade. The current
efforts to determine gene and protein functions, have improved the ability to
understand the root causes of plant diseases and find new cures.
Furthermore, many future bioinformatics innovations will likely be spurred
by the data and analysis demands of the life sciences. Bioinformatics have
many practical applications in current plant disease management with
respect to the study of host pathogen interactions, understanding the disease
genetics and pathogencity factor of a pathogen which ultimately help in
designing best management options (Kushwaha, 2017). There are some
software has been developed to detect plant pathogen protein- protein
interaction (PPIs) by using computational aapproach. For example: Predicted
Rice Interactome Network (PRIN), Predicted Tomato Interactome Resource
(PTIR), Penicillium-Crop Protein Protein Interactions database (PCPPI).
4.8 Renewable energy
Plant based biomass is one of the resource for obtaining energy by
converting into biofuels such as ethanol which could be used to drive the
vehicles and fly the planes. Biomass based crop species such as maize
(corn), switch grass and lignocellulosic species like bagasse, and straw are
widely used for biofuel production. Sequence variants in biomass-based crop
species were detected to maximize biomass production and recalcitrance.
Recently, genome of Eucalyptus grandis has been released which is also one
of major resource of biomass. components and all the genes take part in
conversion of sugars into biomass components have already been
deciphered, therefore provides great insight into mechanisms and pathways
responsible for this conversion so in future it will be possible to enhance
production of biomass components in eucalyptus and other relevant plants34.

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Hence, the use of genomics and bioinformatics in combination with breeding
would likely increase the capability of breeding crop species to be being
used as biofuel feedstock and consequently keep increasing the use of
renewable energy in modern society (Kushwaha, 2017) (Agarwal, 2015).
4.9 Agriculturally important microorganism
With the help of bioinformatics, we can under understand the genetic
architecture of microorganism and pathogens to check how these microbes
affecting the host plant using metagenomics and transcriptomics approach,
so we can generate pathogen resistant crop and in addition, would identify
those microbes which are beneficial for host.
5. Machine learning era of bioinformatics
The exponential growth of the amount of biological data available raises
two problems: on one hand, efficient information storage and management
and, on the other hand, the extraction of useful information from these data.
The second problem is one of the main challenges in computational biology,
which requires the development of tools and methods capable of
transforming all these heterogeneous data into biological knowledge about
the underlying mechanism. These tools and methods should allow us to go
beyond a mere description of the data and provide knowledge in the form of
testable models. By this simplifying abstraction that constitutes a model, we
will be able to obtain predictions of the system. There are several biological
domains where machine learning techniques are applied for knowledge
extraction from data. Machine learning, a subfield of computer
science involving the development of algorithms that learn how to make
predictions based on data, has a number of emerging applications in the field
of bioinformatics. Machine learning techniques such as deep learning enable
the algorithm to make use of automatic feature learning which means that
based on the datas et alone, the algorithm can learn how to combine
multiple features of the input data into a more abstract set of features from
which to conduct further learning. This multi-layered approach to learning
patterns in the input data allows such systems to make quite complex
predictions when trained on large datasets. Machine learning mainly has
been applied to six different biological domains: genomics, proteomics,
microarrays, systems biology, evolution and text mining (Larranga, 2005).

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 Fig 3: Classification of the topics where machine learning methods are applied.
6. Conclusion and future perspective of bioinformatics
The emerging discipline “Bioinformatics” is the solution for the current
demand in the field of agriculture. The discipline implements a wide range
of computational techniques including sequence analysis, data mining, gene
finding, phylogenetic tree construction, prediction of protein structure and
function, and interaction networks etc. with the huge application
“bioinformatics” approach is an essential part in approximately every field of
plant research, still a number of unresolved problem exist in the field today.
The increasing number of databases and tools providing a focused dataset
together and rich annotation to the omics technology are quite useful for the
better understanding functional and expression related issue in particular
gene family, particular cellular process and any particular plant disease. With
the advancement of big data era in plant science, a highly powerful
technology like deep learning facilitates efficient information storage and
management as well as the extraction of useful information from these data.

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 Chapter – 10
Nanotechnology application in soil and crop
management

Authors
Alpana Paul
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Babu Lal Choudhary
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sabyasachi Majumdar
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University (I),
Kyrdemkulai – 793105, Ri Bhoi District, Meghalaya, India
Kavita Rani
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India

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 Chapter - 10
Nanotechnology application in soil and crop management
Alpana Paul, Babu Lal Choudhary, Sabyasachi Majumdar and Kavita Rani

Abstract
Agriculture is the backbone of developing countries like India, with
major population depending on it for their livelihood. Nanotechnology
considers materials, systems and processes operating at 1-100 nm scale.
Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize agriculture and food
industry through precision farming techniques, enhanced plant nutrient
absorbing ability, targeted input use, detection and control of diseases,
increased fertilizer use efficiency with the help of nano clays and zeolites
and soil fertility restoration by releasing fixed nutrients. The main goal of
nanomaterials application in agriculture is to increase yield through efficient
management of water and nutrient along with minimizing input losses.
Nanomaterials like nanoparticles and nano-emulsion act as smart delivery
tool of active ingredients for disease and pest control for disease free crop
production. Nanomaterials like zeolite play vital role in retention of
agrochemical in the soil. The nanoparticles can be applied in plant breeding
task as carrier of DNA or RNA in plant for genetic transformation. The latest
nanotechnological innovations for application in agriculture are nano-
fertilizers, nano-encapsulation, nano-herbicide. Nanomaterials have gained
prominent place in agricultural development due to their tunable properties
over their bulk counterparts. Nanotechnology has the potential to play
important role in promoting sustainable agriculture thus leading to global
food security. Nanotechnology has gained momentum in agriculture in the
last decade, but the developmental pace is modest as it is facing difficulties
in reaching agricultural market.
Keywords: Nanoclay, soil fertility, nano-emulsion, nano-encapsulation.
1. Introduction
Agriculture is the backbone of most of the developing countries. The
current population worldwide is nearly 6 billion among which 50% living in
Asia. The developed nations has food surplus whereas on the other hand

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developing countries suffer from food shortages. The biggest concern of
mankind is food security which is in big risk as human population is growing
day by day but agricultural land is stagnant. The challenge is to feed the
growing population by producing more on a shrinking landscape; with lesser
input costs and with lesser hazards to the ecosystem. Nanotechnology
application is a solution to this. The word nanotechnology has originated
from a Greek word which means “dwarf” and nanometer is one billionth of a
meter (1 nm=10-9 meter). The properties of nanoscale materials are
dominated by quantum mechanics, material confinement, large specific
surface area etc. Nanomaterials are cornerstones of nanoscience. It has the
potential to bring revolution in field of agriculture and related industries. The
use of nanotechnology in agriculture and forestry will likely have
environmental benefits.
Limits of conventional farming
Conventional farming includes all traditional practices, it leds to
excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides which results in
nutrient leaching to surface and ground water bodies, incurring health and
water purification costs, and decreasing other farming opportunities like
fishery etc. Heavy use of fertilizers nutrients led to eutrophication and
salinization like problems. High input costs involved in remediate degraded
lands. Intensive tillage, irrigation, and fertilizer dressing have also caused
more extensive damage to the carbon profile in soils than early agrarian
practices did (Knorr, 2005; Jangir et al., 2017, 2019; Meena et al., 2020;
Kumar et al., 2020a; Mrunalini et al., 2020).
Advantages of nanomaterials over corresponding bulk materials
At nanoscale, matter shows different properties than their bulk
counterparts. Example, several properties of clay particle like surface area,
cation exchange capacity, complexation, ion adsorption would multiply in
nanoscale. One of the principal ways in which a nanoparticle differs from
bulk material is that a high proportion of the atoms in a nanoparticle are
present on the surface. Two factors which makes nanomaterials different
from their bulk counterparts are : surface effects due to the fraction of atoms
at the surface and quantum effects. These factors affect the physical and
chemical properties of nanomaterials.
Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are materials with particle sizes
between 1 and 100 nm and have specific chemical and physical properties
that are different from their bulk counterparts.

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 Fig 1: Logarithmical length scale showing size of nanomaterials compared to
biological components and definition of “nano” and “micro” sizes.
What nanotechnology can do for agriculture
Nanotechnology applications in agriculture will be successful if natural
processes are simulated in greater scientific sophistication for successful
implementation (Rani et al., 2020). To manage nutrient application with
nanomaterials two important parameters must be taken care of i.e. the ions
that are intended to be supplied must be present in plant available forms in
the soil system, and whereas in soil-plant systems nutrient transport relies on
ion exchange, solubility-precipitation and adsorption desorption,
nanomaterials application must contribute towards processes that make the
nutrients availability to plant in proper rate and manner. Clay minerals could
be used as receptacles as it controls these reactions. Nanomaterials
containing plant nutrients can be used in hydrogel form, in early detection of
plant disease and pathogens, in food processing, packaging and monitoring
of agricultural and food system security. Eutrophication and contamination
of drinking water may be eliminated by the application of nano-fertilizers in

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place of conventional fertilizers. (Bhalla and Mukhopadhyay, 2010;
Mukhopadhyay and Sharma, 2013). However, nanotechnology is likely to
overwhelm all spheres of agricultural activities from tillage to sillage,
presowing field preparations to post cooking and food serving, and seed
germination to germplasm manipulation.
As the global demand for food, energy, and water continues to increase,
it becomes a major concern and the nexus among the three components
become increasingly complex (Cai et al., 2018).

Fig 2: The role of ENMs in the food, energy, and water (FEW) nexus.
Big challenges of the field of agriculture that are to be addressed under
nanotechnology discussion forum:
1. Less production and yield of the cultivable areas
2. Food security problems for growing populations
3. Less agricultural input efficacy

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 4. Unsustainable farming managements
5. Vast uncultivated lands
6. Reduction of cultivable areas
7. Depletion of products
8. Low shelf life
9. Post-harvest losses
10. Global warming effects
2. Historical background
The scientific foundation of nano-science has been laid by Nobel
Laurette (1965) and physicist Richard Feyman who first realised and
explained the importance of the materials and devices with nanoscale
dimension and how it could bring scope in material science research. His
vision was reflected in his lecture entitled “There’s plenty of room at the
bottom”, which he delivered at the annual meeting of the American Physical
Society at Callech in 1959. Feynman talked about the possibility to write and
read in atoms, miniaturizing the computer, storage of information on a small
scale etc. The first expression of nanotechnology has been attributed to
Taniguchi, who in 1974 presented a paper entitled “On the basic concept of
nanotechnology”. A Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi at the University of
Tokyo first used the term ‘Nano-technology’ in 1974 to refer to the ability to
engineer materials precisely at the nano-meter level. The dreams of Richard
Feyman came to reality with the great research worker Eric Drexler during
late 1970s and he started publishing scientific papers from 1981. In 1986, he
introduced the term “nanotechnology” in his book “Engineer of creation” to
describe his approach of molecular manufacturing and some of its
consequences.
The nanoscience research took pace with the invention of Scanning
Tunnelling Microscope (STM) in 1981-82 by Karl Binning and Heinrich
Rohren and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) in 1986.
Fullerenes discovered by Harold Kroto, Robert F. Curl and Richard
Smalley in 1985 for which they were jointly awarded Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1996. Earlier we used to know three forms of carbon, namely,
diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon but now there is a whole family of
other form of carbon comprising of hollow cage like molecular, popularly
known as fullerenes, comprising of 60 to 120 atom of carbon. Popularly,
C60 molecule of carbon is known as buckyball, in honour of Buckminster
Fuller, a 20th century architect. This led path to the discovery of “carbon
anno-tubes” in 1991 by the Japanese electron microscopist SumioLijima.

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 National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded by US government in
2000 to pave path for nanotechnological development. The concept of a
“nanometer” was first proposed by Richard Zsigmondy, the 1925 Nobel
Prize Laureate in chemistry.
Norio Taniguchi introduced the ‘top-down approach’ by predicting
improvements and miniaturization in integrated circuits, optoelectronic
devices, mechanical devices and computer memory devices. Approximately
ten years later, K Eric Drexler introduced the ‘bottom-up approach’ when he
discussed the creation of larger objects from their atomic and molecular
components as the future of nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology timeline
Premodern Examples of Nanotechnologies
4th Century : The Lycurgus Cup (Rome)
9th-17th Centuries : Use of glowing, glittering “luster” ceramic glazes
6th-15th Centuries : Vibrant stained glass windows
13th-18thCenturies : “Damascus” saber blades contained carbon
nanotubes and cementite nanowires
Examples of Discoveries and Developments Enabling
Nanotechnology in the Modern Era
1857 : Michael Faraday discovered colloidal ruby gold.
1936 : Erwin Muller, working at Siemens Research Laboratory,
invented the field emission microscope.
1947 : John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain at Bell
Labs discovered the semiconductor transistor.
1951 : Erwin Muller pioneered the field ion microscope, he first imaged
tungsten atoms.
1956 : Arthur von Hippel at MIT and coined the term “molecular
engineering”.
1959 : Richard Feynman of the California Institute of Technology gave
what is considered to be the first lecture on technology and engineering at
the atomic scale, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom at an American
Physical Society meeting at Caltech.
1974 : Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the
term nanotechnology to describe precision machining of materials to within

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atomic-scale dimensional tolerances.
1981 : Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM’s Zurich lab invented
the scanning tunnelling microscope. Binnig and Rohrer won the Nobel Prize
for this discovery in 1986.
1981 : Russia’s Alexei Ekimov discovered nanocrystalline,
semiconducting quantum dots.
1985 : Rice University researchers Harold Kroto, Sean O’Brien, Robert
Curl, and Richard Smalley discovered the Buckminsterfullerene (C60), more
commonly known as the buckyball. The team was awarded the 1996 Nobel
Prize in Chemistry for their roles in this discovery and that of the fullerene
class of molecules more generally.
1986 : Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate, and Christoph Gerber invented the
atomic force microscope.
1991 :SumioLijima of NEC is credited with discovering the carbon
nanotube (CNT). Lijima shared the Kavli Prize in Nanoscience in 2008 for
this advance.
2000 : President Clinton launched the National Nanotechnology
Initiative (NNI).
2003 : Naomi Halas, Jennifer West, Rebekah Drezek, and Renata
Pasqualin at Rice University developed gold nanoshells.
2013 : Stanford researchers develop the first carbon nanotube computer.
3. Basic concepts and application of nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is defined as the understanding and control of matter at
dimensions of roughly 1-100 nm, where unique physical properties make
novel applications possible.
The British Standard Institution and American Society for Testing and
Materials defined nanotechnology as “Design, characterization, production
and application of structure, devices and systems controlling shape, size and
composition at the nanoscale”.
Table 1: Size dimensions of different natural materials

Name Size
Molecules <1 nm
Colloids 1-1000 nm
Nanoparticles 1-100 nm
Virus 10-100 nm

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 Red blood cell 2000-5000 nm
Bacteria 250-1000 nm
Tissue cell 10,000 nm
Width of human hair 80,000 nm
Intracellular spaces in
seed coat parenchyma <10,000 nm

Fig 3: Applications of nanotechnology in daily life.

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Fig 4: Applications of nanotechnology in agriculture.

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 Fig 5: Different aspects of nanotechnology in agriculture.
Nanomaterials have many usages in all stages of agricultural
production, in different forms and various procedures such as:
1. Nano-fertilizer for balance crop nutrition
2. Crop improvement
3. Plant protection ingredients
4. Weed management.
5. Nano pesticides
6. Nano sensors
7. Post-harvest technology
8. Bioprocessing nanoparticles for agricultural use
9. Bio sensors for aqua culture
10. Nano biotechnology
11. Monitoring the identity and quality of agricultural produce

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 12. Precision agriculture: Precision agricultural techniques might be
used to promote increase crop yields but not damage soil and water,
decrease nutrients loss due to leaching and emissions, in addition to
enhance nutrients long-term incorporation by soil microorganisms.
13. Seed technology.
14. Water management
15. Plant growth regulators
16. Soil management
17. Agricultural engineering aspects
18. Food technology.
4. Classification and sources of nanomaterials
Types of Nanomaterials
Depending on their existence in nature, nanomaterial is a term that
includes all nanosized materials, including natural, incidental and engineered
nanomaterials.
A) Natural nanomaterials
Natural nanomaterials have been in existence since the beginning of the
earth’ history, and still occur in the environment. Materials that are a result
of natural process with a structure approximately 1–100 nm are called
natural nanomaterials. For example, particles arising from volcanic
eruptions, sea spray, and atmospheric gas-to-particle conversion. Many
important functions of living organisms also take place at the nanoscale
level. The human body uses natural nanoscale materials, such as proteins and
other molecules.
B) Incidental nanomaterials
Incidental nanomaterials are defined as the materials with a structure
approximately 1-100 nm that are produced as a result of manmade industrial
processes such as diesel exhaust, coal combustion, welding fumes, etc.
C) Engineered nanomaterials
Materials that are purposefully manufactured with nanoscale dimensions
(1 and 100 nm), can be termed as engineered nanomaterials. Engineered
particles of very small dimension attract enormous interest of researchers
and are of potential benefit to society due to their properties which are
different from larger particles of the same chemical composition.

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Engineered nanomaterials can be categorized as
• Carbon-based nanomaterials
• Metal-based nanomaterials
• Dendrimers
• Composites
i) Carbon-based nanomaterials
These types of nanomaterials mainly consist of carbon having the most
common form of hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. Spherical and
ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are referred to as fullerenes, while
cylindrical ones are called nanotubes such as single-walled carbon nanotube
(SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT).
ii) Metal-based nanomaterials
Metal-based nanomaterials have received considerable attention in
science and technology in the last decade. These include quantum dots, gold,
silver, palladium and metal oxides (TiO2 and ZnO) nanomaterials.
iii) Dendrimers
Dendrimers are nanosized polymers composed of branched units having
the capability to be customized to perform a specific chemical function. The
surface of a dendrimer has numerous chain ends; this property could also be
useful for catalysis. In addition, since three-dimensional dendrimers contain
interior cavities into which other molecules could be placed, they may be
useful for drug delivery.
iv) Composites
The combination of two different nanomaterials or nanomaterials with
bulk-type materials is called composites. It can be of different morphologies
such as spheres, tubes, rods and prisms.
NPs are generally classified based on their dimensionality, morphology,
composition, uniformity and agglomeration.
Dimensionality
1D nanomaterials. Materials with one dimension in the nanometre scale
are typically thin films or surface coatings. Thin films have been developed
and used for decades in various fields including electronics, information
storage systems, chemical and biological sensors, fibre-optic systems, and
magneto-optic and optical devices.

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 2D nanomaterials. 2D nanomaterials have two dimensions in the
nanometre scale. These include for example, nanotubes, dendrimers,
nanowires, fibres and fibrils.
3D nanomaterials. Materials that are nanoscale in all three dimensions
are considered to be 3D nanomaterials. These include quantum dots or
nanocrystals, fullerenes, particles, precipitates and colloids.
5. Synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials
In general, top-down and bottom-up are the two main approaches for
nanomaterials synthesis.
a) Top-down: size reduction from bulk materials.
b) Bottom-up: material synthesis from atomic level.
Top-down routes are included in the typical solid –state processing of
the materials. This route is based with the bulk material and makes it
smaller, thus breaking up larger particles by the use of physical processes
like crushing, milling or grinding. Usually this route is not suitable for
preparing uniformly shaped materials, and it is very difficult to realize very
small particles even with high energy consumption.
Bottom–up approach refers to the build-up of a material from the
bottom: atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule or cluster-by-cluster. This
route is more often used for preparing most of the nano-scale materials with
the ability to generate a uniform size, shape and distribution.
Synthesis of nanomaterials
The synthesis of nanoparticles can be done by three different
approaches. They are as follows.
1) Biological methods
Biological methods are a safe and ecologically-sound approach for
nanoparticle fabrication as an alternative for physical, chemical and aerosol
methods.
a) Use of bacteria
b) Use of fungi
c) Use of plants
d) Use of biomolecules (Proteins)
e) Use of herbs
f) Microwave-assisted biosynthesis

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2) Physical methods
a) Grinding
b) Thermal evaporation
c) Sputtering
d) Pulsed Laser Deposition Technique
3) Chemical methods
a) Sol-gel Techniques
b) Co-precipitation
c) Microwave synthesis
d) Microencapsulation
e) Hydrothermal methods
f) Poly vinyl pyrolidene (PVP) method
g) Sonochemistry
Characterization and manipulation of individual nanostructures require
not only extreme sensitivity and accuracy, but also atomic-level resolution. It
therefore leads to various microscopy that will play a central role in
characterization and measurements of nanostructured materials and
nanostructures.
Some of the major structural characterization methods used in
characterizing nanomaterials and nanostructures are :
a) X-ray diffraction (XRD) various
b) Electron microscopy (EM);
i) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
ii) Transmission microscopy (TEM) and
iii) Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
c) Chemical characterization techniques
i) Optical spectroscopy
ii) Electron spectroscopy
iii) Ionic spectrometry
Method Properties to be Analyzed
Table 2: Characterization methods and analyzed properties

SEM/TEM Particle shape, size and morphology.

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XRD Extent of Crystallization of the sample.
BET Accessible surface area
FT-IR Vibrational stretch frequency of metal-oxygen bonds.
UV-VIS Spectra UV absorption of the amorphous gels and crystalline ceramic
samples heated at different temperatures.
TG-DTA Weight loss and thermal effect during the conversion of precursors to
final method oxides in the heat-treatment process
SLS Particle size distribution.
HRTEM Crystallographic structure of a sample at an atomic scale.
EELS Loss of energy, change in momentum and ionization potential of a atom
EDS/EDX Chemical characterization, investigation of a sample through interactions
between light and matter and analyzing X-rays in its particular case.

Structural characterization
Characterization of nanomaterials and nanostructures has been largely
based on the surface analysis techniques and conventional characterization
methods developed for bulk materials. For example, XRD has been widely
used for the determination of crystallinity, crystal structures and lattice
constants of nanoparticles, nanowires and thin films; SEM and TEM
together with electron diffraction have been commonly used in
characterization of nanoparticles; optical spectroscopy is used to determine
the size of semiconductor quantum dots. SPM is a relatively new
characterization technique and has found widespread applications in
nanotechnology.
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
XRD is a very important experimental technique that has long been used
to address all issues related to the crystal structure of solids, including lattice
constants, and geometry, identification of unknown materials, orientation of
single crystals, preferred orientation of polycrystals, defects, stresses etc. In
XRD, a collimated beam of X-rays, with a wavelength typically ranging
from 0.7 to 2 Å, is incident on a specimen and is diffracted by the crystalline
phases in the specimen according to Bragg’s law :
A = 2d Sin θ
Where d is the spacing between atomic planes in the crystalline phase
and A is the x-ray wavelength. The intensity of the diffracted x-rays is
measured as a faction of the diffraction angle 28 and the specimen’s
orientation. This diffraction pattern is used to identify the specimen’s
crystalline phases and to measure its structural properties.
XRD is non-destructive and does not require elaborate sample

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preparation, which partly explains the wide usage of XRD method in
materials characterization. Diffraction peak positions are accurately
measured with XRD, which makes it the best method for characterizing
homogeneous and inhomogeneous strains.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
SEM is one of the most widely used techniques used in characterization
of nanomaterials and nanostructures. The resolution of the SEM approaches
a few nanometers, and the instruments can operate at magnifications that are
easily adjusted from 10 to 3000,00. Not only does the SEM produce
topographical information as optical microscopes do, it also provides the
chemical composition information near the surface.
In a typical SEM, a source of electrons is focussed into a beam, with a
very spot size of 5 nm and having energy ranging from a few hundred Ev to
50 KeV that is rastered over the surface of the specimen by deflection coils.
As the electrons strike and penetrate, the surface, a number of interactions
occur that result in the emission of electrons and photons from the sample,
and SEM images are produced by collecting the emitted electrons on a
cathode ray tube (CRT).
The theoretical limit to an instrument’s resolving power is determined
by the wavelengths of the electron beam used and the numerical aperture of
the system.
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that
forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. An
image of the surface is obtained by mechanically moving the probe in a
raster scan of the specimen, line by line, and recording the probe-surface
interaction as a function of position. SPM was founded with the invention of
the scanning tunnelling microscope in 1981.
The two major members of the SPM family are scanning tunnelling
microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Although both
STM and AFM are true surface image techniques that can produce
topographic images of a surface with atomic resolution in all three
dimensions, combining with appropriately designed attachments.
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
STM is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. Its
development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binning and Heinrich
Rohrer (at IBM Zurich), the Nobel Prize in physics in 1986. For an STM,

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good resolution is considered to be 0.1 nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm
depth resolution. With this resolution, individual atoms within materials are
routinely imaged and manipulated. The STM can be used not only in ultra-
high vacuum but also in air, water, and various other liquid or gas ambients,
and at temperatures ranging from near zero kelvin to a few hundred degrees
Celsius (Zhas and Ning, 2000). The STM is based on the concept of
quantum tunnelling.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
AFM or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very high-resolution
type of scanning probe microscopy, with demonstrated resolution on the
order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times, better than the
optical diffraction limit. Binnig, Quate and Gerber invented the first atomic
force microscope in 1986. The first commercially available atomic force
microscope was introduced in 1989. The AFM is one of the foremost tools
for imaging, measuring, and manipulating matter at the nanoscale.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
In TEM, electrons are accelerated to 100 KeV or higher (upto 1 MeV),
projected onto a thin specimen (less than 200 nm) by means of the condenser
lens system, and penetrate the sample thickness either undeflected or
deflected. The greatest advantages that TEM offers are the high
magnification ranging from 50 to 106 and its ability to provide both image
and diffraction information from a single sample.
The scattering processes experienced by electrons during their passage
through the specimen determine the kind of information obtained. In TEM
one can switch between imaging the sample and viewing its diffraction
pattern by changing the strength of the intermediate lens.
6. Nanomaterials application in soil management
Sustainable food production is of global concern not only because
populations continue to grow, but also because solutions are needed to
further alleviate hunger and poverty (Friedrich et al., 2012). Increasing food
production competes with limited natural resources such as water, energy,
nutrients, and land (Tilman et al., 2011; FAO, 2012)
• Experience shows that intensifying agriculture (i.e., increased use of
water, energy, fertilizer, and pesticides) can lead to negative effects
on essential natural resources such as water and biodiversity, as
well as soil and its associated ecosystem services (FAO, 2012;
Punia et al., 2020). Therefore, assessing the benefits and risks of

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 new technology prior to its use in food production should be a
priority to avoid adverse effects on human health and the
environment. In agreement with FAO (FAO, 2011; Kumar et al.,
2020), sustainable agriculture should prioritize increased and cost-
effective food production, as well as contribute positively to
harnessing ecosystem services. Soils are a fundamental resource for
sustainable agriculture, and further agriculture development will
have to go hand in hand with sustainable soil use and management.
However, the importance of healthy soils has often been a second-
tier priority, leading to soil deterioration and loss of productivity
and ecosystem services (Montanarella et al., 2016). Engineered
nanomaterials are currently being discussed as a means to improve
the quality of agricultural soils and subsequently foster sustainable
agriculture. Because of their small size and large surface area,
ENMs are very reactive and have a variety of properties (e.g.,
enhanced cation exchange capacity, long lasting nutrient release and
nutrient delivery) that are potentially feasible for use in soils. So far,
ENMs have been successfully used to solve soil restoration
problems (Tuhl et al., 2013) and have been used widely in the food
industry. Various ENMs have demonstrated direct effects on plant
growth and productivity (Liu and Lal, 2015; Mukhopadhyay, 2014;
Rai and Ingle, 2012). Nevertheless, their effect on real ecosystems
in which plants and microbes coexist is mostly unknown
(Montanarella et al., 2016; Gardea-Torresdey et al., 2014). It has
been argued that applying ENMs to soils poses risks to soil and
human health, which has created concerns about the consequences
of the uncontrolled use of ENMs for food production, such as
effects that past use of chlorinated pesticides had on human health
and the environment. There is a growing body of studies that deals
with the toxicity of ENMs to soil bacteria and their effect on other
environmentally important processes and properties (Gardea-
Torresdey et al., 2014; Mendez-Rojas et al., 2014; Frenk et al.,
2013; Dimpka, 2014; Aitken et al., 2006).
Nanomaterials play an important role in affecting the mobility,
transformation and toxicity of various organic and inorganic pollutants
present in soil. They are extensively used in various biotic and abiotic
strategies to remove contaminants from polluted soils.
A. Nanomaterials for abiotic remediation of contaminated soils
Due to the smaller particle size, higher surface area and reactivity of

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nanomaterials (NMs), there has been a certain demand in their use to
remediate contaminated soils mainly through sorption, reduction or chemical
oxidation (Guerra et al., 2018). Magnetic nanoparticles have many potential
applications in adsorption and catalytic removal of pollutants (Usman et al.,
2018). Use of polyacrylamide modified magnetite nanoparticles in soil
offered simultaneous control of soil erosion (reduced by 90%) and arsenate
leaching (82% immobilization) (Zheng et al., 2020). Use of nano-
hydroxyapatite particles effectively immobilized metal contents in
contaminated sediments (Zhang et al., 2010) and soils (Dong et al., 2016) by
decreasing their exchangeable fraction which reduced their concentration in
pore water (Zhang et al., 2010). Wang et al. (2014b) reported 80% removal
of soil bound Cr(VI) using sodium carboxymethyl cellulose-stabilized nZVI.
B. Nanomaterials for bioremediation of organic pollutants
Recalcitrant organic pollutants can be subjected to dechlorination/
dehalogenation process by highly reactive NMs followed by bio-remediation
for an effective remediation. Nanomaterials may also be helpful in
bioremediation of organic pollutants from soil by increasing the
bioavailability of organic pollutants to the bioagents used for remediation.
Pollutants adhered to the NMs could be accumulated by plants
simultaneously with small sized nanoparticles. De La Torre-Roche et al.
(2012) investigated the impact of fullerene exposure on accumulation of
DDE (a metabolite of DDT) in three plants including winter squash
(Cucurbita pepo L.), soybean, and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) grown
in vermiculite medium. Exposure of fullerene increased uptake of DDE
significantly (30 to 65%) in all plant species. They suggested co-uptake of
NMs and pollutants as one of the possible mechanisms of enhanced uptake.
However, Schwab et al. (2013) reported negative impact of addition of
carbon nano tubes (CNTs) on Chlorella vulgaris grown in diuron
contaminated soil.
C. Nanomaterials for bioremediation of inorganic pollutants
Nanomaterials have the potential to significantly improve the
phytoremediation efficiency of heavy metals in contaminated soils. Singh
and Lee (2016) found that addition of nano titanium dioxide (TiO 2)
improved uptake of Cd in plants and reduced Cd toxicity to soybean plants
by protecting plants from oxidative damage and scavenging free radicals
produced due to Cd toxicity. Liang et al. (2017) revealed that application of
nano hydroxyapatite (NHAP) or nano carbon black (NCB) significantly
mitigated the phytotoxicity of Pb to the ryegrass and increased
phytoextraction potential of ryegrass. Nanomaterials can alleviate metal

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toxicity in plants through regulation of gene expression associated with
metal stress, oxidative stress, water homeostasis, cell wall formation,
photosynthetic pathways and cell division (Khodakovskaya et al., 2012;
Kaveh et al., 2013; Nair and Chung, 2014). However, different NMs have
differential impact on heavy metal uptake or toxicity in plants (Gong et al.,
2018).

Fig 6: Fate of nanomaterials in soil system. Adapted from Batley et al. (2013).
7. Nanomaterials application in crop management
Application of NMs may help improve the growth and yield of crop
plants, but response may vary depending on the plant species. The
interaction of plant cell with nanoparticles leads to changes in plant gene
expression and associated biological pathways which subsequently affect the
plant growth and development (Ghormade et al., 2011; Feizi et al., 2013;
Moreno-Olivas et al., 2014). However, the influence of nano-materials on
plants may be positive or phytotoxic (Aslani et al., 2014; Siddiqui et al.,
2015). The main effect of toxicity of nanoparticles on plant physiological
traits is on germination, biomass, leaf number, and root elongation (Lin and
Xing, 2007; Racuciu and Creanga, 2007; Doshi et al., 2008; Lee et al.,
2010). The nanoparticles may cause reduction in seed germination, plant
elongation and sometime cause plant death (Yang et al., 2017).

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 Nano-growth stimulants helped to improve the seed germination
(Nadiminti et al., 2013) and growth stages (Aslani et al., 2014). Seed
treatment with TiO2 (0.25%) nanoparticles in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)
improved the nitrogen assimilation and rate of photosynthesis, which
resulted in better growth of spinach (44% increase in dry weight over
control) (Zheng et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2006). The foliar application of
ZnO nanoparticles (10 mg L−1) increased the chlorophyll, total soluble leaf
protein and phosphorus concentration in cluster bean (Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba L.) Taub. (Raliya and Tarafdar, 2013). Nanomaterials have
been found very effective in improving the plant growth through better and
quick germination, and improved nitrogen fixing ability (Hong et al., 2005;
Yang et al., 2006). Incorporation of essential oils into a controlled-release
nanoformulation prevents rapid evaporation and degradation; enhances
stability and maintains the minimum effective dosage/application.
Amorphous nanosilica displayed promising potential as a biopesticide. The
silica nanaparticles (NPs) were physio-sorbed by the cuticular lipids
disrupting the protective barrier and thereby causing death of insects purely
by physical means (Barik et al., 2008). Application of NPs on the leaf and
stem surface did not alter either photosynthesis or respiration in several
groups of horticultural and crop plants. They did not cause alteration of gene
expression in insect trachea and were, thus, qualified for approval as the
nanobiopesticide. Debnath et al. (2011) reported that silica NPs caused
100% mortality in rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae. Nano-silica may be useful
against stored grain, household pests, animal parasites, fungal organisms,
worms, etc. Use of amorphous silica as a nanobiopesticide is considered safe
for humans by World Health Organization (WHO) (Jatav and Nirmal, 2013).
i) Nanoparticles in plant growth enhancement
Nanomaterials (NM) can be effectively used in plant germination and
growth. The carbon nanotubes can be used as regulators of seed germination
and plant growth.
ii) Pathogen control
Potential applications of nanotechnology in crop protection include
controlled release of encapsulated pesticide, fertilizer and other
agrochemicals in protection against pests and pathogens, early detection of
plant disease and pollutants including pesticide residues by using
nanosensors.

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 Fig 7: Applications of nano-technology in plant protection and nutrition
iii) Nano-carriers
In nanotechnology, the nanoscale carriers can be employed for efficient
deliverance of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, plant growth regulators, etc.
Encapsulation and entrapment, polymers and dendrimers, surface ionic and
weak bond attachments are some of the mechanisms involved in the efficient
delivery, better storage and regulated release of products.
iv) Nanofertilizers
Nanotechnology is a valuable innovation which can also be used as an
alternative source of fertilizers. Switching traditional methods of fertilizer
application with nanofertilizers will be a new way to release nutrients into
the soil gradually and in a controlled manner, thus preventing eutrophication
and pollution of water resources.
v) Nanomaterials used as biostimulants
Plants have developed innate immune responses such as synthesis of
antioxidants, generation of defense enzymes, reinforcement of cell walls to
provide defense mechanisms to combat pathogen attacks. These natural
defense responses are non-specific and can be manipulated to protect crop

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plants from a broad spectrum of phytopathogens. Besides the direct
antimicrobial action of NMs, some studies showed that NMs, applied in
generally small amounts, may act as biostimulants to induce the plant innate
immunity to enhance the tolerance to biotic stresses for disease suppression.
Entry and barriers for nanoparticle uptake and transport in plants
ENPs can enter plant tissues through either the root tissues or the above
ground organs and tissues (e.g.,cuticles, trichomes, stomata, stigma, and
hydathodes), including through wounds and root junctions. For uptake and
translocation, ENPs must traverse a series of chemical and physiological
barriers, which control the size exclusion limits. For the apoplastic transport
pathway, movement is restricted by the SEL of cell walls (5–20 nm). The
Casparian strip, with a SEL of <1nm, provides a barrier to movement into
the vascular system. From the cell wall, ENPs can be internalized into the
cells through endocytosis. Subsequent symplastic transport then depends
upon the SEL of the plasmodesmata, typically 3–50 nm in diameter, with
particles upto this size able to enter. Although ENPs have been detected both
in the apoplast and symplast, it remains unclear which pathway is more
important. Although the uptake and translocation of ENPs depends upon the
SELs, it has been reported that ENPs upto 36–50 nm have been internalized
and translocated, this being larger than the SELs of cell walls,
plasmodesmata, and the Casparian strip. One possible explanation is that
SELs appear to be dynamic and influenced by calcium, silicon, proteins,
virus, environmental stresses, as well as by ENPs themselves. Indeed, ENPs
such as AgNPs, TiO2 NPs, and ZnO NPs, have been reported to induce the
formation of new and larger pores in cell walls and cuticles, and cause
structural changes (e.g., ruptures and disruption of microfilaments), which in
turn facilitate the internalization of larger NPs. ENPs can also enter the
vascular system at the root tip meristem, where the Casparian strip has not
yet fully formed, or the sites of lateral root formation, where the Casparian
strip is broken.

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 Fig 8: Pathways by which nanoparticles (NPs) are absorbed in plants (Adapted and
modified from Dietz et al. and Wang et al.)
Nano rock phosphate and its application to crops:
Phosphorus fertilization is a problem in acid soils due to the high
fixation characteristics of these soils. Soluble phosphorus carriers such as
triple super phosphate tend to get reverted into insoluble and slowly soluble
forms, for e.g. iron and aluminium phosphates. Rock phosphate offers a
good alternative or complement to triple super phosphate. Rock phosphate
offers a good alternative or complement to triple superphosphate. The
response of crops to rock phosphate depends not only on the solubility of
rock phosphate but also on the type of soil. Rock phosphate solubilisation is
also mediated by microorganisms. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potash the three
primary nutrients are required in large quantities by plants for sustaining life
and their healthy growth. Phosphorus is very minutely present in the soil as
much. It is applied to the soil in the form of phosphatic fertilizer, which is
produced after the acid treatment of high-grade rock phosphate or its
beneficiated concentrate.
Rock phosphate
Phosphate rock is formed in oceans in the form of calcium phosphate,
called phosphorite. Rock phosphate is a natural rock mined from
phosphorus-rich deposits. Phosphate rock is the raw material used in the
manufacture of most commercial phosphate fertilizers. In its unprocessed
state, phosphate rock is not suitable for direct application, since the
phosphorus it contains is insoluble. To transform the phosphorus into a
plant-available form and to obtain a more concentrated product, phosphate
rock is processed using sulphuric and/or phosphoric acid.

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Nano rock phosphate
The nutrient demand of Indian agriculture is going to increase
tremendously in coming years. Among the major nutrient fertilizers,
phosphatic fertilizers are expensive largely because of the import of good
quality rock phosphate and sulphur. In India, it is estimated that about 260
mt of phosphate rock deposits are available, of which hardly 40 mt is of
good quality and is being used for the production of fertilizer. Hence, we
need to explore the possibility of utilizing this vast deposit of rock phosphate
as a source of P in crop production using the modern tool of nano-science
and nano-technology. In conventional approaches, the mineral sources of
plant nutrients (such as P) is converted into water soluble form (more
precisely, ionic form) through chemical processes, so as to make it more
available to the plant. In the general perception of science, any material is
said to be dissolved when it passes through a 0.45 m (450 nm) filter. Hence,
most of the nanoparticles are often included in the dissolved fraction even
through they are clearly distinct from molecules or ions. Hence, most of the
mineral resources (of plant nutrients) can be converted to mineral
nanoparticles so as to enhance their chemical and biological reactivity in soil
vis-à-vis bioavailability.
Benefit of nano rock phosphate
Most of the indigenously available rock phosphates are having P content
7-15%, and if these rock-phosphates are converted to nano-size range
through Top-down approach using high energy ball mills, it is expected to
have following benefits to compensate the cost involved in conversion to
nano size range.
a) Transport cost reduced by half as compare to SSP.
b) No need of importing S for the manufacture of Phosphate fertilizer.
c) Solution culture proved that nano rock phosphate particle can be
directly utilized by plants.
d) Also provides nano-particles of host of compounds containing
calcium, silicon, magnesium, iron, manganese etc.
e) Less interaction with Fe, Al and Ca in soil.
f) Very high solubilizing capability through soil microbes.
g) Help usage of indigenous rock phosphate.
h) Use of the nano rock phosphate help reducing pollution.

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8. Safety measures regarding nanomaterials application
There are reasonable suspicions that activities involving nanomaterials
might have adverse effects on human health; the precautionary principle
must be applied. It is the responsibility of public and private agencies, as
well as industries, to take preventive and protective measures proportionate
to the severity of the risk and the level of protection required. While
nanotechnology is seen as one of the twenty-first century’s main innovations
and has tremendous potential benefits, it needs to be welcomed with a
precautionary measure, considering that not much is understood about its
unintended consequences because of being fresh. Despite there being a lot of
applications for nanotechnology in many fields and increasingly more
applications are being employed in the field of agriculture, the general global
population seems to know little about nanotechnology.
Exposure Control Strategies
a) Engineering controls
Exposure to nanoparticles should be regulated by taking adequate
safeguards for the operation. Engineering control techniques include
• Source enclosure (i.e., isolating the generation source).
• Exhaust ventilation system with high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters for capturing airborne nanoparticles.
• Use glove bags, glove boxes, fume hoods, or other containment or
exhausted enclosures when there is a potential for aerosolization.
• Use fume hoods or other local exhaust devices to exhaust tube
furnaces and or chemical reaction vessels.
• Use of distillation system for evaporating solvent from a colloidal
dispersion within an explosion-proof enclosure.
• Remote control set up for nanomaterial production equipment.
b) Administrative (procedural) controls
Administrative means of control comprise of a supplementary approach
when other methods have not achieved the expected control levels, and these
control strategies include:
i) Training
When handling nanomaterials, effective training and instruction for the
workers is critical to ensure health and safety. A number of issues should be
considered while training the personnel working with nanomaterials as listed
below.

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 • Safe handling of nanomaterials and standard operating procedures
(SOP)
• Hazards and toxicity
• Personal protective equipments (PPE)
• Engineering controls and equipment maintenance
• Emergency procedures
• Waste handling
• Environmental release/shipping/customer protection
• Exposure monitoring
• Applicable regulation
• Labelling and handling of nanomaterials waste
ii) Housekeeping
Good housekeeping practices in laboratories where nanomaterials are
handled can minimize the risk of exposure.
• Clean all working surfaces potentially contaminated with
nanoparticles (i.e., benches, glassware, apparatus, exhaust hoods,
support equipment) at the end of each day using industrial vacuum
cleaner equipped with HEPA filters.
• The HEPA vacuums should be labeled “For use with nanoparticles
only” and must be used only for this purpose.
• Do not dry sweep or use compressed air.
• Dispose of used cleaning materials in accordance with the
hazardous-waste procedures.
iii) Work practices
• Whenever possible, handle nanomaterials in solutions or attached to
substrates to minimize airborne release.
• Consult the material safety data sheet (MSDS), if available or other
appropriate references prior to using a chemical or nanomaterial.
• Avoid spreading of the liquid by working in a spill container. Wear
gloves that are suited for the liquid being handled.
• While working with nanomaterials in gas phase reactor, work in a
closed reaction vessel, preferably around atmospheric or lower than
atmospheric pressure.
• Make sensitive leak checks between runs.

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 • When working with systems under positive pressure obey the
standard safety rules for pressurized vessels and put the vessel into
an enclosed safety vessel.
• For small positive pressure set-ups a closed fume hood is sufficient.
• Mount a HEPA filter (e.g. Teflon PFR filter from pall, > 3 nm) on
the exhaust side of the process before leading into the fume hood
and the outside air.
• While working with nanomaterial powders, handle free
nanomaterial powder exclusively in a closed fume-hood or an
enclosed vessel (glove box).
• If handling outside a closed environment cannot be avoided, wear
class P3 (Filters at least 99.95% of airborne particles) certified
respiratory filters.
• For characterization purposes such as XRD analysis, use a drop of
oil to contain the powder and preventing it from becoming airborne.
• Clean all parts that have been in contact with nanoparticles and
spills after using appropriate protection.
iv) Medical surveillance
The use of health surveillance program is an indicator of whether
exposure is occurring, rather than in determining that levels of exposure are
safe.
• Several potential disease conditions, such as chronic inflammatory
immune responses, allergy, respiratory disorders, gastrointestinal
related disorders, neurological disorders, different types of cancers
arising from oxidative DNA damage, and tissue damage, are
emerging with increased use of nanomaterials.
• It is recommended to have a regular health monitoring programme
and periodical medical surveillance of pulmonary, renal, liver and
hematopoietic functions.
• The regular health monitoring helps in the early detection of any
health effects which would considerably reduce the likelihood of
long term harm.
• Identifying staff exposed to engineered nanoparticles of unknown
health effects.
• Conducting workplace characterization and worker exposure
assessments

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 • Providing workers with baseline medical evaluations and including
them in a non-specific routine health monitoring program.
v) Record keeping
In order to establish and maintain safe and healthy workplaces, effective
record keeping is required. Records of the following areas need to be
maintained:
• Induction and training programs
• Risk assessments
• Servicing and testing of equipment
• Workplace monitoring
• Health surveillance (to be kept confidential)
• Work related injuries and illnesses
• Work place engineering control maintenance, daily checks and
examinations
• Disposal records
vi) Workplace monitoring
Reported studies have proved that the work place monitoring is
important because it can significantly help the research group or
organizations to describe the nanomaterial risk. The work place monitoring
includes: monitoring the particle concentrations at the working place using
different types of particle counters, condensation particle counters, scanning
mobility particle sizers or other means of particle collections, such as witness
plates and particle size analysis by electron microscopy.
vii) Storage
• Storing nanoparticles might involve special protection to safeguard
the products and to ensure workplace health and safety.
• Storage containers of nanoparticles should accommodate different
granulometric characteristics and reactivity of particles.
• In order to avoid oxidation or explosion in case of certain metal
nanoparticles, they are often needed to be protected from exposure
in air and stored under inert gas/liquid bath.

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c) Personal Protective Equipments (PPE)
Nanoparticle exposure is often due to the wearing of inadequate
PPE. Typical protective clothing’s should include
• Closed-toed shoes made of a low permeability material.
• Long pants without cuff.
• Long sleeved shirt.
• Nitrile gloves with extended sleeves. (Note: Advisable to use two
pairs of gloves, as in case of carcinogenic material, to exercise
abundant caution).
• Chemical splash goggles, safety glasses and full-face shields are
recommended for eye protection when there is potential for
exposure to nanomaterials.
• Respiratory air filters (N100 recommended or N95).
• Full face piece respirators offer eye protection in addition to
respiratory protection.
d) Waste disposal
• Milligram range residues of nanomaterials can be poured into
sealed containers properly labelled and disposed of in the hazard
area designated by the respective authority following the standard
procedure.
• Quantities of nanomaterials (powders, colloids) exceeding the
milligram range should be treated as hazardous chemical waste, if
the particle solubility in water is very small (inorganic materials
like metals, metal oxides etc.).
• If the solubility is higher, the rules according to the toxicity class of
the macroscopic material apply.
• Do not place engineered waste of nanomaterials in daily garbage, or
pour it down the drain.
• Nanomaterial hazardous waste containers shall be collected and
disposed of as hazardous waste following the standard procedures.
9. Constraints regarding adaptation of nanotechnology
Innovative agro-nanotech products are failing to enter the market
making agriculture only a marginal nanotechnology field. This is due in
particular to the high production costs of nanotech products that are needed
in the agricultural sector in large quantities, ambiguous technological

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advantages and regulatory uncertainties, as well as the public opinion. Public
opinion of nanotechnology is generally optimistic, but it may change as a
result of growing awareness of their potential drawbacks and the role of the
media (Dudo et al., 2010). Usage of ENMs to boost agricultural practices
often entails several big disadvantages. The toxic effects of ENMs in plants
are little understood since they appear to accumulate essential and non-
essential elements, in many cases beyond the lethal threshold for non-
tolerant species. After accumulation, ENMs might enter the food chain and
reach higher organisms (Grover et al., 2012). The effects of exposure to
ENMs are expected to be different from those produced by nanoparticles
which occur naturally. Man is exposed to NPs because they are generated by
natural processes.
Production, usage, processing, and waste treatment products containing
nanoproducts are the primary reasons for releasing nanoparticulates in the
original or changed forms into the environment. Inhaled NPs can enter the
bloodstream and other locations within the human body, including the liver,
heart, or blood cells, without effort. It's necessary to note that NPs toxicity
depends on their sources. Several seem to be non-toxic, and some have
beneficial effects on health. The general acute toxic effects triggered by
exposure to NPs and nanostructured materials include the generation of
reactive oxygen species, protein denaturation, mitochondrial disconcertion
and phagocytic function disruption. A wide range of NPs can produce
reactive oxygen species and cause cellular damage through lipid
peroxidation, protein alteration, DNA disruption, function interference
signalling and modulation of gene transcription. There are some negative
effects of nanomaterials on biological systems and the environment caused
by nanoparticles, such as chemical hazards on edible plants after treatment
with high concentrations of nano silver, and also, in some cases, free radicals
produced by nanomaterials in living tissue that lead to DNA damage,
therefore nanotechnology should be carefully evaluated before increasing the
use of the nano agromaterials.
Although nanotechnology has tremendous potential in agriculture, its
practical application in particular in developing countries has some
bottlenecks. These are the following obstacles. (i) Nanotoxicity – some
nanomaterials have shown to alter gene expression, DNA damage and
increased toxicity to the non-targeted organisms. Therefore, proper safety
studies are required before a new nanomaterials is used in agriculture (ii)
Large-scale production of some nanomaterials is difficult and expensive (iii)
The majority of novel nanomaterials are proprietary and thus their use is

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limited (iv) Unavailability of proper laws and regulations for its
implementation (v) Poor capacities (human resource and infrastructures) in
the developing countries for research on nanomaterials. However, all these
limitations could easily be overcome if appropriate policy decisions are
taken and implemented by the developing countries for the promotion of
research and application of nanotechnology in agriculture.
10. Future aspects regarding nanotechnology application
Some researchable issues in agriculture pertinent to nanotechnology are
i) Development of nano-sensors to monitoring soil quality,
ii) Nano-magnete production for soil contaminant recovery,
iii) Development of water treatment / purification nano-membranes,
iv) Fertilization and herbicide application through NPs,
v) Synthesis of nano fertilizers for soil and plant application,
vi) Soil and water solubility and degradability of engineered NPs, and
vii) Development of baseline safety details, toxicity and adaptation of
NPs in soil and adequate life.
11. Conclusion
In conclusion, the latest nanomaterials such as nanofertilizers,
nanopesticides, nanocarriers, nanosensors, nanopackaging, and nanochips
will revolutionise agricultural productivity through smart nutrition, growth
promotion, and crop protection. Nanomaterials may be used to handle
formidable emerging diseases of major food crops like wheat blast. The use
of nanomaterials obviously encourages precision and smart agriculture and
greatly reduces the cost of production and losses from post-harvest crops.
Nanomaterials application also significantly facilitates the development of
new nanobiotechnologies like genetic engineering. Nevertheless,
indiscriminate use of nanomaterials can have adverse environmental
(nanotoxicity) implications. Need-based, innovative, and organised
interdisciplinary research efforts are required to develop novel nanomaterials
and their safe and expanded use in agriculture to ensure future food security
and sustainability in agriculture.
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 Chapter – 11
Microbes for growth promotion

Authors
Kavita Rani
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India
Savita Rani
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India
Atul Parashar
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India
Shweta Kumari
Division of Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics
Research Institute, New Delhi, India
Leela Wati
Department of Microbiology, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India

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Page | 262
 Chapter - 11
Microbes for growth promotion
Kavita Rani, Savita Rani, Atul Parashar, Shweta Kumari and Leela Wati

Abstract
The cross-talks between the plants and beneficial microbes in the
rhizosphere are the determinants of plant health and soil fruitfulness. The
soil inhabiting beneficial microbes can enhance plant growth by several
means including regulation of plant growth hormones, improvement in
nutrients acquirements, production of siderophores and enhancement of
antioxidant systems. These plant growths promoting microbes are utilized as
inoculants for bio-fertilization, phytostimulation as well as biocontrol. These
advantageous properties of soil microbes make them as a keystone of next
green revolution.
Keywords: Agriculture, Microorganisms, Plant Growth Promoting
Rhizobacteria
1. Introduction
Another green revolt is becoming vital owing to “loss of zing” in
agricultural production as a consequence of extensive use of agrochemicals
to come across increasing food exigency for mounting populace across the
world. The second green revolt embraces two goals i.e. revitalization of
farming regions and improvement of wages of individuals reliant on
agriculture (Aeron et al., 2011). The sustainability of agricultural terrains is
an imperative requirement of today’s intensive agriculture system which
turns down the harmful effects of intensive agricultural practices on fragile
stability of land and colonized beneficial microflora (Kumar et al., 2017;
Bajiya et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018; Kakraliya et al., 2018; Meena et al.,
2020; Punia et al., 2020).
Soil is considered as a rich medium for growth and development and
functions of microflora as it is brimmed with all the essential nutrients
required for microbial progression. Soil microorganisms play a central role
in recycling of nutrients and are in force to increase food productivity for
many years. The term “rhizosphere” represents the region around the roots of

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plants which is directly influenced by root exudates and associated
microorganisms. The exudates secreted by the plant roots act as a foodstuff
for the soil dwelling microorganisms which further intensify the residential
microfloral population in rhizosphere. The communications between plant
and microbes in rhizosphere are the key drivers of healthiness and
fruitfulness of plants as well as soil (Hayat et al., 2010). The soil microflora
can be primarily divided into three types viz. free-living, associative and
symbiotic microorganisms having potential to improve plant growth and are
known as plant growth promoting (PGP) microorganisms. Free-living
microorganisms reside in the vicinity of plant roots in rhizosphere and have
the ability to enhance plant growth by positive interaction with plants
(Kloepper et. al., 1989). These microbes belong to the genus Anabaena,
Nostoc, Azotobacter, Clostridiumetc. Associative microorganisms are in
close relationship with the plant surfaces and sometimes colonize the
surfaces of roots without invading the internal plant tissues. Microbes related
to the genus Azospirillum, Pantoea etc. show associative relationship with
plants (de Amor et. al., 2008). Symbiotic microorganisms invade internal
plant tissues and make specialized structures either to fix the atmospheric N 2
or to avail nutrients to the plants. The N-fixing microorganisms include
bacteria belonging to the class alphaproteobacteria i.e. Rhizobium,
Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium, Allorhizobium, Sinorhizobium,
Mesorhizobium etc. which make mutualistic associations with legumes
plants and genus Parasponia which exhibits symbiosis in non-legume plants
(Bhat et. al., 2015). Mycorrhiza aid plants ability to bunch up nutrients and
water from the soil with the help of fungal hyphae and conferring them to the
plants (Bever et. al., 2010; Jakhar et al., 2018).
The fundamental modes of action of PGP microbes are accomplished by
means of three distinct approaches comprising the synthesis of specific
composites responsible for plant growth promotion either directly or
indirectly, aiding nutrients uptake by making them available to the plants and
suppression/killing of plant pathogens which are liable to cause various
diseases (Newton et. al., 2010). The foremost roles of these microorganisms
are to enhance nutrient availability for plant uptake, tolerance potential
against biotic as well as abiotic stresses, control of incidence of diseases by
suppression/killing of plant pathogens, remediation of polluted soil and
biofortification. Therefore, these microorganisms have a great potential to
revitalize the agricultural lands in all possible aspects and promisingly have
a substantial contribution in maintaining the sustainability of agricultural
production system.

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2. Nutrients availability and plant growth improvement
The communications between plants and microorganisms in rhizosphere
present a very crucial role in renovation, conscription and solubilization of
nutrients in soil and afterward aid nutrients uptake by plants. Therefore,
these interactions are deliberated to enhance delivery of nutrients, thereby
plant growth and soil fruitfulness and can be advantageouslyutilized in
maintaining the sustainability in agriculture system (Sturz et al., 2000). A
large number of nitrogen fixing bacteria belonging to class
alphaproteobacteria have been reported to use as soil inoculants globally to
consent an effectual foundation of symbiotic association with legume plants.
Conversely, several other bacteria have also been found to interact with
plants non-symbiotically to fix atmospheric nitrogen and make it available
for plant uptake.
Additionally, various means of PGP-facilitated growth promotion of
plants and increase in crop productivity are still needed to understand
accurately (Dey et al., 2004). Nevertheless, probable elucidation comprise
the production of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase to
decrease the levels of ethylene which is responsible for accelerating the
abscission and senescence processes of plants, thereby expediting size and
expansion of roots (Li et al., 2000); production of phytohormones liable for
proliferation of roots as well as shoots to a greater extent (Patten and Glick
2002); secretion of various hydrolytic enzymes responsible for degradation
of complex organic substances into simpler ones resulting in nutrients
recycling etc. Co-existence of different microorganisms and their
functioning in synergistic manner is one of very prevalent benefits of soil
microbes liable to promote soil fertility and plant growth. For instance,
Azospirillum acquaintances with polysaccharide degrading bacteria (PDB) in
soil founding a dynamic connection. The sugary substances are degraded by
PDB leading to the production of simpler sugars and other fermented
substances which are utilized by Azospirillum as sole carbon source.
Azospirillum in turn, deliver fixed N2 to PDB (Bashan and Holguin 1997).
Through these communications, these microorganisms also help in
improving soil richness with essential nutrients.
Furthermore, various microorganisms are known to solubilize
phosphates as well making them available for plants uptake by means of acid
production, chelation and substitution reactions (Omar, 1997). In bacteria,
certain PGPR belonging to families rhizobiaceae, pseudomonadaceae,
alcaligenaceae, bacillaceae, micrococcaceae, etc. are having the ability to
solubilize sparingly soluble inorganic as well as organic complexes of

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phosphates. To solubilize phosphate complexes, PGPR rely on production of
either organic acids or phosphatases accountable for release of phosphates
from inorganic (Ca-P, Fe-P, Mn-P, Al-P etc.) or organic (derivatives of
degrading plants, animals and microbes) complexes, respectively (Goldstein
1986). A very little fraction of phosphate present in total soil organic content
(SOC) is accessible for plant uptake. Phosphatases act as key drivers for
modification of complex phosphates in plant’s accessible forms. Phytates
represent chief resources of P in soil. Plants have very poor instinctive
capability to obtain P from phytates directly. Various PGP microorganisms
are known to produce phytases responsible for liberation of P from phytates
and enhance P availability in soil for plants uptake (Gyaneshwar et al.,
2002).
Additionally, fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium
have been reported to own the capability of phosphate solubilization by
means of acids secretion (Whitelaw, 1999). Mycorrhiza is also reported
predominantly to enhance uptake of stock-still nutrients, particularly P by
various means viz. greater expansion of hyphae to explore bigger soil
fraction and increased absorption through enlarged surface area, rapid
transport of P through fungal hyphae by enhancing affinity towards P ions
and declining minimum quantity of P needed for assimilation and production
of acids or enzymes i.e. phosphatases to solubilize phosphates (Bolan, 1991).
Therefore, soil microorganisms are not only documented to fix
atmospheric N but also acknowledged for production of various plant
hormones to regulate plant growth and development processes and to
increase nutrients availability for the plants, thereby essentially considered as
potential candidates to improve soil richness and fruitfulness (Rani et al.,
2019; Kumar et al., 2020).
3. Stress tolerance
The development of such tools and techniques which enhance agric-
productivity along with food assurance and sustainable use of agricultural
terrains, particularly in stressed conditions, is a big concern for the world.
Several ecological hassles are main widespread menaces for imminent food
certainty. Ever-increasing populace and mounting climatic changes lead to
the decreased farming of crops which in turn results in declined food
productivity and sustainability of agricultural fields. Conversely, the
extensive application of agro-chemicals also results in reduction of useful
microorganisms in the soil and thereby, lessens the agricultural productivity
(Kumar and Verma, 2018). A number of biotic as well as abiotic stresses

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originated either naturally or induced by mankind (Fig. 1), influence the
growth and development of plants and crop production pessimistically.

Fig 1: Different kinds of environmental stresses bestowed to the plants.

The different types of stresses influence morphological, biochemical as
well as physiological characteristics of plants in a variety of ways. These
stresses also have effects on expression of several genes of plants. Therefore,
the different stress conditions are responsible for reduction in diversification
of useful soil microorganisms and soil richness which in turn, decreases crop
yields.
To overwhelm stress conditions and become accustomed to the adverse
conditions, plants show several alterations in their metabolic functions.
However, these metabolic functions get traumatized with the increase in the
intensity of stresses resulting in hormonal discrepancy, nutrients
inconsistency and various physiological disorders including abscission,
senescence and vulnerability to various infections (Glick, 2014). The
different microorganisms such as plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB)
and mycorrhizal fungi, coupled with plants are the solitary probable
substitutes assisting the growth and developmental processes of plants under
stress conditions. The majority of PGPB and mycorrhizal associations are
not able to abide drought, salinity and heavy metal stresses conferring a big
challenge to the cultivators as well as researchers for the formulation of
biofertilizers which could be applicable under such stress conditions (Kumar
et al., 2017, 2017a;). Nonetheless, some certain microbes have the ability to
abide various stress conditions and assist plant growth promotion and

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possess several means to combat the adverse conditions as well as to
strengthen the plants. These beneficial microbes either form close/symbiotic
associations with the plants or reside in close vicinity of plant roots and help
in improving plant growth and development under stress conditions.
4. Biocontrol of pathogens
Soil is a reservoir of beneficial microorganisms such as PGPR and
mycorrhizae as well as detrimental microorganisms like plant pathogens
responsible for a number of plant diseases. These plant pathogens belong to
different groups of microorganisms varying from the minute viroids
composed of ssRNA to the multifaceted phytopathogens like viruses,
bacteria, fungi, nematodes and oomycetes. These phytopathogens cause
various crucial plant diseases which are answerable for immense losses in
crop productivity across the world (De Silva et al., 2019). Among numerous
phytopathogens, fungal pathogens are the most prominent causal agents
infecting various plant parts including stems, roots, leaves, flowers as well as
fruits. Even though there are several factors responsible for losses in crop
productivity, the losses caused by phytopathogens stand for huge destruction
in global food production. The various diseases caused by different
phytopathogens are accounted for approximately 40 billion dollars losses
every year across the world either directly or obliquely (Rahman et al.,
2018).
The diminution of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides application is an
immense need of sustainable agriculture (Chou, 2010). Numerous countries
have been adopted control actions in order to reduce the usage of these
hazardous agrochemicals. One effective measure to control the utilization of
these agrochemicals is Integrated Crop Management (ICM) approaches.
Among various ICM approaches, biocontrol is a crucial measure to control
the plant pathogens with negligible effects on the ecosystem. Various
macroorganisms, microorganisms and their natural products can serve as
biocontrol agents by controlling the infection caused by different plant
pathogens (Lecomte et al., 2016). These advantageous biocontrol agents
show their biocontrol potential by using one or more different means
including competition, parasitism, antagonism etc. (Mansfield,2000). The
localized contagion of plants by phytopathogens can result in Systemic
Acquired Resistance (SAR) which defends the infected plant parts from
disease occurrence. However, the helpful PGPR are able to induce defense
system in distant tissues of plants by using signaling pathways which lead to
improved resistance in the plants against phytopathogens. This defense
system is generally known as Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) which

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offers a robust and quicker response to the phytopathogens preventing the
plants from various diseases.
5. Biofortification
Micronutrient malnutrition is a severe quandary to the individual’s
wellbeing worldwide, especially in the developing countries (Kennedy et al.,
2003; Jangir et al., 2017). It is responsible for several stern diseases of
mankind including disability, immature psychological as well as corporal
development and decreased sociological improvement. As availability of
micronutrients is reliant on agriculture and its products, agricultural systems
ought to be contributory factor to the health issues related with micronutrient
malnutrition (Welch, 2001). Lamentably, agriculture sector has never been
overtly framed to enhance wellbeing of mankind, rather focused on
prosperity for cultivators and agribusiness centers. Agricultural systems
faced a big challenge to feed enormous populace of the world during “Green
Rebellion” spotlighting principally on three food crops i.e. rice, wheat and
maize. These food crops supplied sufficient energy to avert worldwide food
crisis in several poor countries but the unanticipated outcome of that
rebellion was the prompted increase in malnutrition of micronutrients in
several countries.
Consequently, multidisciplinary practices are needed to combat defies of
micronutrient malnutrition or unseen famine which is a frightening public
health problem. Aiming this, biofortification process using microbes
represents a beneficial approach among various multidisciplinary practices to
enrich staple crops such as cereals and pulses with different micronutrients
(Murgia et al., 2012). Currently, biofortification practice is receiving more
interest to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in the major staple
crops Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria have been described to enhance
the iron and Zn contents in staple crops in addition to increasing the soil
fruitfulness and crop productivity by means of siderophore production (Rana
et al., 2012). The selected PGPR mobilize micronutrients by several means
such as acidification, chelation, ion exchange reactions etc. Therefore,
beneficial microbes have the ability to improve nutrients quality of food
crops along with the growth promotion of plants.
6. Conclusion and future perspectives
The numerous beneficial microbial populations in soil not only play
significant role in nutrients recycling and plant growth promotion but also
prevent the incidence of several plant diseases. The practices of application
of microbial formulations have resulted in constructive responses which are

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usually confined to controlled conditions of laboratory and green house. The
climatic changes make it hard to anticipate the responses of various PGPB at
field scale. Therefore, it is necessary to understand various biological
activities and their optimization scale. Consequently, PGPB ought to be
proliferated artificially to optimize their feasibility and biological activities
under field conditions. Furthermore, the communications between PGPB and
their surrounding environment are usually complicated. Accordingly,
considerable advances in elucidation of genetic basis of positive effects of
PGPB on plants must be made.
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