AGRON-302 Principles of Agronomy

AGRON-302 (PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY) Nabeel Ahmad Ikram
Lecturer,
Department of Agronomy
AGRONOMY
The word agronomy has been derived from the two Greek words, agros and nomos having the
meaning of field and to manage, respectively. Literally, agronomy means the “art of managing
field”. Technically, it means the “science and economics of crop production by management of
farm land”.
Definition :
Agronomy is the art and underlying science in production and improvement of field crops with
the efficient use of soil fertility, water, labourer and other factors related to crop production.
Agronomy is the field of study and practice of ways and means of production of food, feed and
fibre crops.
Agronomy is defined as “a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and practices
of field crop production and management of soil for higher productivity. Importance : Among all
the branches of agriculture, agronomy occupies a pivotal position and is regarded as the mother
branch or primary branch. Like agriculture, agronomy is an integrated and applied aspect of
different disciplines of pure sciences.
Agronomy has three clear branches namely, (i) Crop Science, (ii) Soil Science, and (iii)
Environmental Science that deals only with applied aspects. (i.e.,) Soil-Crop-Environmental
relationship.
Agronomy is a synthesis of several disciplines like crop science, which includes plant breeding,
crop physiology and biochemistry etc., and soil science, which includes soil fertilizers, manures
etc., and environmental science which includes meteorology and crop ecology.
The fundamental principles of agronomy are listed as:
1. Planning for maximum utilization of land, labor, capital, sunshine, rain-water,

temperature, humidity, transport and marketing facilities;
2. Choice of crop verities adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility
and season.
3. Timely and well preparation of land
4. Choice of quality seed or seed material
5. Proper time of sowing seed in proper soil moisture (wattar) to have optimum plant
density.
6. Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop keeping in mind soil and
climatic conditions.
7. Proper water management/irrigation with respect to crop, soil and environment
8. Adoption of adequate, need-based, timely and proper plant protection measures against
weed’s insect-pests, pathogens, as well as climatic hazards and correction of deficiencies
and disorders;
Lecturer,
9. Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field-damage.
10. Adoption of suitable post harvest technologies to minimize the losses.
Basic Principles
• Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of land, labourer,
capital and other factors of production.
• Choice of crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility,
season and method of cultivation and befitting to the cropping system;
• Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation and
drainage, checking soil erosion, leveling and adopting other suitable land improvement practices;
• Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure harvest even under
adverse environmental conditions;
• Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop and improvement of soil fertility
and productivity. Correction of ill-effects of soil reactions and conditions and increasing
soil’organic matter through the application of green manure, farm yard manure, organic wastes,
bio fertilizers and profitable recycling of organic wastes;
• Choice of quality seed or seed material and maintenance of requisite plant density per unit area
with healthy and uniform seedlings;
• Proper water management with respect to crop, soil and environment through conservation and
utilization of soil moisture as well as by utilizing water that is available in excess, and scheduling
irrigation at critical stages of crop growth.
• Adoption of adequate, need-based, timely and exacting plant protection measures against weeds,
insect-pests, pathogens, as well as climatic hazards and correction of deficiencies and disorders;
• Adoption of suitable and appropriate management practices including intercultural operations to
get maximum benefit from inputs dearer and difficult to get, low-monetary and non-monetary
inputs;
• Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field loss and to release
land for succeeding crop(s) and efficient utilization of residual moisture, plant nutrients and other
management practices;
• Adoption of suitable post-harvest technologies.
Agronomist:
“Scientist who studies the principles and practices of crop production and soil management for
production of food for human beings and feed for his animals”.
Role of Agronomist
• Generally agronomist studies the problems of crop production and develops better ways of
producing food, feed and fibre.
• Agronomist aims at obtaining maximum production at minimum cost e.g., developing efficient
and economic field preparation method (i.e.) energy should be minimized (i.e.) what type of crop,
in what season, etc.
Lecturer,
• Agronomist shoulder the responsibilities of all social, economic, cultural problems in addition to
field problems for the effective functioning of the farm in general.
• Agronomist exploits the knowledge developed by basic and allied, applied sciences for higher
crop production.
• Agronomist carries out research on scientific cultivation of crops taking into account the effect
of factors like soil, climate, crop varieties and adjust production techniques suitably depending on
the situation.
• Since, the agronomist co-operates and co-ordinate with all the disciplines of agriculture, it is
essential that an agronomist should have training in other disciplines of agriculture also.
• To develop efficient method of cultivation (whether broadcasting, nursery and transplantation or
dibbling, etc.) The method may vary according to the germination period and depending upon the
crop establishment and what should be the optimum plant population.
• He has to identify various types of nutrients required by crops, e.g., for long duration rice (150-
100–50 kg), for pulses N2, P and K. If the method of cultivation varies the nutrient content also
varies. The time and method of applying nutrients must also be taken into account. Method refers
to broadcast or to apply close to the root or through leaves (i.e.) foliage.
• Agronomist must select a better weed management practice. Either through mechanical or
physical (by human work) or chemical (herbicides or weedicides, e.g.; 2–4-D or cultural (by
having wide space it may increase weed growth by using inter space crops). Weeds are controlled
integrated means.
• Irrigation management: Whether to irrigate continuously or stop in between and how much water
should be irrigated are calculated to find the water requirement.
• Crop planning (i.e.,) developing crop sequence should be developed by agronomist (i.e.) what
type of crop, cropping pattern, cropping sequence, etc.
• Agronomists are also developing the method of harvesting, time for harvesting, etc. The harvest
should be done in the appropriate time.
• Decision-making in the farm management. What type of crop to be produced, how much crop,
including marketing should be planned? Decision should be at appropriate time.
What is a seed?
In Agronomy, any part of plant from which a new crop will be grown is called seed.
In Botany, Seed is a fertilized ripened ovule consisting of three main parts, namely; seed coat,
endosperm and embryo, which in due course gives rise to a new plant.
Endosperm is the stored food that nourishes the embryo during its development. Seed coat is the
outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm. Embryo is a baby plant.
Importance of seed in crop production
Lecturer,
Seed is the basic and most critical input for sustainable crop production. Response of all inputs
depends on quality of a seed. The contribution of quality seed alone to the total production can be
15-45%.
Seed structure varies with the kind of plant
Dicot ‐ Bean Seed
• External
o Seed coat—The seed coat is the outer covering of the seed that protects the embryo
from injury and holds the seed together.
o Hilum ‐ The hilum is the point at which the seed was attached in the fruit.
o The hilum is also known as the seed scar.
o Micropyle—The micropyle is the tiny opening near the hilum through which the pollen
entered the ovule to form the seed.
• Internal:
o Cotyledons—The cotyledons are fleshy‐like structures that contain food for the embryo.
o Radicle—The radicle is the part of the seed that forms the root system of the plant.
o Hypocotyl—The hypocotyl connects the cotyledons and radicle.
o Epicotyl ‐ The epicotyl forms the stem of the plant.
o Plumule—The plumule forms the above ground part of the plant.
Monocot ‐ Corn Seed
• External:
o Seed coat—The seed coat protects and shapes the seed.
o Seed scar—The seed scar is the place where the seed was attached, such as a corn
kernel to the corn cob.
o Silk scar—The silk scar is at the end opposite the seed scar and is the place where the
silk was attached to the ovule.
• Internal:
o Endosperm ‐ the endosperm is the stored food in a monocot seed.
o Radicle ‐ the radicle, as with dicots, forms the root system.
o Hypocotyl ‐ as with dicots, the hypocotyl connects the radicle with the food source.
o Epicotyl ‐the epicotyl forms the stems of monocots in a manner similar to dicots.
o Cotyledon ‐ the cotyledon in a Monocot absorbs food from the endosperm and moves it
to the embryo.
o Plumule ‐ the plumule develops into the leaves and stems of the plant.
The major food seeds are those of the cereals and legumes; annual world production is now
approaching 3 billion tons.
Lecturer,
Seed structure
A typical seed includes three basic parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo,
and (3) a seed coat.
The embryo is an immature plant from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The
embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons, two cotyledons in almost
all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms. The radicle is the embryonic root. The plumule
is the embryonic shoot. The embryonic stem above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s) is
the epicotyl. The embryonic stem below the point of attachment is the hypocotyl.
Within the seed, there usually is a store of nutrients for the seedling that will grow from the
embryo. The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms,
the stored food begins as a tissue called the endosperm, which is derived from the parent plant
via double fertilization. The usually triploid endosperm is rich in oil or starch and protein. In
gymnosperms, such as conifers, the food storage tissue is part of the female gametophyte, a haploid
tissue. In some species, the embryo is embedded in the endosperm or female gametophyte, which
the seedling will use upon germination. In others, the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the
latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with this
stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are termed exalbuminous
seeds. Some exalbuminous seeds are bean, pea, oak, walnut, squash, sunflower, and radish.
Lecturer,
Seeds with an endosperm at maturity are termed albuminous seeds. Most monocots
(e.g. grasses and palms) and many dicots (e.g. brazil nut and castor bean) have albuminous
seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous.
The seed coat (or testa) develops from the tissue, the integument, originally surrounding the ovule.
The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut) or something more
substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut). The seed coat helps protect the
embryo from mechanical injury and from drying out.
In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage on the seed coat such
an aril (as in yew and nutmeg) or an elaiosome (as in Corydalis) or hairs (as in cotton). There may
also be a scar on the seed coat, called the hilum; it is where the seed was attached to the ovary wall
by the funiculus.
Seed functions: Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them. Key among these
functions are nourishment of the embryo, dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during
unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are a means of reproduction and most seeds are the
product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and
phenotype variability that natural selection acts on.
Importance and Characteristics
Seed is the basic input in agriculture upon which other inputs are applied. A good vigorous seed
utilizes all the resources and realizes a reasonable output to the grower. It is wealth to the farmer,
it is the yesterday’s harvest and tomorrows hope. Good seed in good soil realize good yield. It is a
link between two generations.
Seed is:
1. Carrier of new technology

The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties wisely combined with other inputs significantly
increases the yield levels. In Pakistan cultivation of high yielding varieties increased the food
production from 52 million to 180 million tons over a period of 40 years. Seed acts as a vehicle
for the superior genes to reach farmers. It is also a carrier of bio technological innovations.2.
A basic tool for secured food supply
Introduction of dwarf and high yielding varieties and hybrids of different crops increased the
productivity and led to potential development.
3. The principal means to secure crop yields in less favorable production areas
The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is one of the few
important immediate contributions to secure higher crop yields.
4. A medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster
Widespread floods and droughts in various parts of the country and elsewhere have focused
attention on these recurrent crises and the accompanying threats of famine and starvation. The
establishment of National Seed Reserve Stocks should receive high priority for meeting such
natural calamities.
• This would provide improved seeds in emergency periods to production areas for rapid
production of food grains.
Lecturer,
• This would supply seeds to disaster regions for resowing, as no seed would normally be
available in such regions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUALITY SEED
A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics.

1. Seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure, free from admixtures and should belong
to the proper variety or strain of the crop.
2. Seed must be latest. It should belong to the best variety suited to the area and must be
superior to existing ones.
3. Seed should be pure, viable, and vigorous, and should have high yield potential.
4. Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection.
5. Seed should be clean; free from weed seeds or any inert materials.
6. Seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged, crushed or peeled off, half filled or
half rotten.
7. Seed should be of uniform size and weight.
8. Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age.
9. Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (8-12%).
10. Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%).
11. Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown.
ADVANTAGES OF USING GOOD QUALITY SEEDS
The following are the advantages of using good quality seeds.

1. Less quantity of seed is required.
2. Reduced cost of cleaning and disinfections.
3. Uniform germination thus avoiding replanting and gap filling.
4. Vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and disease damages.
5. Uniform growth stages and maturity of the crop, hence lower pre and post harvest losses.
6. Maintain good quality under storage conditions.
7. Due to uniformity of the produce, low breakage of the seed/grain during processing. e.g. rice.
8. Higher market price of the produce.
9. Better cooking quality of the produce.
10. Reduced cost.
TYPES OF GOOD QUALITY SEED
1. Breeder’s Seed OR Nucleus Seed

It is the small quantity of seed which is produced under the direct supervision of a breeder who
tends to evolve a variety. This type of seed is of high quality and true to type.
Lecturer,
2. Pre-basic Seed
It is the progeny of breeder or nucleus seed and is produced on research stations.
3. Basic Seed
It is the progeny of pre-basic seed. It is produced on extension farms, research farms and by
progressive farmers.
4. Certified Seed
It is the progeny of basic seed and is produced by the registered growers of seed producing
agency or Seed Company.
5. Approved seed
It is the progeny of certified seed and is the low in quality than certified seed.
LABELING OF SEED PACKING

The packed seed is labeled with adhesive or non-adhesive labels. The labels are provided by
Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department (FSC & RD).
Colour codes of labels/tags used for various quality seeds are as follow:
• Pre-Basic (White with diagonal violet line)

• Basic (White)
• Certified (Blue)
• Approved (Red)
Seed Vs Grain?
Difference lies primarily in the intended end use
Differences between seed and grain
Sr. No. Seed Grain

1 It should be a viable and vigorous one Need not be a viable one
It should be physically and
2 Not so
genetically pure
Should satisfy minimum seed certification
3 No such requirements
standards
It can be treated with pesticide /fungicide
It should never be treated with any
4 to protect seed against storage pests and
chemicals, since used for consumption
fungi
Respiration rate and other physiological
5 and biological processes should be kept at No such specifications
low level during storage
Lecturer,
6 Should be compulsorily certified No such condition in grain production
7 It should satisfy all the quality norms Not considered
Seed can be utilized as grain provided if it
8 Grain never can be converted into seed.
is not treated with poisonous chemicals
Difference between seed and grain production
Sr. No. Seed production Grain production

Planned programme –start with demand forecasting
1. well planning not required
ends with marketing
2 Authenticated source is required to raise a seed crop Need not be
3 Specific land and field requirements Not so
Should be monitored for certification standards and
4 Not so
certified by the Agency
5 To be harvested at physiological maturity Harvestable maturity
6 Proper post-harvest technology should be followed Not so
Seed production, multiplication, certification and

distribution systems in Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
National seed programme has passed through many transitional phases in Pakistan from 1947-61.
The seed of improved varieties used to be multiplied and distributed by Department of Agriculture.
Most of the farmers often practised to use their own saved seed or they exchanged seed with other
fellow farmers. West Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation (WPADC) was established
in 1961, to initiate systematic seed production and its distribution through its own mobile
marketing network. This system remained highly inefficient due to excessive procurement than
the actual sale. Though due to such inefficiency, the WPADC was dissolved but it created seed
quality awareness though the establishment of seed testing laboratories in the country. Realizing
the importance of seed quality control, variety registration, seed production and multiplication
programme, the government launched a seed industry project during 1976 with the assistance of
FAO/IBRD. This has provided sound basis for quality seed production programme based on
scientific lines (Fig.2.1). The seed system was given legal coverage through promulgation of Seed
Act, 1976. Necessary institutional infrastructure was established as under:
1. National Seed Council (NSC) at Federal Level.

Lecturer,
2. Provincial Seed Councils (PSC) at each provincial level.
3. Federal Seed Certification Department (FSCD).
4. National Seed Registration Department (NSRD).
Under the economic austerity measures, the FSCD and NSRD were merged together during 1997
and the new organization has been designated as Federal Seed Certification & Registration
Department (FSC&RD).
SEED PRODUCTION AGENCIES
Seed multiplication, production, processing, storage and marketing is done by the public and
private seed sector in provinces. Private seed companies take basic seeds of various crop varieties
from public sector seed agencies (statutory obligation) and multiply and market through their own
network as certified seed.
Public sector seed agencies
Public sector seed agencies are obliged to get pre-basic seeds of various crop varieties from
research institutes and multiply to produce basic seed for private seed companies and for their own
requirement in their respective province. Anyhow, Punjab Seed Corporation has also developed a
mechanism for the production of Breeder’s Nucleus seed and pre-basic seed at its own farms in
collaboration with respective Plant Breeders and Federal Seed Certification & Registration
Department.
1. Punjab Seed Corporation (PSC), Lahore.
2. Sindh Seed Corporation (SSC), Hyderabad.
3. KPK Agricultural Development Authority (ADA), Peshawar.
4. Balochistan Department of Agriculture (BDA), Quetta.
Balochistan and North West Frontier Province have no full-fledged seed corporation in public
sector. The activities of seed are carried out by the department of Agriculture Extension in
Balochistan and by the various components of KPK, Department of Agriculture.
Private seed sector

Lecturer,
Pakistan seed industry has large volume of private seed companies. It comprises of 372 national
seed companies including five multinational seed companies. Government has very liberal policy
to encourage further induction of private seed sector into seed business.
QUALITY CONTROL AGENCY
Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department provides quality control cover through
registration of crop variety, crop inspection and seed testing. This system is being implemented at
federal level under the Seed Act, 1976.
NATIONAL SEED COUNCIL (NSC)
National Seed Council is the supreme body concerns with all pursuits of seed both in public and
private sectors. It works under the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock,
Government of Pakistan.
Functions of NSC
The functions of the National Seed Council interalia shall be:
i) to advise on policy for the development, operation and regulation of the Provincial Seed
Industries; ii) to maintain a watch on the operation of the provisions of this Act; iii) to guide in
administering the seed quality control service; iv) to direct initiation of Provincial Seed Projects;
v) to ensure and protect investment in the seed industry; vi) to approve and sanction seed
standards; vii) to regulate inter-provincial seed movement; viii) to advise on import of seeds; ix)
to co-ordinate the arrangements for the maintenance of genetic potential; x) to co-ordinate
multiplication and supply of seeds of approved varieties; xi) to assist in developing approved seed
production farms.
FEDERAL SEED REGISTRATION COMMITTEE (FSRC)
FSRC work on behalf of National Seed Council and prepare necessary data and record pertaining
to registration of different crop varieties.
Functions
To assess suitability of varieties for registration in regard to inter alia, distinctness, uniformity,
stability and value for cultivation and use based on recommendations of the provincial
government. 2. To recommend the registration of new varieties and areas for their suitability.
VARIETAL DEVELOPMENT
Lecturer,
The varieties are being developed at Provincial and Federal Agricultural Research
Institutes mainly through conventional Plant Breeding i.e. Introduction, Hybridization and
selection etc. A significant use of Atomic radiation is being made for the development of varieties
specifically of food legumes, rice and cotton. Privatization promotion policy of the government of
Pakistan has encouraged the emergence of multinational seed companies like Pioneer Pakistan
Seeds Ltd, Monsanto Pakistan Seed (Pvt.) Ltd, Syngenta (Pakistan) Ltd and ICI Pak seed Ltd.
These companies have started breeding programmes and submitting varieties for evaluation and
registration. These varieties include hybrids of sunflower, Maize and Sorghum. Pakistan also keeps
close liaison with International Agricultural Research Centers like IRRI, ICARDA, ICRISAT,
CIMMTY, CIAT, IITA and AVRDC for obtaining germplasm to strengthen the national plant
breeding programmes. We are also working on Plant Breeder’s Rights, that may change the role
of research organizations through more research toward development of germplasm resources,
new breeding procedures and identification of superior breeding lines.
VARIETY TESTING
The crop breeders test and evaluate at research centers, a large number of strains in micro-
varietal trials, for sufficient number of years and then the promising material emerging from these
micro varietal trials is further tested in the out-station zonal varietal trials. The breeders are aware
of the variation that can occur on account of the genotypic-environmental interaction. In order to
overcome this phenomena Zonal trials are conducted widely in the area of adaptability usually in
cooperation with enlightened growers and on government farms. When a breeder selects a variety
on the basis of a wide range of tests and considers it having sufficient merit, he submits seed
sample to the National Seed Registration Department to determine the distinctness, Uniformity
and Stability characteristics for establishing description and registration. Simultaneously, the seed
samples are also provided to the Variety Evaluation Committees of Pakistan Agriculture Research
council (PARC) for crops other than cotton. For cotton seed samples are submitted to Pakistan
Central Cotton Committee. Both these organizations evaluate the candidate varieties for value and
cultivation use (VCU). A variety that meets the requirements of VCU and DUS is then accepted
for registration and release as defined in the Seed Act that a released variety means a registered
variety having agricultural value for growing and approved by the National/Provincial Seed
Council.
VALUE FOR CULTIVATION AND USE (VCU) Value for cultivation and use is the only
criteria for which a commercial variety is developed. Initially the variety is tested locally by
adopting a well planned testing procedure covering
suitable field plot techniques and adequate number of replications and experimental design. The
agronomic trials are carried out by provincial Agricultural Departments at their adaptive Research
Lecturer,
Farms, progressive growers and seed corporation farms. Performance of value for cultivation and
use of the candidate variety is expressed relative to control variety/varieties used as check.
The most important aspect of testing for VCU perhaps is the yield performance but there are other
characteristics which must be assessed. Field characteristics may differ from crop to crop i.e. for
wheat resistance to rusts and other pathogens, lodging and bread quality etc. It is also important
that the product of the crop must be of the right quality for the purpose for which it is intended.
DISTINCTNESS, UNIFORMITY AND STABILITY (DUS) REQUIRMENTS In addition to

the value of a cultivar for cultivation and use, the cultivar must be suitable for pure seed production
which requires the cultivar to be distinct, uniform and stable in its characteristics.
DISTINCTNESS The new variety must be defined and clearly distinguishable from all other
existing varieties by one or more morphological (shape, color etc.), physiological (resistance,
maturity etc.) and metric characteristics (height, leaf length etc.). In the absence of distinctness, it
will not be possible to distinguish and identify the new variety for seed production and
certification.
UNIFORMITY (HOMOGENEITY) The new variety must be reasonably uniform within its
stand so that individual plants could be identified. Uniformity or homogeneity relates to the degree
of variability within the variety. The degree of uniformity that is attainable depends on the breeding
system.
STABILITY The new variety must be stable in its essential characteristics, that is to say it must
remain true to its description after repeated reproduction or propagation. A stable cultivar is always
credited because it can be increased and distributed without many problems. It is not generally
possible during a period 2 to 3 years to perform stability tests with same certainty as the testing of
distinctness and homogeneity. Generally, when a submitted sample has shown to be homogenous
in two growing years, it is taken to be as stable because the breeders/institutions has the
responsibility to maintain the variety and its stability in later generations. If failure in stability is
detected in later generation then variety could be declared unfit for certified seed production.
Stability is further ascertained through pre and post control trials.
REGISTRATION OF NEW CROP VARIETIES As soon as a variety completes its evaluation

regarding VCU and DUS characteristics, the data are discussed by the Federal Seed Registration
Committee (FSRC). The varieties found acceptable are recommended to the National Seed Council
(NSC) for confirmation of registration. The registered varieties become eligible for quality control
through the Federal Seed Certification Department.
SIGNIFICANCE OF REGISTRATION
Lecturer,
The registration provides the basis for quality control through Federal Seed Certification
Department.
The registration will also provide the basis for administering the Plant Breeder’s Rights.
The registration of varieties and their authentic descriptions provide the basis for true to type
maintenance of Breeder’s Nucleus Stocks of the variety for the production of Prebasic seed.
APPROVAL AND RELEASE OF CROP VARIETIES At provincial level, the registered

varieties are released and recommended for general cultivation by the respective Provincial Seed
Council (PSC). The Provincial Governments are responsible for arranging production, processing
and distribution of quality seed of released varieties in sufficient quantities for the farming
community.
VARIETY EVALUATION COMMITTEE (VEC)
This committee also works on behalf of the National Seed Council but under the Pakistan
Agricultural Research Council. It makes arrangements for National Uniform Yield Trial (NUYT)
and evaluates performance of candidate crop varieties for regional suitability/adaptability and
disease reaction. Such evaluation is carried out through traveling seminar. Seed Act, 1976 does
not mention about VEC.
PLANT VARIETY REGISTRATION SYSTEM
It is a legal system to register the crop variety. FSRC is responsible to evaluate the report of DUS
and VCU prepared by FSC&RD and recommend the registration of variety to NSC.
Variety development and testing
Crop variety development is the main domain of public sector organization in the provinces. At a
federal level, PARC coordinates for all research pertaining to variety evaluation and testing and
provides funding to some specific projects which are unique and not carried out by provinces
previously. Research on cotton crop is exclusively carried out by PCCC. No doubt multinational
seed companies after conducting local trials started submitting their hybrid varieties of sunflower,
maize, sorghum for registration etc. but they enjoy privilege of trading seed under Seed (Truth-in-
Labeling) Rules, 1991.
Lecturer,
Plant breeders test their promising strains in micro varietal trials, breeding stations, sub-stations
and the zonal varietal trials for a sufficient number of years. When a breeder selects a variety after
sufficient years of testing, he submits it to PARC for evaluation of its value for cultivation and use.
Simultaneously, breeder submits a seed sample of that variety to FSC&RD for evaluation of
distinctness, uniformity and stability (statutory obligation for registration).
Variety registration and release
A variety that meets the requirements of VCU and DUS is accepted for registration by the
FSC&RD. The department submits its DUS report to Federal Seed Registration Committee. The
committee evaluates the report regarding DUS and VCU and recommends its registration. The
National Seed Council approves the registration and release of a variety. Notification is issued by
Federal Government. All the decisions are made based on consensus of opinion by the experts. A
number of agencies are involved in the process of variety development, evaluation, maintenance,
registration and release (Fig.2.2).
Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department keeps the record of variety registration
alongwith all morphological characters. The varieties registered, released and notified through the
process, can be multiplied under seed certification system.
SEED CERTIFICATION SYSTEM
Seed certification system is a legal and regulatory mechanism. It is performed by the Federal Seed
Certification and Registration Department, an attached department of the Ministry of Food,
Agriculture and Livestock. To maintain and make availability of genetically pure seeds of
improved varieties, the whole process is done at two main stages. 1. The crop raised for the
production of seed is inspected by FSC&RD for genetical purity. 2. The seed samples are drawn
after harvest of the crop and analyzed in the laboratory for evaluation on the basis of prescribed
seed standard (analytical purity).
In addition to this, pre and post control plots are laid out to ascertain the genetic purity of the seed
and seed-borne diseases. In Pakistan, seed certification system has four recognized categories.
1. Pre-basic seed. 2. Basic Seed. 3. Certified seed. 4. Approved seed
Crop Inspection
The purpose of crop inspection is to determine whether or not the crop is suitable for the production
of seed of the standard required. The genetic purity of seed crop is assessed through field crop
inspection. Inspection is carried out only for notified varieties based on physio-morphology
characteristics develop through DUS studies. Before carrying out crop inspection, the following
preliminaries are verified: i) Verification of the source from the labels, seals, bags or receipt of
Lecturer,
seed purchased. ii) Acreage and location of the seed field. iii) Cropping history of the field where
the seed crop is grown. iv) Isolation distance of seed crops from other crops. v) Condition and
health of the crop to carry out crop inspection properly. Crop must not be very much weedy or
damaged. vi) Application from grower or seed agency, requesting for crop inspection.
If all the above conditions are found satisfactory then a detailed assessment of the crop is carried
out to determine the following factors: a) Admixture with other cultivars. b) Admixture with other
species. c) Presence of weeds particularly obnoxious weed plants. d) Presence of seed-borne
diseases. After the crop inspection, the grower or seed company is informed about the
decision/recommendations or other measures, necessary to bring the crop up to the prescribed
standards. At final inspection, a certificate is issued by the department on the prescribed form.
Seed Testing
Seed testing is carried out to assess the analytical purity of seed lot. The following steps are taken
to ensure quality of seed lot.
Submission of application for sampling
Seed samples are drawn from the produce whose fields have been certified subject to the prescribed
written request by the grower. Three samples are drawn from each seed lot by the officer of the
FSC&RD according to the method as prescribed in ISTA rules (1990). One sample is given to the
respective seed testing laboratory and 2nd is handed over to the grower or seed agency. The 3rd
sample is submitted to the central seed testing laboratory for post control check.
Requirement for seed lots to be sampled
It should be ensured before seed sampling that seed lot must be homogeneous. Credibility of results
depends on the representative samples. Number of seed samples are drawn according to the size
of seed lot.
Seed analysis
Working samples are made from the submitted samples in the laboratory. Each seed of the working
seed samples is physically examined using magnifying lens. Doubtful seeds are further examined
under stereo-microscope. Every crop seed is examined for purity on the basis of morphological
characters of particular crop variety. Seed sample is analyzed for the assessment of the following
factors.
i) Purity (pure seed). ii) Mixture of the crop seed (other distinguishable varieties). iii) Presence of
weeds. iv) Inert matter. v) Seed-borne diseases. vi) Moisture test. vii) Thousand seed weight. viii)
Lecturer,
Germination. ix) Seed lots are rejected or accepted on the basis of seed standards prescribed by
the National Seed Council for individual crops.
Issuing of seed analysis certificate and temporary labels
After the seed analysis in the laboratory for the above mentioned factors, certificate of fitness is
issued by the department and temporarily labels are also issued. These labels carry the following
information printed on it:
i. Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department. ii. Reference number. iii. Species. iv.
Cultivar. v. No. of bags/containers. vi. Approximate weight of seed lots.
Seed sampling during processing and issuing of final labels and seals
All the seed lots are processed at processing plants/units by the seed agency. During processing,
seed samples are drawn and analyzed in the laboratory. After this, a certificate is issued on the
prescribed form and final labels and seals are also issued on the spot.
Re-testing of seed lots
To assess any deterioration during storage, a re-test sample is drawn from each lot at two months
prior to its actual distribution/sale. Seed samples are analyzed for all the factors as mentioned
above. Finally, the seed agencies are allowed to offer seed lots cleared by the FSC&RD.
Tillage
refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements to create
favorable soil conditions for better seed germination and subsequent growth of crops.
OBJECTIVES OF TILLAGE
Tillage is done:
1. To prepare ideal seed bed favourable for seed germination, growth of plants.
2. To loosen the soil for easy root penetration and root proliferation.
3. To control the weeds
4. To control pest and diseases which are hidden in the soil.
5. To improve physical conditions of soil.
6. To ensure adequate aeration in the root zone which in turn favour microbial
and biochemical activities.
7. To modify soil temperature.
8. To break hard pans of the soil and to improve drainage of soil.
9. To incorporate crop residues and organic matter.
10. To minimizing the soil erosion.
Lecturer,
11. To conserve the soil moisture.
12. To harvest efficiently the effective rain water.
13. To mix the manures, fertilizers and pesticides in the soil.
14. To facilitate water infiltration and thus increasing the water holding capacity
of the soil, and
15. To level the field for efficient water management.
16. To increase infiltration rate.
Disadvantages of tillage
• Tillage operations are cause of hard pan formation.

• Increase cost of production.
• Compaction of the soil.
TILTH
It is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage. Good Tilth refers to the
physical conditions of soil whi ch is favorable for seed germination and growth of
crops. A soil with good tilth is quite porous and has free drainage up to water table.
Types of Tilth
Fine Tilth refers to the powdery condition of the soil.
Coarse Tilth refers to the rough cloddy condition of the soil.
For small seeded crops like onion, berseem and tobacco fine seed bed (fine tilth) is
required. While, bold seeded crops like sorghum, cotton and chickpea can grow well
on coarse seedbed.
TYPES OF TILLAGE
There are three types of tillage:
1. On season tillage
2. Off season tillage
3. Special types of tillage
1. ON SEASON TILLAGE
Tillage operations done for raising the crops in the same season or at the onset of the crop season
are called as on season tillage. On season tillage may be preparatory tillage or inter tillage
A. Preparatory Tillage
It refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It is divided
into three types’ viz., (i) primary tillage, (ii) secondary tillage, and (iii) seed bed preparation.
Lecturer,
i.Primary tillage - The first cutting and inverting of the soil that is done after the harvest of the crop
or untilled fallow, is known as primary tillage. Objective is to control weeds to incorporate crop
stubbles and to restore soil structure.
ii.Secondary tillage - It refers to shallow tillage operation that is done after primary tillage to
improve the soil tilth. It includes cultivating, harrowing, pulverizing, planking, leveling and
ridging operations.
iii.Seed bed preparation - It refers to a very shallow operation intended to prepare a fine seed bed
OR final preparation of the soil for planting the seed. Weed control and structural development of
the soil are the objectives.
B. Inter Tillage/Inter Cultivation
It refers to shallow tillage operation during the crop stand in the field. It includes, hoeing,
weeding, earthing up, etc. Inter tillage helps to incorporate the top dressed manures and fertilizers
to earth.
2. OFF SEASON TILLAGE

It is done during fallow or non-cropped season (summer). The main objectives of it are
water conservation, leveling, leaching down the salts, reducing he population of pest and diseases
in the soils etc.
3. SPECIAL TYPES OF TILLAGE
It is done at any time with some special objective/purpose. For example, tillage done for
leveling of soil, puddling(puddling means ploughing/tillage in standing water to prepare field for
rice plantation) and formation of ridges, etc.
TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Any device used to carry on some work is called as implement. So, any device used for
any kind of tillage operation is called tillage implement. Tillage implements are operated by animal
power or by machinery. Tillage implements are classified into primary, secondary and
intercultural, depending on the purpose for which it is being used.
A. PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

Primary tillage is the deepest operations/performed during the period between two crops. OR, the
very first tillage done after harvesting of a first crop and before sowing of second crop.The
followingare the implements used for primary tillage.
1. Country/wooden/Desi plough: This plough has been used for centuries and is still
used in many areas of the country. This plough consists of a wooden body to which ahandle and a
shaft pole are attached. A small piece of flat iron (shares)
is fixedover the plough body with clamps. Figure. Working with Dasi plough
Lecturer,
It can be used for:
1. Dryploughing (large share is used),
2. Wetploughing (medium share is used)
3. Drilling (drill tube is attached).
4. Interculture.
2. Improved iron plough

The bullock drawnimproved iron plough is
made of ironexcept the pole shaft. It has
longerlife. As and when the share wears off, it
can bepushed forward. Pole shaft angle and height ofthe handle can be adjusted according to
fieldrequirements.
3. Meston plough
It is used for the primary tillage operationsin wetlands. The plough has a wooden handle and a
wooden beam with an iron body.Mouldboard is attached with a share.
Disc plough
Tractor operated rotavator
4. Mould board
plough
It is used to plough deeply and pulverizethe soil. It is more durable, easy to pull and canbe adjusted
properly. This plough leaves no unploughedland. The land is cut and invertedto one side resulting
in better pulverization.Mould board ploughs are used when soil inversion is necessary.
5. Rotavator
It can be used as primary and secondary tillage implement. It has L shaped blades which are
mounted on a shaft. The soil is cut, sheared and thrown to the hood for pulverization. The rotavator
Lecturer,
is usually used for hard, sticky clay soils which are

infested with weeds. It rotavates the weeds and stubbles and leaves a uniform surface behind.
6. Disc Plough
In the disc plough, an inclined concave steel disc of 60-90 cm diameter, set at an angle tothe
direction of travel are used. Each disc revolves on an axle.The angel of the disc to the
verticalposition and to the furrow wall is adjustable. Lever arrangements are provided to lift the
discsclear off the ground and for changing the angle of molding and adjusting the depth of
penetrationof the discs into the soil. While working, the discs rotate, dig out furrows, invert
thefurrow slice and pulverize them thoroughly. Disc plough is especially useful under the
followingsoil conditions:
• Soil with hard pan.
• Sticky soil.
• Dry hard soil.
• Rough and stony soil.
• Ploughing weedy lands
Mould Board Plough
• lands with stubbles
• and for deep ploughing.
7. Chisel plough and subsoiler

These implements are used to open the soil deeply without turning
it over. After two to three years of normal agricultural Chisel plough practices, particularly
in an irrigated area with heavy clay soils, the pan in the root zone is formed (hard pan). The hard
pan restricts infiltration of water and root penetration. Chisel plough is usually recommended every
three years to break the hard pan.Subsoiler has the ability to penetrate more deeply than Chesiel
plough.
Chisel plough
Lecturer,
B. SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Secondary tillage is the shallow operation
performed after the primary tillage. Secondary
tillage implementsare used for breaking clods and
producing a loose, friable, smooth state.
Secondaryimplements areused with the following
objectives.
• Breaking the furrow slice and to get the
required tilth.
• Destruction of weeds.
• Stirring the soil and forming mulch.
• Mixing the manures and fertilizers with
soil.
• Covering the seeds.
Various secondary tillage implements and their
functions are discussed as below:
1. Cultivators
Spring tined cultivators are the most common tillage
implements for shallow ploughing, leveling, and
prepare fine seedbeds. They are also used for and inter-
culture to control weeds in standing crops.
2. Harrows
They are smaller implements with many tines like
cultivators. Used for breakingsmaller clods left
unbroken by cultivators and for producing a powdery
seedbed. Tines penetrate up to about 10 cm depth.
There aredifferent types of harrows in use.
Disc harrow - These harrows are made up of number of

concave discs. Two sets of discs are mounted on different
axles. Discs cutthrough the soil and effectively pulverize
clods.
LAND SHAPING IMPLEMENTS

Ridge plough – It is a double mould board ploughwith mould boards on both the sides, which
meet along a central line.
Bund former –it is used to form bunds in the field.
SOWING IMPLEMENTS Disc Harrow

Lecturer,
• Mechanical seed drills-These are tractor drawn drills used for drilling cotton, wheat, ect.
• Bullock drawn seed drills–These are drawn with the help of bullocks.
• Single Row Hand drill–It is used to sow crops on small scale with hands and is mostly,
used to lay out the field experiments or trails.
FACTORS AFFECTING (INTENSITY AND DEPTH OF) THE TILLAGE OPERATIONS
Several factors are responsible for deciding intensity and depth of tillage operations. They are soil
type, crop and variety, type of farming, moisture status of the soil, climate and season, extent of
weed infestation, irrigation methods, special needs and economic condition, and knowledge and
experience of the farmer.
(i) Crop - It decides the type, intensity and depth of tillage operations with small sized
seeds like finger millet, tobacco etc. Require a fine seedbed which can provide intimate
soil-seed contact as against coarser seed bed required for larger size seeds such as
sorghum, maize, pulses, etc. Root or tuber crops require deep tillage whereas rice
requires shallow puddling.
(ii) Soil type - It dictates the time of ploughing. Light soils require early and rapid land
preparation due to free drainage and low retentive capacity as against heavy soils.
(iii) Climate - It influences soil moisture content, draught required tilling and the type of
cultivation. Low rainfall and poor water retentive capacity of shallow soil do not permit
deep ploughing at the start of the season. Heavy soils developing cracks during summer
(self tilled) need only harrowing. Light soils of arid regions need coarse tilth to
minimize wind erosion.
(iv) Type of farming - It influences the intensity of land preparation. In dry lands, deep
ploughing is necessary to eradicate perennial weeds and to conserve soil moisture.
Repeated shallow tilling is adequate under such intensive cropping.
(v) Cropping system - In involves different crops, which need different types of tillage.
Crop following rice needs repeated preparatory tillage for obtaining an ideal seedbed.
Crops following tuber crops like potato require minimum tillage. Similarly crops
following pulses need lesser tillage than that of following sorghum, maize or sugarcane.
MODERN CONCEPTS OF TILLAGE
In conventional tillage combined primary and secondary tillage operations are performed in
preparing seed bed by using animal or tractor, which cause hard pan in sub soils resulting in poor
infiltration of rain water, thus it is more susceptible to run off and soil erosion. Farmers usually
Lecturer,
prepare fine seed bed by repeated ploughing, when the animal of the farm is having less work.
Research has shown that frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and often detrimental. Repeated use
of heavy machinery destroys structures, causes soil pans and leads to soil erosion. Moreover
energy is often wasted during tillage processes. All these reasons led to the development of modern
concepts namely the practices like minimum tillage, zero tillage, stubble mulch farming and
conservation tillage, etc.
Minimum Tillage
Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good
seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favourable growing conditions. Tillage can be
reduced in two ways by omitting operations, which do not give much benefit when compared to
the cost, and by combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application.
Advantages
• Improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in situ.
• Higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by the
decomposition of dead roots.
• Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure.
• Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles.
• Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage.
Disadvantages
• Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage.
• More nitrogen has to be added as the rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. This point
holds good only in temperate regions. Contrary to this in tropics, minimum tillage recommended
to conserve organic matter in the soil.
• Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans.
• Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment.
• Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial problematic
weeds (weed shift).
Lecturer,
• Minimum tillage can be achieved by the following methods: (a) Row zone tillage - Primary tillage
is done with mould board plough in the entire area of the field, secondary tillage operations like
discing and harrowing are reduced and done only in row zone. (b) Plough-plant tillage - After the
primary tillage a special planter is used for sowing. In one run over the field, the row zone is
pulverized and seeds are sown by the planter. (c) Wheel track planting - Primary ploughing is done
as usual. Tractor is used for sowing, the wheels of the tractor pulverize the row zone in which
planting is done.
Zero Tillage/No Tillage/Chemical Tillage
Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Primary tillage is completely avoided
and secondary tillage is restricted to seedbed preparation in the row zone only. It is also known as
no-tillage and is resorted to places where soils are subjected to wind and water erosion, timing of
tillage operation is too difficult and requirements of energy and labour for tillage are also too high.
Weeds are controlled using herbicides. Hence, it is also referred as chemical tillage. There are two
types of zero tillage. (a) Till Planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and
trash bars clear a strip over the previous crop row and planter–opens a narrow strip into which
seeds are planted and covered. In zero tillage, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing,
the vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum non-selective herbicides with
relatively short residual effect (Paraquat, Glyphosate etc.) are used and subsequently selective and
persistent herbicides are needed (Atrazine, Alachlor etc.). (b) Sod planting or sod culture: Sod
refers to top few centimeters of soil permeated by and held together with grass roots or grass-
legume roots. Planting of seeds in sods without any tillage operation is known as sod culture or
sod seeding. Usually legumes or small grains are mechanically placed directly into a sod.
Advantages
• Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms. These soil
physical properties are apparent after two years of zero tillage.
• The organic matter content increases due to less mineralization. • Surface runoff is reduced due
to the presence of mulch.
Disadvantages
• In temperate countries highest dose of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic
matter in zero tillage.
• Large population of perennial weeds appears in zero tilled plots. • Higher number of volunteer
plants and build up of pests are the other problems.
Stubble Mulch Tillage or Stubble Mulch Farming

Lecturer,
In this tillage, soil is protected at all times either by growing a crop or by leaving the crop
residues on the surface during fallow periods. Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the soil
up to 12 to 15 cm depth in the first operation after harvest and the depth of cut is reduced during
subsequent operations. When unusually large amount of residues are present, a disc type
implement is used for the first operation to incorporate some of the residues into the soil. Two
methods are adopted for sowing crops in stubble mulch farming. • Similar to zero tillage, a wide
sweep and trash-bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow planter-shoe opens a narrow furrow
into which seeds are placed. • A narrow chisel of 5–10 cm width is worked through the soil at a
depth of 15–30 cm leaving all plant residues on the surface. The chisel shatters tillage pans and
surface crusts. Planting is done through residues with special planters. Disadvantages • The
residues left on the surface interfere with seedbed preparation and sowing operations. • The
traditional tillage and sowing implements or equipments are not suitable under these conditions.
Conservation Tillage
Though it is similar to that of stubble mulch tillage, it is done to conserve soil and water
by reducing their losses. Modern tillage methods are practiced in western countries especially in
USA. In Pakistan, it is not suitable due to several reasons. In USA, straw and stubbles are left over
in the field but in Pakistan, it is a valuable fodder for the cattle and fuel for the home. Use of heavy
machinery in Pakistan is limited and therefore, problem of soil compaction is rare. The type of
minimum tillage that can be practiced in Pakistan is to reduce the number of ploughings to the
minimum necessary i.e., unnecessary repeated ploughings/harrowing can be avoided.
Crop NUTRITION
Plants need food for their growth and development. For this purpose they require inorganic raw
materials or mineral elements, which are called plant nutrients or essential elements. Plants can
not complete their life cycle in the absence of essential elements.
CRITERIA OF ESSENTIALITY
A. A deficiency of the element in question results in failure to complete the life cycle.
B. Deficiency of the element in question can be corrected only by supplying that particular
element, and
C. The element must extend its effect directly on growth or metabolism of plant, and not by
indirect effect such as antagonism of another element present at a toxic level.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION

Lecturer,
There are twenty essential plant nutrients. They have different function at various growth stages
of plants. Each element is required in different concentration by plant. Accordingly, they are
classified as (i) macronutrients and (ii) micronutrients
Macronutrients: Plant nutrients that are required in relatively large quantity. They are N,P,K, Ca,
Mg, S. (N,P,K are required comparatively in large amount therefore they are also called primary
macronutrients; while, Ca, Mg and S are required comparatively in small amount and are called
secondary macronutrients).
Macronutrients are requited in concentrations of 1000µg/g (1 mg/g) of plant dry matter or more.
Micronutrients: Plant nutrients which are required in very small quantity. They are Fe, Zn, Mn,
Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Co, Si, Na, and V.
Micronutrients are requited in concentrations equal to or less than 100µg/g (0.1 mg/g) of plant
dry matter or more.
"Deficiency Symptoms" and "Hidden Hunger"
Deficiency symptoms are the visual signs that occur when a plant is experiencing a shortage of
one or more of the nutrients. These signs vary according to crop and the element which is
deficient. For example, an iron deficiency normally manifests itself through a "chlorosis" or
yellowing of a part of the leaf. Deficiency symptoms appear only after the plant is critically short
in a nutrient. By the time these symptoms appear, the crop has already suffered some loss in
yield potential.
"Hidden hunger" is a term used to describe a lack of a nutrient which will affect the final yield. It
occurs when the nutrient supply falls below the critical level and becomes increasingly worse
until finally, deficiency symptoms appear. This is why it is important to monitor the supply of
micronutrients through soil and plant analysis to reduce the incidence of "hidden hunger."
The Chemical Symbol and the Ionic Forms of essential Elements

Symb
Element Form (s) of absorption by plants
ol
Lecturer,
1 Carbon C CO2 from air
2 Hydrogen H H from H2O
3 Oxygen O O2 from air and O2 from H2O
4 Nitrogen N NH4+, NO3− also as organic urea CO( NH2)2 and
Primary nutrients
molecular nitrogen
5 Phosphorus P HPO4 2−, H2PO4 −
Macro nutrients
Potassium
6 K K+
(Kalium)
7 Calcium Ca Ca++
secondary
8 Magnesium Mg Mg++
nutrient
9 Sulphur S SO3 2− and SO42−

10 Iron Fe Fe++, Fe+++
11 Zinc Zn Zn++
12 Manganese Mn Mn++
13 Copper Cu Cu2 ++
Micronutrients
14 Boron B BO33−
15 Molybdenum Mo MoO4 2−
16 Chlorine Cl Cl−
17 Cobalt Co Co2+
18 Silicon Si Si(OH)4
added
New
19 Sodium Na Na2+
20 Vanadium V V+
MANURES, FERTILIZERS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
The term fertilizer refers to any substance which supplies one or more of the mineral elements
essential for plant growth. Generally, the artificially produced concentrated sources of nutrients
are called fertilizers, or commercial fertilizer, and the natural organic source of plant nutrients
are known as manures. Commercial fertilizers unlike manures are less bulky, and easier to
transport, handle and store.
Lecturer,
Fertilizers which contain more than 25% of the major plant nutrients (e.g. urea) are called High
Analysis Fertilizers; while, those which contain less than 25% of the major nutrient are called
Low Analysis Fertilizers(e.g. single super phosphate).
Fertilizers available in Pakistan

COMMON NAME GRADE OR ANALYSIS (%)
N P2O5 K2O
Nitrogenous fertilizer
Urea 46
Ammonium Sulphate 21
Ammonium Nitrate 35
Calcium ammonium nitrate 26
Phosphate fertilizers
Single super phosphate (SSP) 16-18
Triple supper phosphate (TSP) 46
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 46
Monoammonium phosphate (MAP) 11 52
Nitorphos 23 23
Potash fertilizer
Sulphate of potash (SOP) K2SO4 50
Murate of potash (MOP) KCl 60
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 13% 48%
Complex fertilizer
NPK (Engro Zarkhez) 8 23 18
Micro nutrient
Zinc sulphate (21-36 % zinc)
Except micro nutrients, all the fertilizers are available in 50kg bags. So, a bag of
fertilizer will give half amount of the nutrients mentioned above
TYPES OF FERTILIZERS
Commercial fertilizers may contain one or more primary nutrients. Accordingly, they may be
simple or compound.
Lecturer,
Simple or straight fertilizer: which contain only one of the primary macronutrients, N, P, K.
common examples are urea and single super phosphate.
Compound or mixed fertilizers: Fertilizers which contain two or more primary nutrients are
called compound or mixed fertilizers. For example, DAP, Nitrophos.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION METHODS

There are different methods of applying fertilizer depending on the formulation and the crop
needs. These methods are discussed below.
1. BROADCAST: Evenly spreading of dry solid fertilizers over the entire field before or after
sowing the crop is termed as broadcasting. This method proves effective only when the crops
have a dense stand. When the plant roots absorb nutrient from whole volume of soil. Though
this method is easy, less time taking, cheap and more convenient to the farmers yet it is not
advantageous because it encourages weed growth all over the field. Most of the material
remains over the soil surface and does not reach to the root zone for uptake by plants,
2. BAND PLACEMENT: Narrow bands of fertilizer are applied in furrows 2 to 3 inches to the side
of the planting area and 1 to 2 inches deeper than the seeds or plants that are to be planted.
Placement of the fertilizer band too close to the seeds can burn the roots of the seedlings
depending on the fertilizer material banded. When fertilizers are broadcast and worked into
soil, much of the phosphorus is tied up by the soil and is not available to the plant. By
concentrating phosphorus in a band, the plant is given what it needs and less of the
phosphorus becomes tied up in the soil.
3. TOP DRESSING: It is the application of manures and fertilizers to the established or standing
crop. Top dressing may be done to the soil or to the foliage. Split application of nitrogen and
potassium is done throughout the cropping period to increase the fertilizer use efficiency.
SIDE DRESSING: It is type of top dressing. It is application of fertilizer to the standing crop
grown in rows. Fertilizer is applied on both sides of the row 6 to 8 inches from the plants, e.g.
sugarcane, maize.
4. BASAL Application: spreading of fertilizers before sowing or planting of the crops and mixing
them by cultivating the soil during seed bed preparation is termed as basal application
through broadcasting/..
5. FOLIAR FEED: Fertilizers are applied in the form of spray on the plants. The plants absorb
nutrients through leaves within minutes after application. Mostly micronutrients are applied
by this method.
6. FERTIGATION: It is the application of liquid fertilizer/nutrients with irrigation. When the crop
height is more and such that it is not possible to apply fertilizer by above methods, this
method is used. For example, application of urea to standing maize crop at tassling or silking
stage.
Lecturer,
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBER FOR APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS.
1. Maximum efforts should be made to apply the fertilizer close to the plant roots.
2. All the phosphorus should be applied at sowing of crop.
3. All the potassium should be applied at sowing; however, it can be splited into two doses.
4. Nitrogen should always be splitted into two or more doses depending on the crop and
soil.
5. Irrigation should immediately be applied after use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
6. Never applied nitrogen at maturity stage of crop.
7. In sandy soils nitrogen should be applied in more splits. (The coarse textured soil needs
more frequent application of fertilizers when compared to heavy textured soil)
8. In rainfed crops all fertilizer should be applied at sowing of crop.
9. If soil conditions are such that plants are unable to get nutrients from the soil, foliar
application of nutrients should be used.
10. In rice never use urea in hot standing water.
11. In rice nitrate (NO3-2) source of nitrogen e.g. ammonium nitrate should be avoided, as it
is leached down.
12. In rice never use Zn and phosphorus together. There should be gape of at least 20 days
between their uses.
13. Never miss nitrogen at tillering stage of wheat i.e. after 20days of sowing with first
irrigation.
14. Optimum soil moisture regime is essential for efficient use of fertilizers by crops.
15. Under drought and excess moisture condition, foliar spray can be recommended.
16. In high rainfall area, split application of fertilizers and application of slow release
nitrogenous fertilizers are recommended.
17. For rice, the choice of fertilizers is Ammonium Sulphate > Ammonium chloride
>Ammonium sulphate nitrate > Urea > CAN.
ORGANIC MANURES
Organic manures include plant and animal by-products/residues such as animal dung, oil cakes
fish manures and dried blood from slaughter houses. Organic form of nitrogen is not used by the
plants, therefore; organic nitrogen is converted through bacterial action into readily usable
Ammonical N and nitrate N. These manures are therefore, relatively slow acting, but they supply
available N for a longer period.
ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC MANURES

1. Organic manures supply plant nutrients including micronutrients.
2. Organic manures Improve physical properties of the soil, water holding capacity,
hydraulic conductivity, infiltration capacity of the soil.
Lecturer,
3. CO2 released during decomposition combines with water and forms carbonic acid and act
as CO2 fertilizer.
4. Organic manures supply energy (food) for microbes and increase availability of nutrients
and improve soil fertility.
5. Green manures have the additional advantage of fixing atmospheric nitrogen leading to
nitrogen economy in crop production and green manures draw nutrients from lower
layers and concentrate them in the surface soil for the use of succeeding crop.
GREEN MANURING
A. Definition
Crops grown for the purpose of increasing the organic matter content in the soil are called green
manure crops and ploughing under or burying of these crops in the soil is called ‘Green
Manuring’. Legumes (mung, jantar, mash, lentil, Berseem etc.) are ideal for the purpose of green
manuring. These crops fix atmospheric nitrogen in the root nodules through symbiotic
association with a bacterium, (Rhizobium). These crops are grown and are buried in the soil
before initiation of flowering.
Advantages of Green Manuring
As greening manuring is a source of organic matter in the soil, its benefits are same as that of
organic matter (Page.-)
i. Green manuring has a positive influence on the physical and chemical properties of the soil.
ii. Green manure is a storehouse of nutrients in soil.
iii. It improves tilth of the soils and helps to form powdery and granule structure when
cultivated.
iv. It promotes greater proportion of large pore sizes.
v. Improves water holding capacity of the soil.
vi. Improves aeration of soil.
vii. It contributes to cation exchange capacity of soils.
viii. It reduces soil erosion. (ix) It cools the soil. (x) It acts as buffer and helps to maintain soil
pH.
xi Microbial activity in soil is increased.
(xii) It helps to correct soil problems (salinity, sodicity, and water logging etc.)
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT; IRRIGATION METHODS
Irrigation is the artificial scheduling/ application of water to the crop. Irrigation is needed when
the water requirement of a crop exceeds the natural supply i.e. rainfall, soil and water storage).
Lecturer,
IRRIGATION METHODS
Depending on soil type slope source of irrigation water, nature of crop methods differs.
1. Surface methods of irrigation OR gravity method of irrigation
a) Flooding
b) Boarder strip
c) Corrugations
d) Check basin
e) Ridge and furrow
f) Ring or basin
1. Sub- surface methods
2. Pressurized irrigation
a) Drip/trickle irrigation
b) sprinkler irrigation
c) rain gun irrigation
A. SURFACE OR GRAVITY IRRIGATION

It is the common method of irrigation practiced all over the world. In this method, water is
applied directly to the soil surface by providing some checks to the water flow. The water flows
on the surface of soil due to gravity.
Advantages
• Easy to maintain
• Low cost
• Technical skill is not required.
Prerequisite
• Uniform soil
• Smoothness of field surface or leveled surface
• Adequate quantity of water.
Types of Surface OR Gravity Irrigation
I. Border strip method - The field is divided into number of long parallel strips by providing small
parallel earthen bunds along both sides of the strips. Each strip is irrigated independently from
upper end (turned on). Water flow as thin sheet and uniformly spreads along the strips.
Suitability
Soil: Not suited for very sandy soil (high infiltration rate) and very clayey soil (very low
infiltration rate).
Lecturer,
Crop–best suited for closely spaced crops like pulses, wheat, barley, alfalfa, berseem, grasses
etc.
II. Check Basin Method (Beds and Channel)/(Khal Kayari method of irrigation): It is the common
and simple method of irrigation mainly adopted in leveled land surface. The land is divided into
small basins/beds which are surrounded by earthen bunds. The applied water is kept within
the basin and not allowed for runoff.
Suitability
• The correct quantity of water can be applied as there is no run off.
• Leaching of salt is possible.
• It is not suitable for coarse textured soil with high infiltration rate.
• It is best suited for cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds.
III.Ring Basin - This method is mostly adopted for wide spaced orchard crops. The rings are circular
basins formed around the individual trees. The rings are interlinked with main lead channel by
sub channels to get water to the individual rings. By this method wastage of water is minimized.
Main channel sub channel Ring basin

Lecturer,
IV.Furrow method of irrigation - It is the common method adopted for row planted crops like
cotton, maize, sugarcane, potato, and vegetable crops etc. In this method, small evenly spaced
shallow furrows or channels are formed in the field. Water applied in furrows infiltrate slowly
into the soil and spread laterally to wet the area between furrows.
Suitability
• Not suitable for sandy or coarse textured soils.
• The labour requirement to form the furrows is relatively higher than other surface
methods of irrigation.
• No partial submergence or temporary flooding
• Provides good field drainage
• Wets only half to one third of the land surface.
Disadvantages
• Erosion hazards in the steep slopes.

• Concentration of the salt in the ridges
• Poor lateral water spread in sand soils
Furrow irrigation
B. SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION
Water is applied below the ground surface through the network of perforated pipes or
some devices. Perforated or porous pipes are laid underground in the vicinity of the root zone
and water under pressure is distributed through these pipes. The main aim of this type of
irrigation is to reduce the evaporation loss and to maintain an artificial water table near the
root zone of the crop.
Suitability - It is mainly suitable for areas where temperature is too high and evapo-
transpiration water losses are very high. It is also best for areas where surface irrigation is very
difficult.
C. PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION METHODS
Lecturer,
It includes both sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. Water is applied through network of
pipelines by means of pressure devices.
i.SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM–In this method the irrigation water is sprayed to the air and
allowed to fall on the ground surface like rainfall. The sprinkling of water or spray of water is
made by pumping water under pressure through network of pipelines. From these pipelines
water is allowed to eject out by means of small nozzles or holes in the form of rainfall.
ii.Rain gun: Rain gun is a powerful mega sprinkler that throws a large amount of water (up to
500 liters per minute) to a good distance (radius of 90 feet and even more) as artificial rain.
Figure: Rain Gun
Figure: Sprinkler irrigation

Lecturer,
Suitability and Advantages

i. Uniform application efficiency
ii. High application efficiency
iii. It is highly suitable for sandy soil where infiltration rate is high.
iv. For shallow soil where leveling operation is technically not possible.
v. For lands having undulating topography or steep slopes where leveling is economically not
advisable.
vi. Areas where surface flow is low.
vii. It is almost suitable for all crops except crops like rice, which needs stagnation of water.
For cotton during reproductive phase sprinkler irrigation is not advisable.
viii. Application of fertilizer (fertigation), pesticides (pestigation) and herbicides (herbigation)
are possible through irrigation systems which reduce labour cost.
ix. It controls crop canopy temperature.
x. Wastage of land for basin, ridges and furrows and irrigation channels are reduced.
Disadvantages
i. In heavy windy areas the distribution efficiency is reduced due to drifting of water droplets.
ii. If saline water is used, it causes leaf burns besides clogging and corrosion of the pipeline.
iii. Continuous power supply is required to operate the system to maintain pressure.
iv. It is very costly to install and to maintain.
Lecturer,
D. DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Water is applied through network of pipelines and allowed to fall drop by drop at crop root
zone by a special device called emitters or drippers. The root zone is always maintained at
field capacity level (watter).
Lecturer,
Figure: drip irrigation
Advantages
• More infiltration of water into the soil.
• It saves water. There is no seepage, percolation or evaporation losses of water.
• water is used very economically.
• Fertilizer and other agrochemicals can be applied with water.
• Good for water scarcity areas.
• Weed growth is restricted due to limited area of wetting zone.
• Fertilizers (Fertigation: application of fertilizer with irrigation), chemical like pesticides
(chemigation) and herbicide (herbigation) canbe applied
• Suitable for all type of topography.
• It can be used where fast winds blow
• Can be used for widely spaced crops like cotton, sugarcane, tomato, brinjal, and orchard
crops.
Disadvantages
• Clogging in emitters/drippers due to salt content of water and other impurities like moss,
dust etc.
• Water must be very clean (clogging of emitters).
Lecturer,
• Damage of pipe lines by rodents.
• It is not economical for closely spaced crops.
• Proper maintenance and periodical cleaning of drippers and pipelines is required.
• High initial cost
• Requirement of higher design and management and maintenance
Points to be considered when using poor quality water for irrigation
1. Application of greater amounts of organic matter such as FYM, compost etc., to the soil
to improve permeability and structure.
2. Increasing the proportion of calcium, through addition of gypsum (CaSO 4) to the
irrigation water in the channel, by keeping pebbles mixed gypsum bundles in the
irrigation tank.
3. Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportions so that both the
sources of water are effectively used to maximum advantage.
4. Periodical application of organic matter and raising as well as incorporation of green
manure crops in the soil.
5. Irrigation the land with small quantities of water at frequent intervals instead of large
quantity at a time.
6. Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the normally required and
preferably ammonium sulphate for nitrogen, super phosphate and Di Ammonium
Phosphate (DAP) for phosphorus application.
7. Drainage facilities must be improved.
Lecturer,
8. Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet, rice, groundnut, sorghum,
corn, sunflower, chillies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans, amaranthus and
lucerne.
CROP ROTATIONS
Meaning: Crop rotation refers to growing different crops in succession (sequence) on a piece of
land in a specific period of time with an objective to get maximum profit from least investment
without impairing the soil fertility. This system is in contrast with the practice of growing the
same crop year after year on a piece of land.
PRINCIPLES OF CROP ROTATION
1. Crops with top roots should be followed by those, which have fibrous root system.
2. Leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops because legumes fix
atmospheric– N into the soil and add more organic matter to the soil.
3. More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops. For example, potato,
sugarcane, maize, etc need more inputs than oilseeds and pulses.
4. Green manuring and forage crops should be given place in the rotation at regular intervals.
5. Selection of the crops should be demand based. (The crops, which are needed by the people
of the area, can be easily sold at a higher price).
6. Selection of crop should be problem based. For instance: on sloping lands which are prone to
soil erosion, an alternate cropping of erosion-promoting crops e.g., millets and other row
crops and erosion resisting crops, e.g., legumes should be adopted.
7. Under dry land farming or partially irrigated areas, the selection of crops should be such,
which can tolerate the drought spell. Similarly in low lying and flood prone areas the crops
should be such, which can tolerate water stagnation e.g., paddy, jute, etc.
8. Selection of crops should suit the financial condition of the farmers.
9. Crops selected should also suit the soil and climatic conditions.
10. Crops of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act like alternate
hosts for insects/pests and disease pathogens. Apart from this, different types of weeds are
found associated with various crops; therefore, selection of the same type of crops in rotation
encourages weed problems in the field.
An ideal crop rotation is one, which provides maximum employment to the family and farm
labourer. Some common crop rotations followed in various parts of the country are given
below:
Lecturer,
Rotation Duration
Paddy–Wheat 1 Year
Cotton- wheat 1 Year
Maize–wheat 1 Year
Maize–potato 1 Year
Soybean–wheat 1 Year
Maize–potato–sugarcane 2 years
Paddy–sugarcane–wheat 2 years
ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION
1. The major advantages of following proper crop rotation principles are:

2. Agricultural operations can be done timely for all the crops because of less competition.
3. Soil fertility is maintained by legumes through fixing of atmospheric nitrogen encouraging
microbial activity and maintaining physicochemical properties of the soil. The soil is also
protected from erosion, salinity and acidity.
4. An ideal crop rotation helps in controlling insect pests and diseases. It also controls the weeds in
the fields.
Lecturer,

AGRON-302 Principles of Agronomy

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AGRON-302 (PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY) Nabeel Ahmad Ikram

The fundamental principles of agronomy are listed as:

1. Planning for maximum utilization of land, labor, capital, sunshine, rain-water,

1. Carrier of new technology

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUALITY SEED

A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics.

ADVANTAGES OF USING GOOD QUALITY SEEDS

The following are the advantages of using good quality seeds.

TYPES OF GOOD QUALITY SEED

1. Breeder’s Seed OR Nucleus Seed

LABELING OF SEED PACKING

• Pre-Basic (White with diagonal violet line)

Difference lies primarily in the intended end use

Differences between seed and grain

Sr. No. Seed Grain

Difference between seed and grain production

Sr. No. Seed production Grain production

Seed production, multiplication, certification and

1. National Seed Council (NSC) at Federal Level.

3. Federal Seed Certification Department (FSCD).

4. National Seed Registration Department (NSRD).

SEED PRODUCTION AGENCIES

Public sector seed agencies

1. Punjab Seed Corporation (PSC), Lahore.

2. Sindh Seed Corporation (SSC), Hyderabad.

3. KPK Agricultural Development Authority (ADA), Peshawar.

4. Balochistan Department of Agriculture (BDA), Quetta.

Private seed sector

QUALITY CONTROL AGENCY

NATIONAL SEED COUNCIL (NSC)

The functions of the National Seed Council interalia shall be:

FEDERAL SEED REGISTRATION COMMITTEE (FSRC)

DISTINCTNESS, UNIFORMITY AND STABILITY (DUS) REQUIRMENTS In addition to

REGISTRATION OF NEW CROP VARIETIES As soon as a variety completes its evaluation

APPROVAL AND RELEASE OF CROP VARIETIES At provincial level, the registered

VARIETY EVALUATION COMMITTEE (VEC)

PLANT VARIETY REGISTRATION SYSTEM

Variety development and testing

Variety registration and release

SEED CERTIFICATION SYSTEM

1. Pre-basic seed. 2. Basic Seed. 3. Certified seed. 4. Approved seed

Submission of application for sampling

Requirement for seed lots to be sampled

Issuing of seed analysis certificate and temporary labels

Re-testing of seed lots

• Tillage operations are cause of hard pan formation.

There are three types of tillage:

2. OFF SEASON TILLAGE

A. PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

2. Improved iron plough

is usually used for hard, sticky clay soils which are

7. Chisel plough and subsoiler

Disc harrow - These harrows are made up of number of

LAND SHAPING IMPLEMENTS

SOWING IMPLEMENTS Disc Harrow

FACTORS AFFECTING (INTENSITY AND DEPTH OF) THE TILLAGE OPERATIONS

MODERN CONCEPTS OF TILLAGE

• Improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in situ.

• Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure.

• Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles.

• Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage.

• Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage.