NEW Oxford

Secondary
SCIENCE
Terry Jennings

7
GRADE
 CHAPTER

01 Plant systems
Like animals, plants also require a system to transport materials from one part of the
plant body to the other part. For photosynthesis, green plants need water and carbon
dioxide from air and mineral salts from the soil. They also need to get rid of the waste
oxygen produced during photosynthesis. Similarly, all parts of the plant require food
produced inside the leaves.
In some cases, no special transport system is required. For example, carbon dioxide
simply comes into the leaf by diffusion through stomata and air spaces. Oxygen gets out
of the leaves in the same way. However, as plants obtain water from the soil, it has to
travel all the way up from roots and stem to reach the leaves. Meanwhile, sugar which is
made in the leaves has to be transported to the roots.

Plant is mainly divided into two systems

Root system
This system consists of the parts of a plant
that grows below the ground and towards
the gravity.
• This system supports the plant
• It helps in absorbing minerals and water
and passes it to the stem.
leaf flower
• Some roots store food like carrots,
turnips

Shoot system
This system grows above the ground stem
against the gravity. this system consists of
stem, branches, leaves and fruits etc.
• Shoots support the plant. roots

• It supplies water and food.

• Some shoots store food like sugarcane

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Chapter 1, Plant systems

Transport system in plants

Plants have two separate transport systems for transporting (i) water and minerals, and (ii)
food produced by photosynthesis. They are together known as the vascular bundles and are
composed of two separate groups of tiny tubes called xylem and phloem. They can only be
seen with a microscope and run the full length of the plant in form of vascular bundles.
xylem phloem
one way
flow two way flow

end walls with

no end perforation
walls

water and
minerals food and water

Xylem
• Xylem carries water and dissolved minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant.
• Xylem consists of long, empty, dead cells, which form long tubes called vessels.
• The process of water movement through a plant is called Transpiration.
Phloem
• Phloem carries dissolved food in the form of glucose from the leaves to every part
of the plant
• Phloem consists of living cells.
• These cells are separated by tiny holes like a sieve. These cross walls are called sieve
plates, while the tubes are called sieve tubes.
• The movement of materials from leaves to other tissues throughout the plant is called
Translocation.

Tissue Name of process Substances moved Structure

Water and mineral salts move Columns of hollow, dead,

Xylem Transpiration
from the roots to the leaves reinforced cells

Moves food substances from the

Phloem Translocation Columns of living cells
leaves to the rest of the plant

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
open stomata
Xylem and phloem do not
transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide. These gases move
into and out of the plant CO2
through stomata by the
H2O
process of diffusion. Stomata
on the underside of leaves
allow carbon dioxide to enter.
O2
In the woody stems of trees closed stomata
and shrubs, the gases pass
through small openings in the
bark called lenticels.

Structure of a plant stem

Xylem and phloem cells are arranged in veins, or vascular bundles, in the stem and leaves.
In a young stem, the vascular bundles are arranged in a circular pattern, just beneath the
outer layer of cells. The vascular
bundles contain many strong
fibres which strengthen the stem Concept check
and enable it to withstand being
bent by strong winds. Xylem Correct the following diagram.
vessels themselves also have xylem phloem
reinforced cell walls and these one way
help to support the weight of the flow two way
plant. flow

end walls
Structure of a plant root with
no end
Plant roots have to be able to walls perforation
resist the pulling or stretching
force, when the stem above is
blown about by the wind. In the
root, the xylem and phloem of the water and
minerals food and
vascular bundle are in the centre, water
so as to resist these forces.

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Chapter 1, Plant systems

Internal stem structure

phloem
pith
xylem epidermis

cortex
cambium

Internal root structure

primary xylem primary phloem
vascular cambium

pericycle endodermis

epidermis root hair

cortex

Water enters the plant

Roots have a large surface area due to their long, thin shape. At the very tip of a root are
several layers of cells which form the root cap. These cells are replaced as fast as they
are worn away as the root tip pushes its way through the soil. Just behind the root cap are
thousands of tiny root hairs.

carbon dioxide

minerals

water

Key: blue arrow: water red arrow: minerals black arrow: carbon dioxide

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
Root hairs further increase the surface
area of the roots, so that water and
mineral salts can be absorbed more Do you know?
easily. In the soil, the root hairs grow
between the soil particles. The root hairs A membrane, which let some molecules
take up water from the soil through the through, but not others, is called a semi-
cell membrane and into the cell sap by permeable membrane.
osmosis.
Osmosis is a type of diffusion in which
water molecules move from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane in order to balance the
concentrations across the membrane.

Active transport.
Osmosis takes
place through a
semi-permeable
inside membrane
plant

The water in the soil is, in fact, a very weak

solution of mineral salts. Inside each of the root
hair cells, there is a concentrated solution of
sugars, mineral salts, and other substances.
root hair soil root minerals move into The cell membrane lets the water molecules
cell particle hair the root hair by pass through, however, the larger molecules of
active transport mineral salts are unable to pass through.
When required by the plant, mineral salts are able to enter the roots by the process known
as active transport. The cell use energy (from respiration) to move mineral salts from the
soil (where they are in low concentration) across the cell membrane.

Do you know?
Many tropical orchids grow on the trunks and branches of trees. They have aerial roots which
absorb water from the moist air around them.

Photosynthesis
Plants take in carbon dioxide gas from the air, and water from the soil. Inside their leaves,
they use the energy of sunlight to turn these into food such as the sugar glucose. This
equation summarises what happens during photosynthesis.

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Chapter 1, Plant systems

In order for the process of

photosynthesis to occur, the
chloroplasts need to collect
three vital ingredients, i.e. sunlight
sunlight, air, and water.
CO2
When all three raw materials glucose
are in place, a chemical O2
Sunlight shines
reaction takes place inside on the leaf,
the chloroplasts. Energy and the green
chlorophyll inside
from the sunlight is used the chloroplasts
to combine carbon dioxide absorbs it.
from the air with hydrogen,
which is one of the parts of
water. This makes a new
chemical, called glucose
which is a kind of sugar. The
glucose is carried to all parts Air, containing carbon
of the plant where some of it dioxide gas, enters the
leaf through tiny holes,
is used to produce energy. called stomata in the
leaf surface.

Do you know?
The temperature, the availability or
shortage of light, water, carbon dioxide,
and minerals, all play a role in the rate Most plants take
of photosynthesis in chloroplasts. up water through
their roots and
carry it along
special tubes in
the stem to their
leaves.

H2O

Some of the glucose is changed into starch and stored in different parts of plant, some
is combined with dissolved mineral salts from the soil to manufacture all of the other
substances that make up body of the plant.
During photosynthesis, plants produce oxygen as a by product. They use some of this
oxygen, but the rest comes out of the leaves through the stomata.

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

Concept check
1. Name the process by which plants make their food.
2. Glucose is made from carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and oxygen. Explain where plants get the
carbon dioxide from to make glucose.
3. What is the name of the structures that are responsible for trapping the energy from sunlight?
4. Explain why these structures are mainly found in the upper layers of the leaf.

Plant leaves are adapted for photosynthesis

Plant leaves are well suited, or adapted, to their work of photosynthesis:
• Their broad, flat shape offers a large surface area where sunlight and carbon dioxide can be
absorbed.
• Most leaves are quite thin and the carbon dioxide has only a short distance to travel to reach the
inner cells. The large spaces between the cells inside the leaf also make it easy for the carbon
dioxide to get to the chloroplasts.
• There are many stomata in the lower surface of the leaf, and these allow carbon dioxide to enter
the leaf and oxygen to leave it.
• There are most chloroplasts in the upper cells of the leaf, the palisade cells, where they receive
the most sunlight.
• The branching network of veins in the leaf supplies water to the cells where photosynthesis is
occurs.
Layer of wax
(waterproofs leaf)
Upper skin of leaf
(epidermis)
a piece of leaf leaf vein
(magnified) Cells which
carry out
photosynthesis
Tubes which carry
water and food in
and out of the leaf;
chloroplasts (contain
chlorophyll)

pore open pore closed

open closed
stoma stoma

guard cell chloroplast

• a stoma in close-up

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Chapter 1, Plant systems

Respiration
Animals and plants need energy to stay alive, to grow, reproduce, and move. They obtain
energy from their food by a chemical process called respiration. It is rather like burning, but
without the heat and flames. Food gets combined with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide,
water, and energy.

food + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

During respiration, extra carbon dioxide and water produced by plants come out from the
stomata in its leaves.

Gases in balance
Plants respire all the time, and like animals, plants also require a steady supply of oxygen.
In sunlight, plants make oxygen by photosynthesis. They make more than they need for
respiration, and so the spare oxygen goes into the atmosphere. At night, photosynthesis
stops, but the process of respiration continues. However, plants use less oxygen during the
night than they give out during the day.
Overall, plants take in carbon dioxide and give out surplus oxygen, while animals take in
oxygen and give out surplus carbon dioxide. Between them, they keep the gases in the
atmosphere in balance.

Photosynthesis Respiration
• Takes place in • Takes place inside
chloroplast • Produces mitochondria
• Produces energy • Results in
carbohydrates • Exchange breakdown of
of gases carbohydrates
• Occurs only in
the presence occur inside • Takes place all the
of sunlight living cellular time
organelles • Oxygen is used up
• Oxygen is
released while • Occurs in whereas carbon
carbon dioxide is cycles dioxide is released
used up • Takes place in all
• Occurs in only living cells
plants

Discuss and answer

A scientist carried out some measurements on a leaf. She found that the leaf was giving
out carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen. Does this prove that the leaf was not carrying out
photosynthesis? Explain your answer.

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

Transpiration
The main force which draws water up the plant is caused by a process called transpiration.
Water evaporates from the leaves and diffuses out of the tiny pores, the stomata, on the
undersides of the leaves. As the water is evaporated, more sap is drawn out of the xylem to
replace it. Since the xylem cells form a series of continuous tubes, there is a flow of water
and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the leaves. This flow is called the transpiration
stream.
Leaf cells have a layer of Stomata take in CO2 for
moisture to aid diffusion of photosynthesis. When stomata
carbon dioxide into the cells. are open, water evaporates
from the spongy mesophyll.
Water
evaporates
into internal
air spaces
from surfaces
of leaf cells.

Water diffuses through stomata in the leaves.

Water moves from xylem to enter leaf tissues
potential gradient.
Water moves up the stem in the xylem as a Water uptake occurs by
column of water due to the tension caused by osmosis from the soil solution
water loss from the leaves and the cohesion (high water potential) into the
between the water molecules. root cells.
Flooding of soil with salt water lowers the
water potential of the s oil solution and transpiration process from the leaves.
prevents osmosis – no water uptake by roots.

Concept check
A leafy plant shoot, plus the beaker of water in which it was placed, weighed 305 grams. Two
hours later, it weighed 280 grams. An identical beaker of water, without a plant, lost 4 grams
over the same length of time.
• What was the rate of transpiration of the plant per hour?
• Is it faster or slower than the rate of water evaporation from the second beaker? Can you
explain why?
Hint: think about the surface area of leaves!

19
Chapter 1, Plant systems
The speed of transpiration varies with the condition of the plant and its surroundings. When
water is in short supply, or if the roots of the plants are damaged, the plant slows down the
rate of transpiration by wilting. However, there are other factors which can affect the rate of
transpiration.

Factor What happens Why it happens

The stomata open wider to allow more carbon

Transpiration increases
Light intensity dioxide into the leaf for photosynthesis. The stomata
in bright light.
usually close at night.
Transpiration is faster Evaporation and diffusion are faster at higher
Temperature
in higher temperatures. temperatures.
Air movement removes water vapour quickly,
Transpiration is faster
Wind speeding up the diffusion of more water vapour out of
when it is windy.
the leaf.
Evaporation and diffusion of water vapour out of the
Transpiration is slower leaf slows down if the leaf is already surrounded by
Humidity when the humidity is moist air. In dry air, the diffusion of water vapour from
higher. the leaf to the atmosphere will be rapid. However, the
stomata may close to prevent too much water loss.
The greater the number More leaves means a bigger surface area and more
Number of
of leaves the faster the stomata for gaseous exchange. This will result in
leaves
Transpiration. greater water loss.
A leaf with a bigger surface area will transpire faster
Size of the leaf Transpiration is faster
than a leaf with a smaller surface area.

Importance of transpiration

Uptake of
nutrients

Evaporative Water balance

cooling in plants

Importance of
transpiration
Do you know?
Ecosystem Water source
management and usage As much as 379 litres of water
management pass up the trunk and out of the
leaves of an average-sized oak
Plant survival tree every day, more when it is hot
due to heat and and sunny or hot and windy.
drought stress

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

The transport of food xylem

vessel
phloem sieve
tube element companion cell
The food made in the leaves by chloroplast
photosynthesis is carried away in the
sieve tubes of the phloem. The transport SOURCE
of food and mineral salts in plants e.g.,
is sometimes called translocation. photosynthesing
Foods, mainly in the form of sugars, are cell
sucrose
transported along phloem cells in the
leaves, stems, and roots to where they
are needed. sucrose made
in cytoplasm

companion cell
water
vacuole

Discuss and answer

SINK
In the summer, why is it better to water e.g.,
potted plants during the evening than respiring
during the day? cell
water
nucleus
starch grain

Concept check
Unscramble the letters to find the correct term:
i. A type of diffusion which occurs through a semi-permeable membrane (ssmoois)
ii. Loss of excess of water from the leaves is called (atontrsrianpi)
A process by which food substances move from the leaves to the rest
iii. (iotrocanstnal)
of the plant

Nutrients for plants

Plants grow better when they get nutrients important for their growth. This is similar as we
need balanced diet. Plants need two types of nutrients:

Micro nutrients
Seven essential plant nutrient elements are called micro nutrients. These include [boron (B),
zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl)].

21
 Chapter 1, Plant systems
Macro nutrients:
Nutrients needed in major quantity for the plants’ growth are called Macro nutrients. These
include:
Nitrogen (N) Potassium (K) Phosphorous (P) Magnesium (MG)

Nitrogen is Important Potassium is Phosphorous is Magnesium is

to make protein, important for needed for root helps to make
which is required for growth of flower growth. chlorophyll.
growth of plant. and fruit.

Concept map

Plants
t
s
require minerals Transport
to maintain
healthy growth in plants

root system shoot system respiration vascular

leaf processes
flower
bundles
occurs through

transpiration translocation
photosynthesis
takes
at cellular place in transpiration
level translocation roots
xylem stem leaves
phloem
leaves

• water and minerals

are moved from
stem • moves food from
the leaves to the
roots to leaves rest of the plant

• diffusion • through xylem • through phloem • roots • lenticels • stomata

22 (from high to vessels vessels hairs
low • water and • moves food
roots conectration) mineral salts substances
 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer.

i. Sap rises in a plant because of:
a) root pressure b) transpiration pull
c) diffusion d) osmosis
ii. Mineral salts are absorbed into cells by:
a) osmosis b) diffusion
c) active transport d) air pressure
iii. Food is transported in the phloem as:
a) glucose b) sucrose
c) fats d) amino acids
iv. The movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration is called:
a) osmosis b) diffusion
c) active transport d) sap flow

2. Fill in the blanks.

i. Roots absorb water through .
ii. Transpiration from a plant takes place through the .
iii. On surface of leaves more stomata are present.
iv. The plant tissue which moves foods from the leaves to the growing points and storage
places is called: .

3. Label the diagram:

i. Use two different colours to show movement of water and
food through a plant body.
ii. What is the role of B? A

iii. Mark the organ where transpiration is taking place?

4. Short answer questions

i. What are the names of the two sets of tubes which make
up the transport system of a plant?
ii. Where would you find the two sets of transport tubes in a B
leaf?
iii. What is photosynthesis?
iv. What is the name of the process by which water enters
the root hairs?

5. Long answer questions

i. Why do larger, multi-cellular plants need a transport system?
ii. Which set of tubes carries water and dissolved mineral salts in plants? Describe how it
does it.

23
Chapter 1, Plant systems
iii. Which set of vessels carries food? Describe how it does it.
iv. What is a transpiration stream?
v. List down the differences between respiration and photosynthesis.
vi. What kinds of climate and weather conditions do you think will produce a high rate of
transpiration? Explain your answer.
vii. Why do you think the rate of transpiration is greatly reduced at night?
viii. Explain translocation with the help of a diagram.

6. Think about it
Compare the following leaves:
i. Which leaf do you think will lose
most water? Give reason
ii. Which leaf do you think will lose
least water? Give reason

Activities
A B C

1. Divide learners into groups and ask each group to draw diagrams of xylem and phloem and
give detail each step of the transport process alongside the diagrams.
2. Using a paper cup, a toilet paper tube, a set of thin white straws and a set of thick, colored
straws, arrange a model of the inside of a plant. The paper cup can represent the outer bark of
the plant. Within the paper cup, arrange the toilet paper tube so that it is in the center. Outside
the toilet paper tube, arrange the thick, colored straws to represent phloem, and the thin white
straws to represent xylem.

Projects

1. Devise an experiment to compare the effects of two different chemical fertilizers on a species of
flowering plant. What equipment and materials would you use?
What measurements would you make? How would you make sure that your comparison was
fair?
2. Soak some celery leaves in coloured water. Notice the colour of the veins stained by ink to get
the idea about the transport system in plants. Repeat the experiment with some other leaves.
Dry the leaves and paste them in the lab book.

24
 CHAPTER

04 Structure of an Atom
Everything around you is made up
of tiny particles called atoms. Do you know?
The body of an adult human is made up of
This book, the room you are in, the
about
trees outside, the Sun, the stars, and
7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
the Moon are all made of atoms. Even (7 octillion) atoms.
your body is made of atoms, mainly
atoms of the elements carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen.
Your school bag may be made of a plastic called polyester. Polyester is made up of the
elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Wood, a completely different material, is also
made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. But in wood the atoms of these elements are
put together in a different way to give a totally new material with a completely different
appearance and properties.

Structure of an atom
Although the word atom means ‘indivisible’, we now know that an atom is, in fact, made up
of even smaller particles. If we could pull an atom apart, we would see that it is made up
of three particles. These are called protons, neutrons, and electrons. Different atoms are
made up of different numbers of these three particles.
Every atom contains a nucleus, usually made up of protons and neutrons. Electrons move
rapidly around the nucleus.
Protons and neutrons are about the same mass, but electrons are much lighter. Protons and
electrons both carry a tiny electrical charge, with the proton having a positive (+) charge and
the electron has an equal, but negative charge (–). Neutrons are neutral and carry no charge
at all.
An atom that has equal numbers of protons and electrons is electrically neutral.
Particle in atom Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 Positive charge (1+)

Neutron 1 None

Electron 1 of proton Negative charge (1–)

1837

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Chapter 4, Structure of an Atom
Look at the atom of sodium. It has 11 protons and 12 neutrons in the nucleus. There are 11
electrons orbiting around the nucleus. Sodium atom is electrically neutral as it possess 11
protons (+ve charges) and 11 electrons(-ve charges).

The charge on a sodium atom:

11 protons

Each has a charge of 1+

Total charge 11 +

11 electrons

Each has a charge of 1 –

Total charge 11-

Adding the charges: 11+

11-

The answer is zero.

The electrons circle very
fast around the nucleus, The atom has no overall charge.
at different energy levels
from it; these energy
levels are called shells.
Concept check
The protons and neutrons
cluster together in the centre, 1  Name the particles that make
forming the nucleus; this is up the atom.
the heavy part of the atom.
2 Which particle has:
a. a positive charge?
Nucleus and shells in an atom. b. no charge?
c. a negative charge?

Different types of atoms

There are different types of atoms. Like oxygen is different from nitrogen because different
atoms are made up of different numbers of sub atomic particles.

Periodic table
Scientists have arranged elements in a table to make their study possible. This table is
called the modern Periodic Table. The Periodic table is a way of classifying the elements.

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
The number of protons define the identity of an element. Elements are arranged in order
of increasing their atomic number. When arranged by atomic number, the elements show
periodicity. Periodicity is the periodic repetition of the similar properties of the elements at
regular intervals.
Elements are arranged according to their similarities. Elements having similar properties are
lined up with the elements in the same group. For instance all the elements of one group will
have similar chemical properties and will show similar chemical reactions.

Atomic number Neon atom

Atoms differ from one another because they are made up of

different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The smallest atom of all is that of the gas hydrogen. This
has only one proton and one electron. The largest naturally 10 n
occurring atom that we know about is uranium. This has 92 10 p
protons and 92 electrons.
The number of protons is called the atomic number and each
element has a different atomic number.

Concept check
Look at the numbers of protons and electrons of the given elements. Decide whether they are
neutral or not.

Elements Electrons Protons Neutral or not

Helium 2 2
Nitrogen 10 7
Calcium 18 20`
Fluorine 9 9

Mass number
Mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Mass number
of carbon is 12 as it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Mass number = number of protons+
number of neutrons = 6 + 6 = 12.
Symbolically it can be represented as 126 C

Difference between atomic number and mass number

The atomic number and mass number are associated with an element but both are different.
The atomic number is the identity of an element and used to arrange elements in the
periodic table, while the number used to show the mass of an atom is the mass number.

57
Chapter 4, Structure of an Atom
Atomic number Mass number

is number of is the sum of number

of protons and
proton in an atom
neutrons in an atom Discuss and answer
always has related
smaller value than to always has larger value What are the atomic numbers and
atoms than atomic number
mass number mass numbers of the following:
12C 16O 24Mg 27Al
is not affected by is affected by  6  8 12 13
number of neutrons number of neutrons

How to find mass number and atomic number

Protons and neutrons form the nucleus.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Atomic number = mass number – number of neutrons
The mass number for the sodium atom is 23. 11 protons + 12 neutrons = 23
So sodium can be described in a short way like this:

23Na
11

The lower number is always the proton number. The upper number is the mass number. So
you can tell straight away that sodium atoms have 12 neutrons. (23 – 11 = 12)
Oxygen has 8 protons, 8 electrons and 8 neutrons. Oxygen can be described in a short way
like this:

16O
 8

Mass number = neutrons + protons = 8 + 8 = 16

The arrangement of electrons in shells of elements

Electrons are not solid balls, but bundles of energy that move almost as fast as light. The
electrons revolve around the nucleus of the atom in different layers called shells or energy
levels. These shells are arranged around the nucleus of the atom.
When we draw an atom, we show these energy levels or shells as circles around the nucleus.
The nearer a circle is to the nucleus, the lower the energy level:
• The lowest energy shell, the one nearest the nucleus, is called the K shell. It can hold either
one or two electrons.
• The second shell, with the second energy level, is called the L shell. It can hold up to eight
electrons.

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
• The third energy level, the M shell, can also hold a maximum of eighteen electrons.
Filling electron levels
In an atom, the electrons fill the energy levels starting from the lowest energy level (K). When
this is full with two electrons, the next electron goes into the L shell. When the L shell is full
with eight electrons, then the electrons begin to fill the M energy level. E.g. if an atom has a
maximum numbers of electrons then distribution of electrons in shells will be as follows:

The first shell can hold only 2 electrons. It fills first.

The second shell can hold 8 electrons. It fills next.

nucleus
The third shell can hold 18 electrons but it will fill
up to only 8.

Chlorine atom
A slightly more complicated example is that of the chlorine
atom. It has an atomic number of 17 and an atomic mass of 35.
Thus, each chlorine atom consist of 17 electrons.17 protons
and 18 neutrons.
In the chlorine there are two electrons in the K energy shell, 18n
eight electrons in the L shell, and the remaining 7 electron is 17p
in the outer M shell.
The arrangement of electrons in chlorine atom is shown below:
KLM
287 the structure of chlorine atom
Sodium atom

The atomic number of sodium is 11 and atomic mass is 23.

In the sodium atom there are two electrons in the K energy
shell, eight electrons in the L shell, and the remaining one
12n electron is in the outer M shell.
11p The arrangement of electrons in the sodium atom is:
KLM
281

the structure of sodium atom

59
Chapter 4, Structure of an Atom
The table shows how electrons are arranged in the first 20 elements of Periodic Table.
Number First Second Third
Atomic shell shell shell Fourth no of
Element Symbol of
number shell shell
electrons (K) (L) (M)

hydrogen H 1 1 1

helium He 2 2 2

lithium Li 3 3 2 1

beryllium Be 4 4 2 2

boron B 5 5 2 3

carbon C 6 6 2 4

nitrogen N 7 7 2 5

oxygen O 8 8 2 6

fluorine F 9 9 2 7

neon Ne 10 10 2 8

sodium Na 11 11 2 8 1

magnesium Mg 12 12 2 8 2

aluminium Al 13 13 2 8 3

silicon Si 14 14 2 8 4

phosphorus P 15 15 2 8 5

sulphur S 16 16 2 8 6

chlorine Cl 17 17 2 8 7

argon Ar 18 18 2 8 8

potassium K 19 19 2 8 8 1

calcium Ca 20 20 2 8 8 2

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

Concept check
24
Mg
Look at the key of element magnesium.
a Write down the distribution of electrons in the shells for magnesium.
b What is the mass number of magnesium?
c What is the atomic number of magnesium? 12

Recognize periods and groups in the Periodic Table

The periodic table has rows and columns. The vertical columns are called groups while the
horizontal rows in the periodic table are periods.
Groups
• The periodic table has vertical columns (top to bottom) called group.
• The elements with similar properties are arranged in the same group.
• The groups in the periodic table are numbered I to VIII.
• The group number is the same as the number of outer-shell electrons in the atoms. In
Group I, the atoms have one electron in the outermost shell, in Group II they have two,
and so on.
Periods
• The periodic table has horizontal rows called periods.
• Periods are numbered 1 to 7.
• All of the elements in a period have the same number of electronic shells.
• The period number tells you the number of occupied electron shells in the atoms. So in
the elements of Period 2, two shells are occupied. In Period 3, three shells are occupied,
and so on.
• Each period begins with an element that has 1 electron in the outermost shell.
• A period ends with an element that has 8 electrons in the outermost shells, except 1st
period.
The elements in a periodic table are arranged in a way, as you read across each period
mass of the atom is increased. Mass of hydrogen is less than the mass of Helium atom.
Elements can be identified in groups and periods.
Lithium belongs to group number I and period number 2.
Magnesium belongs to group number II and period number 3.

Discuss and answer

a. Give the symbols of three elements in the same group as magnesium.
b. Give the symbols of three elements in the same period as lithium.

61
62
Periodic Table of the Elements
1 18
1A 8A
1 2
1 H He
Hydrogen 2 13 14 15 16 17 Helium
1.01 2A Key 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 Atomic number
2 Li Be Na Element symbol
B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.94 9.01 Sodium Element name 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
22.99
11 12 Average mass number* 13 14 15 16 17 18
Chapter 4, Structure of an Atom

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B 26.98 28.0 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 271 272 285 286 289 289 293 294 294
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flevorium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (110) (111) (112) (113) (114) (115) (116) (117) (118)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
* If this number is in parentheses, then 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
it refers to the atomic mass of the
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
most stable isotope.
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

Concept map

Atom

physical structure

nucleus shells

neutrons protons electrons

the number of
number of protons
protons is called
and neutrons
atomic number
together form mass
number

63
Chapter 4, Structure of an Atom

Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer.

i. The Periodic Table is a way of:
a) classifying the matter b) classifying the animals
c) classifying the plants d) classifying the elements
ii. The group number is the same as the number of outer-shell
a) atoms b) electrons
c) protons d). neutrons
iii. The number of electrons in the outer most shell of all the atoms of Group 2 elements are:
a) 2 b) 4
c) 6 d) 8
iv. The number of elements present in period II is:
a) 2 b) 4
c) 6 d) 8
v. All of the elements in a ______________ have the same number electron shells.
a) group b) period
c) periodic table d) group and period

2. Fill in the blanks.

i. Element has the symbol Ca.
ii. and particles are found in the nucleus of an atom.
iii. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as its .
iv. are found in shells around the nucleus of an atom.
v. The electrons are found in ____________ around the nucleus of an atom.

3. The diagram below shows the structure of a sodium atom.

i. Atoms contain electrons.
a) How many electrons are there in this sodium atom?
b) What is the electrical charge on an electron?
c) What is the name given to the different
electron
energy levels of the electrons around the
nucleus?
ii. The nucleus of the atom contains two types of
particles.
a) What are the names of these two types of
particles?
b) What is the electrical charge on the nucleus nucleus
of the atom?

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
4. Look at the following table that describes some particles:

Particle Electrons Protons Neutrons

A 12 12 12

B 12 12 14

C 10 12 12

D 10 8 8

E 9 9 9

a) Which three particles are neutral atoms?

b) What is the atomic number of each particle?
c) What is the mass number of each particle?
d) Use the periodic table to identify A to E.
e) Identify neutral and charged particles.

5. Short answer questions

i. What is an element?
ii. What is mass number?
iii. Give the electron distribution for the atom with atomic number 12 ?
iv. List the names of the group II elements.
v. How many groups and periods are in the periodic table?

6. Long answer questions

i. Explain the difference between atomic number and mass number.
ii. Atom is a neutral particle. Explain with an example.
iii. How are elements arranged in the periodic table?
iv. Why do elements have different group and period numbers?
v. Why potassium and sodium have different period number but same group number?

7. Think about it
Complete the following table:

Atomic
Symbol Group Period Mass number
number

aluminium

boron

phosphorus

sulfur

65
Chapter 4, Structure of an Atom

Activities

1. Find the sources of different elements and make a chart.

2. Refer to the table showing how electrons are arranged in the atoms of twenty common
elements. Use that information to draw diagrams showing the atomic structure of each of the
twenty elements.
3. Structure of an atom can be explained by using 3-D models of atomic structure of any atom
followed by learners making the 3-D models of different atoms in groups.
4. Draw the atomic structure of your own choice by dragging the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons. You keep on dragging the protons and neutrons into the nucleus and it automatically
gives you the symbol of the element.
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-an-atom/latest/build-an-atom_en.html
5. Activity/ lab sheets can be given to learners to fill up the shells of the atom after predicting the
number of electrons from given atomic numbers followed by peer assessment and discussion.

Projects

1. For one week, collect as many newspaper and magazine articles as you can which contain
information about nuclear energy or radioactivity. How many of the articles were about the
negative effects of nuclear energy and radioactivity? How many articles were about the positive
effects? What sort of things do people worry about when thinking of nuclear energy and
radioactivity? Ask friends and family.
2. Collect at least packaging of ten different medicines and find the names of different chemical
compounds in them.
3. A scrapbook can be made by learners, about five different atoms (writing information about
atomic number, protons, neutrons, electrons, charges, atomic masses etc.)
4. Learners can be asked to research some factual information on a particular atom and make its
biography.

66
 CHAPTER

06 Chemical bonds

In this picture of the firework oxygen reacts

with the other elements and different colours
are formed. This is a chemical reaction.
Chemical reaction is a process when two
or more reactants are converted into a new
compound. This takes place because new
bonds are formed between the atoms of the
reactants due to the rearrangements.
There are enormous types of new materials
which are formed due to the different
combination of elements in the periodic table.
Many people put salt in food for flavour. Salt
has sodium and chlorine bond together to
make a compound that is sodium chloride.

Valency
Valency is the combining capacity of an element to form a compound. It is the number of
electrons in the valence shell of an atoms that are lost, gained or shared, to become stable.
Group
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 2
H He
Key: hydrogen helium
1 4

3 4
atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li
lithium
Be
beryllium Symbol B
boron
C
carbon
N
nitrogen
O
oxygen
F
fluorine
Ne
neon
7 9 name 11 12 14 16 19 20

11 12 mass number 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39 40 45 48 51 55 56 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids
lanthanoids
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
113 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 210 210 222

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra actinoids
actinoids
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium nihonium flerovium moscovium livermorium tennessine oganesson
223 226

This line divides the metals from the non-metals

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 69 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
139 140 141 144 147 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
227 232 231 238 237 242 243 247 247 251 254 253 256 254 257

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
The group number in the periodic table is the valence number of the elements of that group.
It shows the number of electrons in the valence shell ( outer most shell) in an atom.
Elements of group I have valence number 1 means they have 1 electron in their valence
shell. Similarly, elements of group II have valence number 2 means they have 2 electrons
in their valence shell. Elements in Group 0 have 2 electrons (such as Helium) in the valence
shell or 8 electrons like Neon and Argon. The elements of group 0 have stable valence shells
therefore this group is also known as 0 group.

Valence number of different groups

GROUP NUMBER VALENCY ELECTRONS

I 1+ Lose one electron

II 2+ Lose two electrons

III 3+ Lose three electrons

IV 4 Share 4 electrons

V 3- Gain or share 3 electrons

VI 2- Gain or share 2 electrons

VII 1- Gain or share 1 electrons

VIII 0 Unreactive

Hydrogen atom: Helium atom:

1 electron 2 electrons
H He
Shell is incomplete Shell is complete
Unstable atom Stable atom

Neon atom: Sodium atom:

8 electrons 11 electrons
Ne Na
Shell is complete Shell is incomplete
Stable atom Unstable atom

Atoms react and make bonds with each other in order to gain a stable arrangement of
valence electrons, like the atoms of Group VIII A. Atoms lose, gain or share electrons to
become stable.

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Chapter 6, Chemical bonds

Discuss and answer

Look at the periodic table and answer:
a. Why an atom of argon is stable, but an atom of lithium is unstable?
b. Why are the elements of Group VIII A called 0 group elements?
c. What is the valency of sulphur?

Ions
Atoms are neutral as they have same number of protons and electrons. An atom that carries
charge due to the loss or gain of electron is called an ion.
A Sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons, therefore sodium atom is neutral.
+11 proton –11electron = 0
When sodium gives away one electron, it bears a positive charge and called an ion. Now
sodium ion has 11 protons but 10 electrons.
+11 proton –10 electron = +1 net charge

Cations
Loss of electron from the valence shell of an atom of a metal changes it into positive ion that
is also called a cation.
A sodium atom has just 1 electron in its outer shell. To obtain a stable valence shell of 8
electrons, it loses this valence electron to the atom of another element. It becomes a sodium
ion which has a positive charge. This can be written as Na1+
1+

loss of 1e–
Na Na

A cation is shown with the bracket and a positive charge on it.

A magnesium atom has 2 electrons in its outer shell. To obtain a stable valence shell of 8
electrons, it loses these 2 valence electrons to the atom of another element. It becomes a
magnesium ion which has a 2+ charge. This can be written as Mg2+
2+

loss of 2e–
Mg Mg

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7
Anions
When a non-metal atom gains electrons, it changes into negative ion that is also called an
anion.
A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer most shell. To obtain a stable valence shell of 8
electrons, it gains 1 electron from the atom of another element. It becomes a chloride ion
which has a negative charge. This can be written as Cl-1
–

gain 1e–
Cl Cl

chlorine atom gains an electron and chloride ion is formed

An oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer most shell. To obtain a stable valence shell of
8 electrons, it gains 2 electrons from the atom of another reactant. It becomes an oxide ion
which has a negative 2 charge. This can be written as O2–
2–

gain 2e–

oxygen atom gains two electrons and oxide ion is formed

Chemical formulae
When two or more different elements react chemically in a fixed ratio, a compound is
formed. The compound is described by a formula, made from the symbols of the elements
in the compound. (The plural of formula is formulae.)
In a formula the symbol of metal comes first and that of non-metal comes next. To write the
formula of a compound, valencies are used.
Steps for writing a chemical formulae.
Step 1: Write down the symbols in the order in a compound.
Step 2: Write down the valencies of the elements.
Step 3: If valencies are same with the opposite signs cancel the valencies otherwise
interchange the valencies of each ion and write as a subscript.
Example 1: formula of sodium chloride.

81
Chapter 6, Chemical bonds
Step 1: Na is symbol of sodium and Cl is symbol of chlorine
Step 2: Na+1 belongs to group Cl–1 belongs to group VII
Step 3: Both charges are same with the opposite sign therefore, cancel Na+Cl–
the charges. NaCl
Sodium chloride is made up of one sodium atom and 1 chlorine atom.
Example 2 formula of water. + –2
Step 1: H is the symbol of hydrogen and O is the symbol of oxygen H O
Step 2: H+1 belongs to group I O–2 belongs to group VI
Step 3: Interchange the valencies of hydrogen and oxygen ion and H 2O
write as a subscript.

This formula shows that 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom make
a water molecule. In H2O 2 is a subscript which shows the number of
atoms of hydrogen.
Example 3: formula of Aluminium oxide A water molecule
Step 1: Al is the symbol of Aluminium and O the is symbol of oxygen
Step 2: Al+3 belongs to group III O-2 belongs to group VI
Step 3: Interchange the valencies of Aluminium and oxygen ion and write as a subscript.

Al2O3 is the formula of aluminium oxide. This formula shows that

+3 –2
2 aluminium atoms and 3 oxygen atoms make a molecule of Al O
aluminium oxide.
In Al2O3 2 is a subscript which shows the number of atoms of
aluminium atoms and 3 is a subscript which shows the number of Al2O 3
oxygen atoms.

There are certain compounds which are formed by the reaction of two non-metals. These
atoms share electrons to become stable. In these type of compounds the central atom is
written first.
Example 4: Formula of ammonia
Step 1: N is the symbol of nitrogen and H is the symbol of hydrogen
Step 2: N–3 belongs to group V H+1 belongs to group I –3 +1
N H
Step 3: Interchange the valencies of nitrogen and hydrogen and
write as a subscript.
NH3
The formulae of ammonia is NH3.This formula shows that 3 hydrogen
atoms and 1 nitrogen atom make a molecule of ammonia.

In the same way formula of carbon dioxide can be written if we reduce the subscript by 2
and the formula will be CO2

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

+4 –2 C O
C O 2 4
1 2
CO2

Concept check
Write down the formula of the following compounds
a.
Sodium oxide   b. Calcium sulphide   c. Magnesium nitride.

Chemical bonds
A chemical reaction takes place when electrons are transferred or shared between two
atoms. Electrons are involved in a chemical reaction and due to this a bond is made and a
molecule is formed.

Ionic bonding chlorine

1+atom chlorine atom
1–
When ions are formed due to the
transfer of electrons. The opposite
ions are attracted to each other and Na Cl
form a bond that is called an ionic
bond. These types of compounds are
called ionic compounds. The ionic
bond is a strong bond that has the
electrostatic attraction between cation and anion. Sodium chloride
Cl is formed when a Cl
sodium
ion and chloride ion have attraction due to the
opposite charges. nucleus of
the atom
Covalent bonding
When atoms come close to each other and share –
electrons a covalent bond is formed. The electrons + – +
in this bond experience the force of attraction
from the nucleus of both atoms. The positive and
negative attraction holds the two atoms together. shared
electrons
This attraction is called the chemical bond. Cl Cl
Cl Cl = Cl 2 chlorine molecule
chlorine molecule
single bond

Concept check
Identify the ionic and covalent bonds in the following compounds.
a. Ammonia   b. Sodium oxide   c. Water   d. Magnesium chloride

83
Chapter 6, Chemical bonds

Concept map

atoms

Atom

chemical valency attraction

formulae between atoms
results in
combining capacity
used to describe
of an element to
a compound physical structure
form a compound
symbolically

chemical
nucleus shells bond

chlorine atom chlorine atom

iconic bonds covalent bonds

neutrons protons electrons

through through
loss or gain sharing of
of valence Cl electrons Cl

electrons
1+ 1–

Na Cl

Cl Cl
the number of Cl Cl = Cl2 chlorine molecule
number of protons
protons is called single bond
and neutrons
atomic number
together form mass
number

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 New Oxford Secondary Science 7

Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer:

i. What is formed when two or more different elements react chemically in a fixed ratio?
a) Atom b) Compound
c) Ion d) Electron
ii. What type of ion is formed when a non-metal atom gains electrons?
a) it changes into positive ion b) it changes into negative ion
c) it changes into neutral ion d) It does not change
iii. When atoms come close to each other and share electrons, this is formed:
a) an ionic bond b) a covalent bond
c) a neutral bond d) an ion
iv. The formula of carbon monoxide is:
a) C2O b) CO
c) CO2 d) C2O2
v. The numbers of electrons in the outermost shell of oxygen is:
a) 2 b) 6
c) 8 d) 10

2. Fill in the blanks:

i. The ionic bond has the attraction between cation and anion .
ii. A chlorine atom has electrons in its outer most shell .
iii. The group number in the periodic table is the of the elements .
iv. Hydrogen atom is because it has incomplete shell .
v. The formula of ammonia is .

3. Write down the formula of the following compounds:

a) Carbon dioxide b) Ammonia
c) Sodium chloride d) Water

4. Short answer questions:

i. Define valency.
ii. What is a valence shell?
iii. What is an ion?
iv. What is cation?
v. What is anion?

5. Long answer questions:

i. How are bonds formed?
ii. Explain the formation of ionic bond?
iii. Explain the formation of covalent bond?

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Chapter 6, Chemical bonds
iv. Explain how to write chemical formulae on the basis of valency for:
a. H2O b. NaCl
v. Explain about neutral atoms?

6. Think about it:

Draw the electrons in the valence shell of the following atoms and make the bonds.
H
i. Na Cl ii.
H N H

iii. O C O iv. Mg O

Activities

1. Brainstorm learners about their prior knowledge of atomic structure and make a mind map on
board based on their responses.
2. Think pair and share; How do valence electrons relate to chemical bonds?
3. Use of illustrations/flashcards/secondary resources (YouTube videos, simulations) to show the
types of chemical bonds and how they are formed.

Projects

1. Learners can be asked to illustrate the formation of ionic and covalent bonds in a booklet.
2. Make 3D models of ionic and covalent bonds by using straws, skewer sticks, ping pong balls
etc. (in groups/pairs/individual)

86