Unit 5

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Chemical bonds
 Lewis structure
• Because only the electrons in the main energy
level, i.e. the valence electrons, are relevant
in bonding, these are the only electrons we
need to study at present.
• We can use a simple but effective method to
illustrate the bonding process.
• We write down the symbol of the element
(atom) and indicate the valence electrons by
using dots or crosses.
• It is known as the electron dot- or Lewis-
structure.
• Paired electrons are placed together and
unpaired electrons on their own. 3
Example:
Li O

Ne
Cl

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Carbon and silicon
• Carbon has two paired electrons in the 2s-orbital and
two unpaired electrons in the 2p-orbitals, the s and p
orbitals undergo hybridisation and form a sp-orbital.
• Each of these four orbitals contain only one unpaired
electron.
• Allowing carbon to form four bonds.
• The same happens to Silicon.

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What pattron can be seen in the table?
• The number of valence electrons increases by one for the next
element in a period.
• The Lewis structure of elements in a group is the same because
they have the same amount of valence electrons. This number is
the same as the group number.
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 Covalent bonding
• Bond between non-metals.
• Orbitals with half filled orbitals overlap and
electrons.
• Smallest particle is a molecule.
• Atoms have some half filled orbitals.
• The half filled orbitals overlap to form a new
filled orbital.
• Atoms’ electronegativity must be the same or
have a difference less than 1,9.

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 Covalent bonding
• Polar or non-polar bonds are formed.
• Non-polar bonds: atoms attract the shared pair of
electrons equally.
• Polar bond: one atom attracts the shared pair of
electrons more than the other.
• Bonds can be one of the following:
– Single: only one pair of electrons is shared between
two atoms.
– Double: two pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
– Triple: three pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
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 Ions and ionic bonding
• Bonds between metals and non-metals.
• Electron transfer occurs.
• Positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions)
attract each other with strong electrostatic or
Coulomb forces.
• Atoms’ electronegativity must differ by more
than 1,9.
• One atom must have a low first ionization energy
in order to easily give away an electron.

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 Ions and ionic bonding
• Metals tend to give away electrons and become
positive ions (cations).
• There must be atom with a high electron affinity
which readily accept an electron.
• Non-metals tend to accept electrons and become
negative ions (anions).
• Smallest particle is an ion.
• Ionic bonds form a crystal lattice in the solid
phase.

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 Forming of ionic bonds between sodium and chloride
• The forming of the
positive metal ion:
• The forming of the
negative non-metal ion:
• The positive- and
negative ions attract
each other
electrostatically, form
an ionic bond and pack
together in an orderly
ionic crystal.
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• Because the electrostatic forces between the
ions are strong forces, ionic crystals are
usually hard and they have high melting
points.
• The Figure illustrates the arrangement of the
Na+ and Cl- ions in a crystal lattice of NaCl.

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 Compound ions (radicals)
• In addition to the positive and negative ions, which form
when elements lose or gain electrons, there are also groups
of atoms, which have an overall charge.
• These groups are particularly stable and thus occur in many
common compounds.
You need to know these perfectly. You can’t do chemistry
without them!

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 Metals and metallic bonding
• Bonds between metals.
• Atoms are closely packed so that the
outermost orbitals overlap.
• The valence electrons are
delocalized and can move in
adjacent orbitals.
• Positive core forms a compact
crystal lattice.
• Smallest particle is a positive ion.
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• The following are required for a
metallic bond to occur:
–Low ionisation energy so that valence
electrons can be released easily.
–Atoms must have empty valence
orbitals so that the delocalised electrons
can move into them.

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 Relative molecular and formula masses
• Law of Constant Composition: All samples of a given
compound have the same elemental composition.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) will always consist of one part
carbon (C) and two parts oxygen (O).
• This ratio can be used to determine the relative
molecular mass or formula mass (ionic substances)
(Mr) of a compound.
• On the Periodic Table the relative atomic mass of each
element is indicated.
• The relative atomic mass of carbon (C) is 12 and of
oxygen (O) is 16.
• So Mr(CO2) = 12 + 16 + 16 = 44
• Mr(KMnO4) = 39 + 54.9 + (4  16) = 157,9
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Electronegativity
 Electron negativity is the ability of an atom in a
compound to attract the bonding electron pair(s).
 It increase from left to right across a period and
decreases down in a group.
Difference in
Bond
Electronegativity ∆𝑬𝑵
Non-polar covalent ∆𝐸𝑁 = 0

Polar covalent 0 < ∆𝐸𝑁 < 1,7

Ionic – transfer of electrons
∆𝐸𝑁 > 1,7
occurs

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 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐻 − 𝐸𝑁 − 2,1
𝐶𝑙 − 𝐸𝑁 − 3,0
∆𝐸𝑁 = 3,0 − 2,1 = 0,9
𝐻𝐶𝑙 ∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑

𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑁𝑎 − 𝐸𝑁 − 0,9
𝐶𝑙 − 𝐸𝑁 − 3,0
∆𝐸𝑁 = 3,0 − 0,9 = 2,1
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ∴ 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑
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 Homework
DocScientia
• Exercise 8 p. 107
• Exercise 9 p. 110 – 111

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