Transpiration

• Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant by evaporation

• Water can only evaporate from the plant if the water potential is
lower in the air surrounding the plant

• Most transpiration occurs via the leaves

• Most of this transpiration is via the stomata.

1
How Transpiration is Measured

Water evaporates
A Simple from the plant
Potometer

Leafy shoot cut

under water

Air tight seals Capillary tube

Plastic tubing
1’’’’’’’’2’’’’’’’’3’’’’’’’’4’’’’’’’’5’’’’’’’’6’’’’’’’’7’’’’’’’’8’’’’’’’’9’’’’’’’’10’’’’’’’’11’’’’’’’’12’’’’’’’’13’’’’

Movement of meniscus is
Graduated scale measured over time

2
 How Transpiration is Measured

The rate of water loss

from the shoot can be
measured under different Water is pulled up
environmental conditions through the plant

volume of water taken up

in given time
Limitations

•measures water uptake 1’’’’’’’’2’’’’’’’’3’’’’’’’’4’’’’’’’’5’’’’’’’’6’’’’’’’’7’’’’’’’’8’’’’’’’’9’’’’’’’’10’’’’’’’’11’’’’’’’’12’’’’’’’’13’’’’

•cutting plant shoot may damage plant

•plant has no roots so no resistance to water being pulled up

3
 6 Environmental Factors Affecting Transpiration
1. Relative humidity:-
humidity air inside leaf is saturated (RH=100%). The lower
the relative humidity outside the leaf the faster the rate of
transpiration as the  gradient is steeper

2. Air Movement:-
Movement increase air movement increases the rate of
transpiration as it moves the saturated air from around the leaf so the
 gradient is steeper.

3. Temperature:-
Temperature increase in temperature increases the rate of
transpiration as higher temperature
– Provides the latent heat of vaporisation
– Increases the kinetic energy so faster diffusion
– Warms the air so lowers the  of the air, so  gradient is steeper

4
4. Atmospheric pressure:-
pressure decrease in atmospheric pressure
increases the rate of transpiration.

5. Water supply:-
supply transpiration rate is lower if there is little water
available as transpiration depends on the mesophyll cell walls being
wet (dry cell walls have a lower ). When cells are flaccid the
stomata close.

6. Light intensity :- greater light intensity increases the rate of

transpiration because it causes the stomata to open, so increasing
evaporation through the stomata.

5
Intrinsic Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration.

1. Leaf surface area

2. Thickness of epidermis and cuticle
3. Stomatal frequency
4. Stomatal size
5. Stomatal position

6
 The Effect of Wind Speed on the Rate of
Transpiration
Stomatal
transpiration rate
/ gcm-2s-1 In still air closing the
moving air stomata is less effective
in controlling the
transpiration rate

still air

10 20

Stomata diameter/µm

7
 Moving Air Removes the Boundary Layer of Water
Vapour From the Leaf
Still air Moving air

Saturated air accumulates around leaf Water vapour is removed from the
leaf surface

cross section through a leaf

Lower 

Boundary layer the  gradient is increased,

so faster rate of water
evaporation via the stomata

8
 Movement of Water Through the Stomata

Water moves from a higher

H2O (less negative) to a lower
(more negative) water
Diffusion shells potential

9
 Increase in stomatal frequency increases the rate
of transpiration

Boundary
layer

stoma

If the distance between the stomata is less than 10 X the pore

diameter the diffusion shells overlap

So increasing the number of stomata per unit area will have no

further effect on transpiration

10
 Wilting
If water lost by
transpiration is greater than
water uptake via the roots
Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing
plants wilting could be inserted here.
the plant cells become
e.g. one similar to that found at: flaccid and the plant wilts.
http://pdc.unl.edu/sugarbeet/RhizochtoniaRootAndCrownRot/
suddenwilt.htm

When the guard cells are

flaccid the stomata close

11
 Leaf section

The upper epidermis has no

stomata

Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing

a leaf section could be inserted here.
e.g. one similar to that found at: The lower epidermis has
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/greenplant stomata.
sasorganisms/0photosynthesisrev2.shtml

The guard cells control the

opening and closing of the
stomata

12
 Lower Epidermis of Tradescantia

Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing

the surface of the lower epidermis could be inserted here.
e.g. one similar to that found at:
www.lima.ohio-state.edu/academics/biology/images/lower.jpg

13
 Surface view of leaf epidermis showing the guard
cells which are flaccid and the stoma closed.

Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing

the surface of the lower epidermis could be inserted here.
e.g. one similar to that found at:
www.lima.ohio-state.edu/academics/biology/images

14
 A single stoma and guard cells

Guard cells
flaccid
Guard cells
turgid

Stoma
open Stoma closed

Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing

a single stoma and guard cells could be inserted here.
e.g. one similar to that found at:
http://www.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/Webb/Overview/Overview.html

15
 The guard cells control the opening and closing of
the stomata

Guard cells flaccid Guard cells turgid

Thin outer wall

Thick inner wall

Stoma closed Stoma open

16
Regulating Stomatal Opening:-the potassium ion pump
hypothesis

Guard cells flaccid

K+
K+ K+ ions have the same concentration
in guard cells and epidermal cells
K+
K+
K +
Light activates K+ pumps which
K +
K+ actively transport K+ from the
K+
epidermal cells into the guard
K+ cells
K+ K+ K+

Stoma closed
17
 Regulating Stomatal Opening:-the potassium ion pump
hypothesis
H2O

H 2O H 2O Increased concentration of K+
in guard cells

K+ K+
K+ K+ Lowers the  in the guard
K +
cells
K +
K+ H 2O
K+
H2O K+
K+ K+ K+
Water moves in by osmosis,
down  gradient

18
 Guard cells turgid
Increased concentration of K+
in guard cells
H2O H2O
K+
K +
Lowers the  in the guard
K+
H2O H2O cells
K+ K+ K+
K +
K+
H 2O K+
K+ H2O Water moves in by osmosis,
K+ K+ down  gradient

Stoma open
19
 Xerophytes Have Special Adaptations to Reduce the
Rate of Transpiration

Xerophytes live in hot, dry

environments

These cacti have reduced leaf

Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing
typical xerophyte features could be inserted here.
area as the leaves are reduced
e.g. one similar to that found at: to spines
http://arboretum.ag.arizona.edu/tour/lowband/cactusgarden.html

Fleshy leaves to hold water

Silver surface to reflect sun

20
 Adaptations to Reduce Water Loss in Xerophytes

• Thick waxy cuticle to reduce evaporation

• Reduced leaf area e.g.needles

• Hairy leaves:-
leaves the hairs trap a layer of saturated air

• Sunken stomata:-
stomata the pits above the stomata become saturated

• Rolled leaves:-
leaves this reduces the area exposed to the air and keeps
the stomata on the inside so increasing the water vapour inside the
roll
Increasing the water vapour around the stomata reduces the water
potential gradient so slows water loss

21
 Cross Section of Marram Grass Leaf

Leaf is rolled with sunken

stomata on the inside

Hairs trap water vapour

Water evaporating via the

stomata collects in the air
Subject to copyright clearance a suitable image showing a trapped in the rolled leaf
cross section of marram grass could be inserted here.
e.g. one similar to that found at:
This reduces the 
www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/schools/images/marram.html
gradient so reduces water
loss from the plant

22
 Adaptation to Increase Water Uptake in
Xerophytes

• Deep extensive root system to maximise water uptake

• Accumulation of solutes in the root system to reduce the , so

making the  gradient from the soil to the root cells steeper

• Some very shallow roots to absorb dew which condenses on the

soil at night

23
 Graph to show stomatal opening over 24 hours
Some plants close
100 stomata during hottest
Increased light time-saving water
stomatal
intensity causes more An adaptation to hot
opening/%
stomata to open dry environments

Stomata close
as the sun sets

Dawn-stomata
begin to open

0
12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12

24
 24h Cycle of Stomatal Opening and Closing

Why is this cycle an 12.00

advantage to most plants?

09.00 15.00

18.00
06.00

21.00
3.00
24.00
25
 Questions
1. What is transpiration? Give three environmental factors which
will increase transpiration rate. (2marks)

2. Explain how potassium ions are moved into the guard cells in light,
and how this affects the guard cells and stomata. (6marks)

3. Give three adaptations a xerophyte may have to reduce

transpiration and explain how they do this. (4marks)

4. Plants close their stomata at night and some also close their
stomata around mid day. Explain why this is advantageous to the
plant (2marks)

finish Click on the marks above

to check your answer
26
 Answer Q 1

• Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant by evaporation

• Higher temperature, increased air movement, lower humidity

Back to question

27
 Answer Q 2

• Potassium ions are pumped into the guard cells by active transport
• against the concentration gradient
• this lowers the water potential inside the guard cells
• water is drawn in by osmosis
• from the surrounding cells which have a higher water
potential/down the water potential gradient
• guard cells swell and become turgid
• guard cells bend
• causing the stomata to open

any 6 from the above

Back to question

28
 Answer Q3

Any three from:-

• Thick waxy cuticle on leaves reduces evaporation
• Curled leaves reduce evaporation by trapping humid air inside the
curl so reducing the water potential gradient
• Reduced leaf area, e.g. spines, reduces the area from which
evaporation can occur
• Hairy leaves -trap a layer of humid air around the leaf,so reducing
the water potential gradient
• Sunken stomata – moist air trapped above stomata, so reducing the
water potential gradient

Back to question

29
 Answer Q4

• Stomata closed at night when there is no light for photosynthesis,

so reducing water loss by evaporation/transpiration via the
stomata
• Closing stomata at mid day, which is the hottest part of the day, is
an advantage in hot dry environments, as transpiration is reduced.

Back to question

30
 Can you think of any synoptic links?

• Water potential
• Osmosis
• Active transport
• Respiration (energy required for active transport)
• Photosynthesis (light and CO2 required for photosynthesis, CO2
enters via stomata, water used in photosynthesis)

31