NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical Electron Theory 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.1 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description

 Matter is basically composed of two kinds of electricity (positive and negative)

 Atoms: an atom is one or more negatively charged particles called electrons, revolving at
great speeds in regular, circular around a positive nucleus.
 Element A substance which contains atoms of one kind only is called an element.
 Molecules: When two or more atoms combine, they form a molecule.
 Compound: If these atoms are not all alike, then the substance formed is a compound.
 Ions: The process of an atom gaining electrons or losing electrons is called ionization. Any
atom or molecule which carries either a positive or a negative charge is ionized.

Bohr’s atomic model

Salient features of Bohr’s atomic model:

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits.
 Each orbit has a definite energy and is called energy shell or energy level.
 An electron emits or absorbs energy when it jumps from one orbit or energy level to
another.
 The energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference between the energies of the
two energy levels (E1, E2) and is determined by Plank’s equation.
ΔE = E2-E1 = h.v

Where,
ΔE = energy absorbed or emitted
h= Plank’s constant
v= frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed
 Distribution of electrical charges within atoms
Neutrons are neutrally charged
Protons: Positive charged particles
Electrons: electrons are negative charged particles.

The structure of an atom

 Centre is a nucleus containing protons and neutrons.
 Electrons are arranged around the nucleus

Chemical bonding of atoms:

The force that holds atoms together in collections known as a chemical bond.

1) Ionic bond
Ionic boning involves a transfer of an electron, so one atom gains an electron while one atom
loses an electron.

2) Covalent bond
The most common bond in organic molecules, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electrons
between two atoms.

 3) Metallic bonding
In this type of bonding, each atom in a metal donates one or more electrons to a "sea" of
electrons that reside between many metal atoms.

Metallic bonding
 Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors (with Band Diagram)
(i) Insulators

1. have a full valence band,

2. have an empty conduction band, 
3. have a large energy gap (of several eV) between them. 

(ii) Conductors: conducting materials are those in which plenty of free electrons are available
for electric conduction. 

1. Have overlapping valence and conduction bands.

(iii) Semiconductors

1. Have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very
narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two.
2. Conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature. 
3. Examples are: germanium and silicon.
 Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. A neutron has.
a) The opposite charge to an Electron but half the weight of a proton.
b) The same charge as an Electron but half the mass.
c) No electrical charge but will add weight to the nucleus.
2. Atoms are not easily freed, thus stable, preventing flow of electricity
a)insulator b)conductor d) semiconductor
3. Complete transfer of one or more electrons between atoms constitutes in forming
a) ionic bond b)covalent bond c)co-ordinate covalent bond
4. As per Bohr’s atomic model in ___atom, in an outer orbit ___electron revolves around nucleus.
a)Carbon & 4 b) Helium & 2 c) Hydrogen & 1
5. According to Bohr's atomic model, angular momentum of electron in n th orbit is equal to an
integral multiple of
a)2h/π b)h/2π c)h/π d)nh/2π
6. Smallest particle of an element which can take part in any chemical change.
a) Atom b) proton c) electrons
7. Elements whose atoms have fewer than 4 electrons in their valiancy shell are.
a)semiconductors. b) Good insulators. c) Good conductors.
8. A good electrical insulator is a material which.
a) contains a large number of positive ions
b) has its electrons tightly bound to their parent atoms.
c) has more protons than electrons
9. A neutral atom gains electrons.
a) It gains a positive charge. b) It gains a negative charge. c) It remains neutral.
10. Germanium and silicon have how many electrons in their outer shell?
a) 6. b) 4. c). 2.
 NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical Static Electricity and 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.2 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I conduction BLT VOL 1

Description
Static electricity
 Accumulation of electric charges that occurs when two non-metallic objects rub against
each other




Conduction of Electricity
 Movement of the charged particles in an organized manner.

Electrostatic laws of attraction & repulsion

 Electric charges of like kind repel each other and charges of unlike kindattract each other.
 The forces of attraction and repulsion are directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Coulomb's law can also be stated as a simple mathematical expression.

Electrostatic induction
 Phenomenon of an uncharged body getting charged merely by the nearness of a charged
body is known as induction.
 In Fig.1, a positively-charged body A is brought close to a insulated uncharged body B.
The end of B nearer to A gets negatively charged whereas further end becomes positively
charged.
  In Fig.2, the body B has been earthed by a wire. The positive charge flows to earth
leaving negative charge behind. If next A is removed, then this negative charge will
also go to earth, leaving B uncharged.

 It is found that:

(i) A positive charge induces a negative charge and vice-versa.

(ii) Each of the induced charges is equal to the inducing charge.

Definition of solid, liquid gases & vacuum

Solid
 Particles are packed tightly together so they are unable to move about very much.
 Particles of a solid have very low kinetic energy.

Liquids
 The particles of a substance have more kinetic energy than those in a solid.
 very close to each other
 Have a definite volume.

Gases
 particles of a gas spread out indefinitely,
 No definite volume and no definite shape. 

Conduction of electricity in solid, liquid gases & vacuum

Solids
 Metals are good conductors because they have unfilled space in the valence energy
band. When an electric field is applied, a slight imbalance develops and mobile electrons
flow.
  In semiconductors, Electrons can be thermally excited from the valence band to the next
highest, the conduction band which can also conduct electricity.

Liquid:
 Electric currents in liquids are flows of electrically charged atoms (ions)
Gases
 Electric currents in gases are because of ionization
 Very poor conduction.
 Most of the times considered as insulators.

Vacuum
 vacuum contains no charged particles,
 Vacuums normally behave as very good insulators.
 Vacuum to can become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions through either field
emission or thermionic emission.

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. Electricity conducts through.

a) vacuum. b) Solids and liquids only. c) Solids only
2. An element could be considered to be a conductor if it has.
a) A small number of electrons in its outer orbit. b) a large number of electrons in its
outer orbit.
c)a large number of electrons.
3. Unlike charges always
1. cancel each other
2. repel each other
3. attract each other
4. In_____ electrons are loosely bonded together
a) Solids
b) Gases
c) Liquids
5. An element could be considered to be a conductor if it has.
a)a small number of electrons in its outer orbit.b)a large number of electrons in its outer orbit
c)a large number of electrons.

6. A charged body is said to have.

a)a surplus or deficiency of electrons.b)a deficiency of neutrons. c)a surplus of protons
7. The electromagnetic force between two charged bodies is.
a) Inversely proportional to the distance between them.
b) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
c) Proportional to the distance between them
 NOTES
Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks
Part No with date book
03 Electrical Electrical Terminology 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.3 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1

Description

Potential and Potential Difference

Potential at any point in an electric field may be defined as numerically equal to the work done
in bringing a positive charge of one coulomb from infinityto that point against the electric field.

Similarly, potential difference (p.d.) of one volt exists between two points if one joule of work is
done in shifting a charge of one coulomb from one point to the other.

Electromotive Force (Voltage)

It is a push or pressure felt in a conductor that ultimately moves the electrons in a flow.

Current
Current is a measurement of a rate at which a charge flows through some region of space or a
conductor. Unit - Amperes

OR

Conventional Flow- the flow of current is from the positive (+) to the negative (−).
Electron Flow- electrons flow out of the negative (−) source to the positive (+) source.
 Resistance
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow
of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it. The unit of resistance is ohm.
 Laws of Resistance
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors
(i) It varies directly as its length, l.

(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.

(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv)It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that

Capacitor
The purpose of a capacitor is to store electrical energy by electrostatic stress in the dielectric.
Its unit is Farads.
 Factors Affecting Capacitance
1. The capacitance of parallel plates is directly proportional to their area.
2. The capacitance of parallel plates is inversely proportional to their spacing.
3. The dielectric material affects the capacitance of parallel plates.

Inductor
It stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. The unit of
an inductor is Henry.
 Factors that affect inductance are:
1. The number of turns
2. The cross-sectional area of the coil.
3. The length of a coil
4. The core material around which the coil is formed

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. Energy transferred per unit charge is
a)e.m.f b)current c)potential difference d)conventional current
2. In case of Short Circuit ______ Current will flow in the Circuit. 
a) Zero. b) Very Low c) Normal. d) Infinite
3. Conventional current flow is
a)Always from negative to positive b) In the same direction as electron movement
c) In the opposite direction to electron movement
4. The term that describes the combined resistive forces in an AC circuit is.
a) Resistance. b) Total resistance. c) Impedance.
5. Ohm's law states that:
 a)e.m.f. = current divided by resistance. b) Current = e.m.f. divided by resistance.
c) Resistance = current divided by e.m.f
6. Kirchhoff’s law is applicable to.
a) Parallel networks. b) Series networks. c) Closed loop networks.
7. The property of a conductor of electricity that limits or restricts the flow of current is.
a) Limiter. b) Resistance. c) Fuse.
8. What is the SI unit of resistivity?.
a) Ohms. b) Ohm meter. c) Ohms/meter
NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical Generation of Electricity 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.4 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description
1. Friction: Rubbing two dissimilar materials together generates an electricity
2. Pressure:
 by Piezoelectric effect
 Applying mechanical pressure on dielectric or non-conductive crystals
 E.g. quartz crystals, load cells
3. Light:
 By using photoelectric effect
 Exposing photosensitive material in light produces electricity.
 E.g. Zinc material, photocell, solar cell.
4. Heat:
 By thermoelectric effect
 Proving heat to two dissimilar metals combination gives electricity.
 E.g. Thermocouple
5. Chemical action:
 When two or more chemicals come in contact, their structure alters and voltage
is produced.
 Batteries are used for this purpose.
6. Magnetism:
 By Electromagnetic induction – Moving conductor in stationary magnetic field and
vice versa.
  E.g. Generator
7. Motion:
 Motion energy into electrical energy
 E.g. Wind mill - wind turbines used as motion energy

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. A secondary cell produces electricity from
a) Heat b) Light c) Chemical action d) Motion
2. A thermocouple produces electricity from
a) Heat b) Light c) Chemical action d) Magnetism
3. The following is the correct order of energy conversion in thermal power plants
a) Chemical energy – Mechanical energy – Electrical energy
b) Mechanical energy – Chemical energy – Electrical energy
c) Wind energy – Mechanical energy – Electrical energy
d) Heat energy – Electrical energy – Mechanical energy
4. Which one of the following devices uses magnetism and motion to produce electricity?
a) A transformer b) An inductor c) A generator
5. A piezoelectric device generates electricity through.
a) Friction b) light c) Pressure.
6. A photozoidal cell produces electricity when subjected to.
a) Light. b) Pressure. c) Heat.
7. A conductor is placed in a magnetized coil. What will happen?
a)Nothing will happen unless the conductor is moved.
b) The conductor will move.
c) A force will be created.
8. A thermocouple indicator is basically a type of.
a) millivoltmeterb)milliammeter c)milliohmeter.
9. Thermocouple harnesses are made from the same materials as the thermocouple so that.
a) Mini junctions are not formed.
b) The resistance is not increased beyond limits.
c) They will not corrode.
 NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical DC Sources of Electricity 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.5 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description
DC Sources of Electricity- Batteries.
An electric battery consists of a number of electrochemical cells, connected either in series or
parallel.

1. Primary Cell
 stored energy is inherently present in the chemical substances
 Non-rechargeable
 Non reversible reactions.
 E.g. zinc-chlorine cell, alkaline-manganese cell

1. Dry cell (zinc-carbon cell)

 Uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow.

CONSTRUCTION
 Zinc container whose base acts as the negative electrode.
 The carbon rod cap acts as the positive electrode.
 Secondary reactions
The hydroxyl ions generated during the cell reaction liberate ammonia from ammonium
chloride, which in turn combines with the Zn2+ ions to precipitate [Zn[NH3]2Cl2]
complex.
2NH4Cl + 2OH– → 2NH3 + 2H2O + 2Cl–
Zn2+ + 2NH3 + 2Cl– → [Zn [NH3] 2 Cl2]
2. Secondary Cell
 Energy is induced in the chemical substances by applying an external source
 Rechargeable
 Reversible reactions.
 Nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and Lithium ion
polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Classification of Secondary Batteries Based on Their Use

1. Automotive Batteries or SLI Batteries or Portable Batteries: Used for starting, lighting and
ignition (SLI) in internal-combustion-engine vehicles.

2. Vehicle Traction Batteries or Motive Power Batteries or Industrial Batteries: These are used
as a motive power source for a wide variety of vehicles.

3. Stationary Batteries
(a) Standby power system which is used intermittently and
(b) Load leveling system which stores energy when demand is low and, later on, uses it to meet
peak demand.

Lead-acid battery
 Active materials:

1. Lead peroxide (PbO2) for + ve plate

2. Sponge Lead (Pb) for -ve plate
3. Dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) as electrolyte.

 Chemical changes

A. Discharging
When the cell is fully charge, its positive plate or anode is PbO2 (dark chocolate brown) and the
negative plate or cathode is Pb (slate grey).
i. At anode (PbO2), H2 combines with the oxygen of PbO2 and H2SO4 attacks lead to form
PbSO4.
PbO2 + H2 + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + 2H2O
ii. At the cathode (Pb), SO4 combines with it to form PbSO4
 Pb + SO4 = PbSO4

B. Charging
When the cell is recharged, the H2 ions move to cathode and SO4 ions go to anode and the
following changes take place:
i. At Cathode PbSO4 + H2 = Pb + H2SO4
ii. At Anode PbSO4 + 2H2O = PbO2 + 2H2SO4
Hence, the anode and cathode again become PbO2 and Pb respectively.

 Parts of a Lead-acid Battery

1) Plates.
2) Separators.For preventing contact between them and thus avoiding internal short-circuiting
of the battery.
3) Electrolyte.
4) Container.It may be made of vulcanized rubber or molded hard rubber (ebonite), molded
plastic, ceramics, glass or celluloid.

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
 Active materials:
1) Ni(OH)4 for the positive plate
2) Sponge cadmium (Cd) for negative plate (Cathode).
3) The electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution

 Chemical Changes
During discharge
1) Positive plate : Ni(OH)4 + 2K = Ni(OH)2 + 2 KOH
2) Negative plate : Cd + 2 OH = Cd (OH)2

During Charging
1) Positive plate : Ni(OH)2 + 2OH = Ni(OH)4
2) Negative plate : Cd(OH)2 + 2 K = Cd + 2 KOH

Lithium-ion battery
 Active materials:
Cathode- Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)
Anode – Carbon (C6)
Electrolyte -lithium salt in an organic solvent

 Chemical Changes
The positive (cathode) electrode half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt oxide substrate is,

The negative (anode) electrode half-reaction for the graphite is:

The full reaction (left: charged, right: discharged) being:

Cells connected in series & parallel.

Connecting Batteries in Series
When connecting your batteries in Series you are doubling the voltage while maintaining the
same capacity rating (amp hours). This might be used in a scooter, Power Wheels kids vehicle, or
other applications.

Connecting Batteries in Parallel

When connecting in Parallel you are doubling the capacity (amp hours) of the battery while
maintaining the voltage of one of the individual batteries. This would be used in applications
such as laptop batteries, some scooters, some ups backups, etc.

Internal resistance & its effect on battery

 The internal resistance of a battery is dependent on its size, chemical properties, age,
temperature, and the discharge current, Measured in milliohms (mΩ),
  the lower the resistance, the less restriction the pack encounters
 . High resistance causes the battery to heat up and the voltage to drop under load,
triggering an early shutdown.
 Figure 1 illustrates a battery with low internal resistance in the form of a free-flowing tap against a
battery with elevated resistance in which the tap is restricted.

Figure 1: Effects of internal battery

resistance.
A battery with low internal resistance
delivers high current on demand. High
resistance causes the battery to heat up
and the voltage to drop.
Low resistance, delivers
High resistance, current
high current on demand;
is restricted, voltage
battery stays cool.
drops on load; battery
heats up.

Precautions to be taken while charging batteries

1.  No smoking, sparks, naked flames or welding in close proximity to battery charging.
2. Ensure battery cover is open during charging
3. Keep vent caps on during charging
4. Always switch charger off before disconnecting battery. 
5. Never unplug battery by pulling leads, always hold plug
6. Ensure battery top is clean and dry at all times.
7. Always allow appropriate cooling period for battery
8. Inspect battery, leads and plugs for damage, report any faults immediately

Battery charging methods

1. Constant current chargers:

 Voltage varies to maintain a constant current flow.
 Used for nickel-cadmium batteries
2. Constant current chargers:
 Provides a high initial charge to the battery then it slowly decreases until the voltage
becomes equal,
 Charging will cease once the full voltage of the battery is reached.
3. Trickle charge:
 To compensate for the self-discharge of the battery.
 Continuous charge.
  Long term constant current charging is for standby use.
 The charge rate varies according to the frequency of discharge

Thermocouples:
I. Thermocouples   will   cause   an   electric current   to   flow   in   the   attached   circuit
when subjected to changes in temperature.
II. The   amount   of   current   that   will   be produced is dependent on;
 The temperature difference between the hot and cold junction;
 The characteristics of the two metals used;
 And the characteristics of the attached   circuit.

 The major effects involved in a thermocouple circuit:

See back effect:

 The Seebeck effect is the conversion of heat directly into electricity at the junction of
different types of wire.
 The voltage or electromotive force (EMF) induced by the temperature difference
(gradient) along the wire.
 The change in material EMF with respect to a change in temperature is called the See
back coefficient or thermoelectric sensitivity.
 This coefficient is usually a nonlinear function of temperature. 
Peltier effect
 Peltier effect describes the temperature difference generated by EMF and is the reverse
of Seebeck effect.  

Photocell:
 Based on photoelectric effect- converts light into electricity.
 These are the Sensors that allow you to detect light.
 Photocells are basically a resistor that changes its resistive value (in ohms Ω) depending
on how much light is shining onto the squiggly face.
 They are small, inexpensive, low-power, easy to use and don't wear out

Material: - semiconductors

Construction and working:

1. Two types of semiconductor are joined together forming the p-n junction.
2. When the light hits the photocell, electrons on the p-side gain energy that allows them to
move across the junction into the n-type semiconductor.

 Electrons that have gained energy can pass through an electric circuit and thus produce
an electric current.
 Electric measuring instruments.
A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in a form
readable by a human being.
 Classification of instruments:
1. Absolute- No calibration required
2. Secondary - calibration required
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil:

 Principle: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences

a force and tends to move in the direction as per Fleming’s left-hand rule.
 Works on D’Arsonval Movement principle
 When a current is passed through the coil, it produces a force. Due to this force, a torque
is produced in the spindle which rotates it.
 When the spindle rotates, it moves a pointer making it sweep over the calibrated scale.
 The spring produces a restoring torque. When this restoring torque becomes equal to the
excitation torque, the pointer comes to rest.
 The rotational movement of the spindle is proportional to the supply (D.C) Current.

Galvanometer
 electromechanical instrument
 Used for detecting and indicating electric current.
 Works as an actuator, by producing a rotary deflection (of a "pointer"), in response to
electric current flowing through a coil in a constant magnetic field.
Ammeter
 Used to measure the current in a circuit. 
 Always connected in series with the element

Voltmeter
 For measuring potential difference (the voltage) between two wires,
 Always connected in parallel with the element

Ohmmeters
 for measuring electric resistance
 When test probes are in contact with each other: zero resistance
 When test probes are separated : Infinite resistance

Megger (Megohmmeter)
 Used to measure insulation resistance and other high resistance values.
 Also used for ground, continuity, and short circuit testing of electrical power systems.
It consists of two primary elements;
(1) A hand-driven DC generator, G, which supplies the necessary current for making the
measurement,
(2) The instrument portion, which indicates the value of the resistance being measured.
 AC Measuring Instruments
1. Electrodynamometer Meter Movement:
 It operates on the same principles as the permanent magnet moving coil
meter, except that the permanent magnet is replaced by an air core
electromagnet.

2. Moving Iron Vane Meter

 Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by
the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire.
 Used for both direct and alternating currents measurements
3. Hot-wire
 A current passes through a wire which expands as it heats.
 These instruments have slow response time and low accuracy

4. Inductive pick up meter:

 Uses the principle of electromagnetic induction
 Used to measure current and frequency of a circuit
 It has a test probe called inductive pick up that wraps around the wire of
circuit which is to be measured.
Multi-meter:
 Combined function of voltmeter, ohmmeter and ammeter
 AC as well as DC measurement

Characteristics of electric wire:

While selection of any electrical wire, following factors is need to be considered:
1) Temperature
2) Flexibility requirements
3) Resistance
4) Strength
5) Insulation
6) Weight
7) Applied voltage and current flow

Bonding
 To provide a low resistance path for current in electric equipment
 To reduce radio interference
 To decrease probability of lightening damage
 To provide buildup of static charges on surface
Bonding testers
 Used to measure the mechanical strength of bonds,
 evaluate bond strength distributions
 types performed on a bond tester are i) the wire pull test
ii) Die shear test
Shielding
 Process of applying a metallic covering to wiring and equipment
 To eliminate adverse effects of electromagnetic interference.

Electrical control devices:

 Used to turn on and turn off current flow in an electrical circuit
 Either a switch, or a relay, or both may be included in the circuit for this purpose.

A. Switches:
 A switch is used to start, to stop, or to change the direction of the current flow in the circuit.
 Switches are classified by the number of poles, throws, and positions they have.

1) Toggle Switch
I. Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST)
II. Single-Pole, Double-Throw (SPDT)
III. Double-Pole, Single-Throw (DPST)
IV. Double-Pole, Double-Throw (DPDT)

2) Pushbutton Switches: Pushbutton switches have one stationary contact and one movable
contact
3) Micro switch: it will open or close a circuit with a very small movement of the tripping
device
Electromagnet
 An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric
current
 Consist of insulated wire wound into a coil.
 It requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.
 Advantage- magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric
current.
Relays:
 A relay is an electrically operated switch.
 It’s an electromagnet with a fixed core
 A relay is simply an electromechanical switch where a small amount of current can control a
large amount of current.
 Basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include: 
1. Frame
2. Coil
3. Armature
4. Contacts

Solenoid:
 It’s an electromagnet with a movable core
 Basic parts and functions of solenoid include: 
1. coil of wire and
2. the plunger – made from soft iron
 Applying a current to the solenoid applies a force to the plunger and may make it move. 

Circuit protecting devices

Protective devices are necessary to protect electrical appliance or equipment against;
a) Short Circuit
b) Abnormal variations in the supply voltage
c) Overloading of equipment
d) To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment due which
the operator may get a severe shock.

Types of Protective devices:

1) Fuse:
 It is a safety device, which protects electrical and electronic circuit against over loads,
short circuit and earth faults.
 It is made of low resistivity material and low melting point.
 It is always connected in series with the circuit / components that need to be protected.

2) Circuit breaker 
 It is safety device which work magneto thermic release principle.
 It is connected in the phase, between the supply and load.
 When the current drawn by load exceeds the rated value, it trips the circuit.
  No fuse to replace or rewire. It needs no repairs.
 Supply is restored by resetting it again.

3) Earthing OR grounding
Connecting the metal body of an electrical circuit through a low resistance wire, is called
earthing or Grounding.

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. In _____ cell, there is reversible reaction due to which chemical energy converted into
electrical energy.
a) Primaryb) Secondary c) both (a) and (b) d) either (a) or (b)

2. When lead acid cell gets discharged both anode and cathode becomes
a)H2SO4 b) Pb2SO4 c) PbSO4 d) PbO2
3. The Ni-Cd battery the anode is
a) Hydrated form of nickel oxide b) Cadmium c) Potassium hydroxide

4. In lithium ion battery the positive plate is

a) Carbon b) lithiated form of metal oxidec) in a paste form of some organic solvents

5. If _____ charging system is used then it increases the capacity by 20% but reduces efficiency
by 10%.
a) Constant Current b) Constant Voltage c) either (a) or (b)

6. The control device which uses the magnetic effect of electric current is called –___

a) Micro-switches b) Knife switches c) Relay switches d) All the above

7. A zinc-carbon battery life depends upon____

a) The amount of zinc
b) The purity of the carbon rod.
c) The amount of the electrolyte paste.

8. Conventional current flow inside a battery is from.

a) Either anode to cathode or cathode to anode, depending on the active elements.
b) Cathode to anode.
c) Anode to cathode.

9. The capacity of a battery is measured in.

a)volts.b) Ampere-hours. c) Cubic centimeters.

10. Two 12V, 40Ah cells in series gives.

 a)24V 80Ah. b)12V 40Ah. c)24V 40Ah.

NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical DC Circuits 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.6 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description
Electric Current
 It is the flow of electrons or electric charge. It is measured in Amperes
 The Direct Current (DC) flows in a unidirectional way and generally it is produced by
batteries, solar cells, thermocouples, etc.
 In case of AC, electric charge movement periodically changes as we can observe in case
of sine wave.

 Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is

directly proportionalto the voltage across the two points.

 Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The algebraic sum of the

currents in all branches which converge to a common
node is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The algebraic sum of all

voltages between successive nodes in a closed path in the
circuit is equal to zero
Lenz’s law
This law states, in effect, that electromagnetically induced current always flows in such direction
that the action of the magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very cause which produces
it.

Significance of internal resistance of a supply

When the power source delivers current, the measured voltage output is lower than the no-
load voltage; the difference is the voltage drop (the product of current and resistance) caused by
the internal resistance.

work, power & energy.

Electric power (P)
 The power is termed as the work done in a given amount of time.
 In electrical circuits, power is exactly equal to the product of voltage and current.
 The Power is measured in watts (W) and its formula is
P=IxV
According to Ohms law,
R = V/I
V= IR
Substituting in the above equation,
P = (IR) R
 P = I2 R
Or also, by substituting I = V/R, we can get
P= V x (V/R)
P= V2/R
These three possible formulas are used for finding the power associated with a circuit.

Electrical Energy
The rate at which electrical power consumed is generally referred as electrical energy. The
energy is measured in watt-seconds.
Electrical energy = power × time

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. Motor uses the
a) Faradays law b) Lenz’s law c) both (a) and (b) d) either (a) or (b)

2. A DC generator produces an output of 28 V at 20A. The power supplied by the generator will
be
A) 14Wb) 560W c) 1.4kW

3. Unit of power is
a) Fuel b) Newton c) Watt d) None

4. The lenz’s law is helpful to find

a) The direction of induced current
b) The polarity of induced magnetic field
c) The direction of induced emf
d) AOTA

5. Algebraic sum of applied voltage and voltage drop around any closed circuit is zero is,
a) KVL b) KCL c) Ohm law

6. A 3, 5 and 2 ohms resistance is connected in series with a 10 V battery. The voltage across
the 2 ohms resistor is____
a) 2 V. b) 10V. c) 4 V.

7. If the voltage across a resistor is doubled,

a) The current is doubled. b) The current is halved. c) The resistance is halved

8. A current of 5A flows for 2 minutes. How many coulombs passed a point in the circuit?
a) 2.5. b) 600. c) 100.
 NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical Resistance/Resistor 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.7 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description
Resistance
It property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity ( i.e.,
electrons) through it. The unit of resistance is ohm

Laws of Resistance
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors :
(i) It varies directly as its length, l.
(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.
(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv)It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that

Colour coding of resistance & values with tolerance.

Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohm’s (Ω’s)

 The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor.
 Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value.
 Resistance in Series 
In this situation, to find the total resistance is to basically add up all the resistor values.
1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.
2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage
drops.
4. Resistances are additive.

R1 + R2 + R3 = total resistance " Rt "

Resistance in Parallel
1. P.d. across all resistances is the same
2. current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s
Law and
3. The total current is the sum of the three separate currents.
To find the total resistance of a parallel circuit ,divide one
by each of the resistors. Next add them up and once
again divide one final answer.

Potentiometer
 a 3-terminal variable resistor and is used to adjust the resistance in a circuit
 Potentiometers are often used to vary voltage 
  It has a resistive element as the track and a sliding contact called the wiper.

Uses of a Potentiometer

 POTs are used for controlling the signal level of a circuit and not the power of the circuit
 Volume control on TV’s and other audio equipments.
 Used in joysticks as a position transducer.
 TRIAC switching applications.
 Voltage divider circuits.

Rheostat
 2-terminal variable resistor
 Rheostats are used to vary current.
 One terminal will be connected to the end of the track and the other to a moveable
wiper. 

Wheatstone bridge Circuit

By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in

the sensing arm of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to RX and
adjusting the opposing resistor, R3 to “balance” the bridge network,
will result in a zero voltage output.

The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of the

unknown resistance, RX at balance is given as:
 Where resistors, R1 and R2 are known or preset values.

Effect of Temperature on Resistance

The effect of rise in temperature is:
1. Toincrease the resistance of pure metals.
2. To increase the resistance of alloys,
3. To decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber, glass, mica
etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity

 For a positive or PTC, as temperatures increase the resistor's resistance also increases.
 Conversely, for a negative or NTC, as temperatures increase the resistor's resistance
decreases.

Fixed resistor , stability, tolerance & limitations

Fixed resistors are the resistors whose resistance does not change with the change in voltage or
temperature.
Types of fixed resistors:
 Wire wound resistor
 Carbon composition resistor
 Carbon film resistor
 Metal film resistor
 Metal oxide film resistor
 Metal glaze resistor
 Foil resistor
Thermistors
 It is a type of resistor whose electrical resistance changes in response to temperature.

 Types of thermistors
with the change in temperature:
 Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC) thermistors
 Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors

Advantages of thermistors
 The resistance of thermistors changes rapidly with small change in temperature.
 Low cost
 Small size
 It is easy to carry thermistors from one place to another place.

Disadvantages of thermistors
 Thermistors are not suitable over a wide operating range
 The resistance versus temperature characteristics is non-linear.

Applications of thermistors
 medical equipment
 Home appliances Computers.
 Temperature sensors.
 As inrush current limiter.

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. If the cross – sectional area of a conductor is reduced to half the resistance will
a) Doubles b) Becomes four times c)Halves d) No Change

2. In a series circuit, the largest resistance has

a) The largest voltage drop b) the smallest voltage drop

c) More current than other resistors d) both a and c

3. If two series opposing voltages each have voltage of 9V,the net or total voltage is
a) 0V b) 18V c) 9V

4. The linear and tapered potentiometers are the types of potentiometer.

a) True b) False

5. If resistance of material is decreases on increasing temperature then it is called as

negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
a) True b) False
6. A resistor has 4 bands on it colored blue, yellow, yellow, gold. Its value is.
a) 640 kΩ ± 5%. b) 6.4 mΩ ± 10%. c) 64 kΩ ± 5%
 7. In a Wheatstone Bridge, the ammeter reads zero, and the variable resistor is adjusted to
5 ohms. Resistor P has a value of 10 ohms and Q has a value of 100 ohms. What is the
value of the unknown resistor?
a) 5 ohms.b) 0.5 ohms.c) 50 ohms.

8. Potentiometers are used as a.

a) Variable resistor. b) Variable current source. c) variable voltage source.

9. Resistors required to carry a comparatively high current and dissipate high power are
usually of. a) Wire wound metal type. b) Carbon compound type. c) Wire wound
ceramic type.

10. What happens to the resistance of a copper conductor when the temperature
increases?.
A) It decreases. B) It increases. C) It remains the same

NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical Capacitance/Capacitor 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.8 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description
Capacitor
The purpose of a capacitor is to store electrical energy by
electrostatic stress in the dielectric
Working of capacitor:
 In Figure (a), after connecting supplies the plate marked B
becomes positively charged, and the A plate negatively
charged. Current flows in the external circuit during the
time the electrons are moving from B to A. The current
becomes zero as soon as the difference in voltage of A
and B becomes the same as the voltage of the battery.
 If the switch is opened as shown in Figure (b), the plates
remain charged.
 Once the capacitor is shorted, it will discharge quickly as shown Figure (c).

Capacitance
The property of a capacitor to ‘store electricity’ may be called
its capacitance.
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as “the amount of
chargerequired to create a unit p.d. between its plates.”

The unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt which is also called

farad;1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt

Identification of Capacitors by color coding system:

An International color coding scheme is a simple way of identifying capacitor values and
tolerances. Capacitor Color Code system and whose meanings are illustrated below:

 If we consider a four colour band

capacitor, then the first and second
colors marked on the capacitor
represents the value of the capacitor and
the third color band represents the
decimal multiplier in Pico farads.
Additional fourth or colour bands
thereon represent various things for
various types of capacitors.
 Capacitors in Series
In series combination, charge on all capacitors is the same but p.d. across each is different.

Capacitors in Parallel

In this case, p.d. across each is the same but charge on each is different
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 or
CV = C1V + C2V + C3V or
C = C1 + C2 + C3

Capacitive Reactance Xc:

 To what degree a capacitor allows an AC flow to pass depends largely upon the
capacitive value of the capacitor given in farads (f).
 Current in an AC circuit can be controlled by changing the circuit capacitance in a similar
manner that resistance can control the current. The actual AC reactance Xc, which just
like resistance, is measured in ohms (Ω).
 Capacitive reactance Xc is determined by the following:

Where Xc = Capacitive Reactance

f = frequency in cps
C = capacity in farads
2 = 6.28

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. Capacitance of capacitor
a) Increase with increasing in dielectric thickness
b) Decrease with increasing in dielectric thickness
c) Does not depend on thickness of dielectric
 2. The capacitance of capacitor is equal to
a) C=Q/V b) C=V/Q c) C= Q*V d) C=E/Q
3. The capacitive reactance dose not depends on the frequency and the value of that
capacitor.
a) True b) False
4. A capacitor is fully charged after 25 seconds to a battery voltage of 20 Volts. The battery is
replaced with a short circuit. What will be the voltage across the capacitor after one time
constant?
a) 0 volts.b) 7.36 volts. c) 12.64 volts
5. The voltage rating of a capacitor is________
a) The min voltage required to charge. b) The normal operating voltage. c) The max voltage
that can be constantly applied.
6. A capacitor with double the area and double the dielectric thickness will have____
a) Double the capacitance. b) The same capacitance. b) Half the capacitance.
7. The time constant of a capacitor is the time_____
a) The current to reach 63.2% of maximum. B) For the emf to reach 63.2% of maximum.
c) To reach maximum current
8. A capacitor has Brown, Black and Orange bands. It's value is.
a)10 picofarads. b) 10 nanofarads. c) 100 picofarads.

NOTES

Module Subject Topic Part no Sub Revision Reference Remarks

Part No with date book
03 Electrical Inductance/ Inductor 4.2.1.1 T 4.2.1.1.9 N/A FAA 9A
Fundamental-I BLT VOL 1
Description
Electromagnetic induction
When a magnetic field embracing a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produces a
flow of electrons in the conductor. This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence current (i.e.
flow of electrons) is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is
known as electromagneticinduction.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
First law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced
in it.
Or
Second Law:The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages.
 Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of Φ1
Webbers to the final value of Φ2 webers in time t seconds then e.m.f induce is given as,

Induced E.M.F.

Induced e.m.f. can be either

1) Dynamically induced: field is stationary and conductors cut across it
2) Statically induced: conductors are stationary and flux linked with it is changing. It can be
further sub-divided into (a) mutually induced e.m.f. and (b) self-induced e.m.f.

a) Mutually induced e.m.f :

 An e.m.f. induced in one coil by the influence of the other coil is called (statically but)
mutually induced e.m.f.

 The ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce an e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when
the current in the first coil changes is known as mutual inductance.
 Let a I1 = current flowing in the first coil ;
φ1 = flux produced by first coil;
N2 = number of turns in second coil.

b) Self-induced e.m.f.:
 This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked with it.
 Property of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease or current of flux
through it is known as self-inductance.

Inductor
1) An inductor is a passive two-terminal electrical component .
2) It stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it.
3) The primary aspect of the operation of a coil is its property to oppose any change in
current through it. This property is called inductance.

4) Used in analog circuits and signal processing.

Inductors in series and parallel

 Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference
(voltage).

 The current through inductors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each
inductor can be different.

The RL Time Constant

 Inductance is the property of a circuit to oppose any change in current.
 The rate at which the current changes is determined by a time constant represented by
tau (τ). The time constant for the RL circuit is:

Where, τ = seconds
L = inductance (H)
R = Resistance (Ω)
 Inductive Reactance.
 The effects of the magnetic fields are a continuously inducted voltage opposition to the
current in the circuit. This opposition is called inductive reactance, symbolized by X L, and
is measured in ohms.
 The inductive reactance of a component is directly proportional to the inductance of the
component and the applied frequency to the circuit. This relationship is given as:
XL = 2πfL

Where: XL = inductive reactance in ohms

f = frequency in cycles per second
π = 3.1416

Concept of Eddy current

 Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a
changing magnetic field in the conductor due to Faraday's law of induction.
 The loops are perpendicular to the plane of the magnetic field. 
 Can be minimized by providing proper insulation.

Sample Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. The faradays second law of electromagnetism states that
a) E=Ndɸ/dtb) E= -Ndɸ/dt c) E= dɸ/dt

2. Motor uses the

a)Faradays law of electromagnetic induction
b) Lenz’s law
c) both (a) and (b) d) either (a) or (b)

3. Eddy current should be eliminated in order to prevent equipment from the damage.
a) True b) False

4. For higher values of inductor the inductive reactance will be

a) High b) Low c) Zero d) infinite

5. In _______induced emf, the conductor is at stationary and magnetic field is moving.

a) Dynamically b) statically c) electromagnetically
d) both (a) and (b)

6. When inductors are connected in parallel their total inductance is given by

a) LT= L1+L2+L3+……………..+LN
 b) 1/LT= 1/L1+/L2+1/L3+……………..+1/LN
c) LT= L1-L2-L3-……………..-LN
d) 1/LT= 1/L1-/L2-1/L3-……………..-1/LN

7. Permeability of a material can be found by_______

a) Flux density / MMF. b) MMF * flux density. c) MMF / flux density.