CHAPTER 24 GAUSS’S LAW

 In previous chapter, we showed how to calculate the electric

field.
 We did it for charge at a point or charge over the symmetric
surface.
 However, to calculate electric field of highly symmetric charge
distributions is possible with Gauss’s Law.

ELECTRIC FLUX
The field lines penetrate a rectangular surface of area 𝐴, whose plane is oriented perpendicular to
the field. The number of lines per unit area is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
So, the total number of lines penetrating the surface is proportional to the product 𝐸𝐴. This
product is called the electric flux (Φ𝐸 ):

Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴

From the SI units of E and A, we see that Φ𝐸 has units of newton-meters squared per coulomb
(𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶). Electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines penetrating some
surface.
1
Example 24.1: Electric Flux Through a Sphere
What is the electric flux through a sphere that has a radius of 1.00 𝑚 and carries a charge of
+ 1.00 𝜇𝐶 at its center?

The magnitude of the electric field 1.00 𝑚 from this charge found using equation 𝐸 =
𝑞
𝑘𝑒 2 :
𝑟

𝑞 1 × 10−6
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 2 = 8.99 × 109 = 8.99 × 10 3 𝑁/𝐶
𝑟 1.00 2

The field points radially outward and is therefore everywhere perpendicular to the
surface of the sphere. The flux through the sphere (whose surface area 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
12.6 𝑚2 ) is thus

Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 = 8.99 × 103 12.6 = 1.13 × 105 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶

2
If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, the flux through it
must be less than that given by Equation Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴.
We can understand this by considering figure, where the normal to the surface of area
𝐴 is at an angle 𝜃 to the uniform electric field.
Note that the number of lines that cross this area 𝐴 is equal to the number that cross
the area 𝐴′, which is a projection of area 𝐴 onto a plane oriented perpendicular to the
field.
From figure we see that the two areas are related by 𝐴′ = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. Because the flux
through 𝐴 equals the flux through 𝐴′, we conclude that the flux through 𝐴 is

Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴′ = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃 is the angle between normal and electric field.

3
 Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝐴

The maximum value of magnitude of electric flux can be obtained when the surface is
perpendicular to the field (when the normal to the surface is parallel to the field, that is
θ = 0° in figure).

The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field (when the normal to the surface
is perpendicular to the field, that is 𝜃 = 90°).

4
 Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝐴
If the electric field vary over a large surface, the upper definition of flux can be applied for
a small element of area. General surface is divided into a large number (𝑖) of small
elements (∆𝐴𝑖 ). The electric flux Φ𝐸,𝑖 through this element is
Φ𝐸,𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 ∆𝐴𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑖
Summing the contributions of all elements gives the total flux through the surface,
approximately
Φ𝐸 ≅ 𝐸𝑖 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑖

If we let the area of each element approach zero, the sum is replaced by an integral.
Therefore, the general definition of electric flux is

Φ𝐸 = lim 𝐸𝑖 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑖 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
∆𝐴𝑖 →0 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
This equation is a surface integral, which means it must be evaluated over the surface in
question.
If the electric field parameters of the closed surface like a sphere the net flux Φ𝐸 through a closed surface can
be written as

Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛 𝑑𝐴

𝐸𝑛 represents the component of the electric field normal to the surface.

5
 A closed surface is defined as a surface that divides space
into an inside and an outside region so that one cannot
move from one region to the other without crossing the
surface. The surface of a sphere, for example, is a closed
surface. The direction of the area vector is chosen so that
the vector points outward from the surface.

 At the element labeled 1, the field lines are crossing the

surface from the inside to the outside and 𝜃 < 90°; hence,
the flux through this element is positive.
For element 2, the field lines are parallel to the surface
(perpendicular to area vector); therefore, 𝜃 = 90° and the
flux is zero.
For elements 3, where the field lines are crossing the surface
from outside to inside, 𝜃 > 90° and the flux is negative.

 The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net

number of lines leaving the surface, where the net number
means the number of lines leaving the surface minus the
number of lines entering the surface. If more lines are leaving
than entering, the net flux is positive. If more lines are
entering than leaving, the net flux is negative. 6
Example 24.2: Flux Through a Cube The flux through four of the forces (3, 4, and the unnumbered ones)
is zero because 𝐸 ⊥ 𝑑 𝐴.
Consider a uniform electric field 𝐸
oriented in the x direction. Find the Write the integrals for the net flux through faces 1 and 2:
net electric flux through the surface
of a cube of edge length 𝑙, oriented Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 + 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
as shown in figure. 1 2
For face 1, 𝐸 is constant and directed inward but 𝑑 𝐴1 is directed
outward (𝜃 = 180°). Find the flux through this face:

𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠180° 𝑑𝐴 = −𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = −𝐸𝐴 = −𝐸𝑙 2

1 1 1
For face 2, 𝐸 is constant and outward and in the same direction as
𝑑 𝐴2 (𝜃 = 0°). Find the flux through this face:

𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠0° 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = +𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝑙 2
2 2 2
Find the net flux by adding the flux over all six faces:

Φ𝐸 = −𝐸𝑙 2 + 𝐸𝑙 2 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0

7
GAUSS’S LAW
We describe a relationship between the net electric flux through a closed
surface (often called a gaussian surface) and the charge enclosed by the
surface. This relationship, known as Gauss’s law.
Consider a positive point charge 𝑞 located at the center of a sphere. The
magnitude of the electric field everywhere on the surface of the sphere is 𝐸 =
𝑘𝑒 𝑞 𝑟 2 . At each surface point 𝐸 is parallel to the vector ∆𝐴𝑖
𝐸 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑖 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑖

We find that the net flux through the gaussian surface is

Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴

We have moved 𝐸 outside of the integral, and it is constant. The value of 𝐸 is

given by 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑞 𝑟 2 . Surface area of sphere is 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . Net flux
through the gaussian surface is
𝑞 2
1 𝑞
Φ𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑘𝑒 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑒 = ⇒ Φ𝐸 =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝜖0
8
The net electric flux is the same through all surfaces. Because the net
flux any closed surface surrounding a point charge q is given by 𝒒/𝝐𝟎
and is independent of the shape of that surface.

If the point charge located outside a closed surface of arbitrary shape?

The number of electric field lines entering the surface equals the
number leaving the surface. Therefore, the net electric flux through a
closed surface that surrounds no charge is zero.

9
Consider the system of charges shown in figure.

The surface 𝑆 surrounds only one charge, 𝑞1. Hence, the net flux
through 𝑆 is 𝑞1 /𝜖0 .

The flux due to charges 𝑞2, 𝑞3, and 𝑞4 through 𝑆 surface is zero.
Because electric field lines of them enter 𝑆 at one point and
leaves it at another.

The net flux through 𝑆′ is (𝑞2 + 𝑞3 )/𝜖0.

The net flux through 𝑆′′ is zero. Because there is no charge inside
this surface.

Notice that charge 𝑞4 does not contribute to the net flux through
any of the surfaces because it is outside all of the surfaces.

10
APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO VARIOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
The generalized form of Gauss’s Law is, (the net flux through any closed surface is)
𝑞𝑖𝑛
GAUSS’S LAW: Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 =
𝜖0
where 𝑞𝑖𝑛 represents the net charge inside the surface and 𝐸 represents the electric field at any
point on the surface.
Gauss’s law is useful for determining electric fields when the charge distribution is highly
symmetric.
If the gaussian surface is chosen carefully (like sphere, cylinder or planar) this integral can be
simplified and the electric field can be determined.

Example 24.4: The Electric Field Due to a Point Charge. Starting with
Gauss’s law, calculate the electric field due to an isolated point charge 𝑞.
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞 𝑞
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 = → 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = → 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜖0
2
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
→ 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 ) = → 𝐸 = = 𝑘𝑒 2
𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟
11
Example 24.5: A Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution
An insulating solid sphere of radius 𝑎 has a uniform volume charge density 𝜌 and carries a total
positive charge 𝑄 (Fig.). (a) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point outside the
sphere. (b) Find the magnitude of the electric field at a point inside the sphere.

(a) Let’s choose a spherical gaussian sphere reflecting the spherical symmetry. (𝐸 ∥ 𝑑 𝐴)
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑄
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = =
𝜖0 𝜖0
E is constant over the surface because of the symmetry, so E can be removed from the integral
2
𝑄
𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 ) =
𝜖0
Solve for E,
𝑄 𝑄
𝐸= 2
= 𝑘𝑒 2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑎)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 𝑟
The field is identical to point charge field.

12
Continue … (b) Find the magnitude of the electric field at a point inside the sphere.

(b) Charge 𝑞𝑖𝑛 within the gaussian surface is less than 𝑄. (𝑉′: volume of the gaussian sphere)
4
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑉 ′ = 𝜌( 𝜋𝑟 3 )
3
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝜖0
Solve for E,
4 3
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜌( 𝜋𝑟 ) 𝜌
𝐸= = 3 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 3𝜖0
4
𝜌 = 𝑄 𝜋𝑎3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖0 = 1 4𝜋𝑘𝑒 ,
3
4
𝑄 𝜋𝑎3 𝑄
𝐸= 3 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑒 3 𝑟 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 𝑎)
3(1/4𝜋𝑘𝑒 ) 𝑎

13
Continue …

Suppose the radial position 𝑟 = 𝑎 is approached from inside the sphere and from outside.

𝑄 𝑄
𝐸 = lim 𝑘𝑒 2 = 𝑘𝑒 2 ; from the outside
𝑟→𝑎 𝑟 𝑎

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐸 = lim 𝑘𝑒 3 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑒 3 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑒 2 ; from the inside
𝑟→𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

So, the value of field is the same as the

surface is approached from both directions. A
plot of E versus r is shown in figure.
The magnitude of the field is continuous.

14
Example 24.6: The Electric Field Due to a Thin
Spherical Shell
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total
charge Q distributed uniformly over its surface
(Fig.a). Find the electric field at points (a) outside
and (b) inside the shell.

(a) The calculation for the field outside the shell is identical to that for the solid sphere shown in
Example 24.5a. If we construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius 𝑟 > 𝑎 concentric with the
shell (Fig. b), the charge inside this surface is 𝑄. Therefore, the field at a point outside the shell is
equivalent to that due to a point charge 𝑄 located at the center:

𝑄
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑎)
𝑟

(b) 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 0:
E = 0 (for 𝑟 < 𝑎)

15
Example 24.7: A Cylindrically
Symmetric Charge Distribution
To reflect the symmetry of the charge distribution, the
Find the electric field a cylindrical gaussian surface of radius 𝑟 and length 𝑙 is chosen.
distance 𝑟 from a line of (𝜆 = 𝑞/𝑙)
positive charge of infinite 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜆𝑙
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 = =
length and constant charge per 𝜖0 𝜖0
unit length 𝜆 (Fig.a).
The area of the curved surface is 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙, therefore,

𝜆𝑙 𝜆 𝜆
𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = ⇒𝐸= = 2𝑘𝑒
𝜖0 2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 𝑟

Because of the zero value of 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 for the ends of the

cylinder, however, we can restrict our attention to only the
curved surface of the cylinder.
End view

16
Example 24.8: A Plane of
Charge Write Gauss’s law for this surface, enclosed charge is 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝐴.
The total flux through the entire gaussian surface is through the
Find the electric field due to an
ends;
infinite plane of positive
The flux through each end of the cylinder is 𝐸𝐴; hence, the total
charge with uniform surface
flux through the entire gaussian surface is just that through the
charge density 𝜎.
ends, Φ𝐸 = 2𝐸𝐴.
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝐴
Φ𝐸 = 2𝐸𝐴 = =
𝜖0 𝜖0

Solve for E,

𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜖0

There is no distance term in 𝐸. So field is uniform everwhere.

17
CONDUCTORS in ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor is in
electrostatic equilibrium. A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following
properties:

1. Inside the conductor the electric field is zero everywhere.

2. If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge resides on its surface.

3. The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the
𝜎
surface of the conductor and has a magnitude , where 𝜎 is the surface charge density
𝜖0
at that point.

4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest at locations

where the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest.
18
We can understand the first property by considering a conducting slab placed in
an external field 𝐸 (Fig.). The electric field inside the conductor must be zero,
assuming electrostatic equilibrium exists. If the field were not zero, free
electrons in the conductor would experience an electric force (𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸) and
would accelerate due to this force. This means that the conductor is not in
electrostatic equilibrium. Therefore, the existence of electrostatic equilibrium is
consistent only with a zero field in the conductor. The free electrons move to the
left plate leaving positive charges at the right plate. So, electric field occur inside
conductor cancelling external electric field. If both of electric field equal each
other, the electrons do not move anymore, and the electrostatic equilibrium
occur in the conductor.
At the conductor, all charge is located on the surface. How can we determine the
electric field out of a charged surface? We use Gauss’s law and draw a small
cylinder as a gaussian surface.
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝐴
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 = =
𝜖0 𝜖0
Solving for 𝐸,
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜖0
We used surface charge density. Because we consider a charged conductor. 19
Example 24.10: A Sphere Inside a Region 1 (𝒓 < 𝒂): Because there is no charge inside a conductor
Spherical Shell in electrostatic equilibrium, we see that 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 0. Using Gauss’s
law, we find that
A solid conducting sphere of radius 𝑎 𝐸1 = 0
carries a net positive charge 2𝑄 . A Region 2 (𝐚 < 𝒓 < 𝒃): 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑄. Using Gauss’s law, we write that
conducting spherical shell of inner radius 2
𝑞𝑖𝑛 2𝑄 2𝑄 2𝑘𝑒 𝑄
𝐸2 𝐴 = 𝐸2 4𝜋𝑟 = = ⇒ 𝐸2 = = 2
𝑏 and outer radius 𝑐 is concentric with the 𝜖0 𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟
Region 3 (𝐛 < 𝒓 < 𝒄): Because the spherical shell is also a
solid sphere and carries a net charge −𝑄.
conductor in equilibrium, 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 0. Using Gauss’s law, we find that
Using Gauss’s law, find the electric field in 𝐸3 = 0
the regions labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4 in figure Region 4 (𝒓 > 𝒄): We calculate the total charge of the system
and the charge distribution on the shell 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑄 + −𝑄 = 𝑄. Using Gauss’s law, we find that
when the entire system is in electrostatic 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝑄 𝑘𝑒 𝑄
𝐸4 𝐴 = 𝐸4 4𝜋𝑟 2 = = ⇒ 𝐸4 = =
equilibrium. 𝜖0 𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟2

The charge distribution on the shell when the entire system is in

electrostatic equilibrium: If we construct a gaussian surface of
radius 𝑟 where 𝑏 < 𝑟 < 𝑐, we see that 𝑞𝑖𝑛 must be zero because
𝐸3 = 0. From this argument, we conclude that the charge on the
inner surface of the spherical shell must be −2𝑄 to cancel the
charge +2𝑄 on the solid sphere. Because the net charge on the
shell is −𝑄, we conclude that its outer surface must carry a
charge +𝑄.
20
PROBLEMS
Problem 24.7: A pyramid with horizontal square base, 6.00 𝑚 on each side, and a height of 4.00 𝑚 is placed in
a vertical electric field of 52.0 𝑁/𝐶. Calculate the total electric flux through the pyramid’s four slanted
surfaces.
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = =0
𝜀0
𝐸
𝐸 𝑑 𝐴 + 𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠180˚ + 𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0
52 ∗ 36 ∗ −1 +𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0 6m
𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 1.87𝑥10+3 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 6m

Problem 24.13: Calculate the total electric flux through the paraboloidal surface due to a uniform electric
field of magnitude 𝐸0 in the direction shown in figure.
The flux through the curved surface is equal to the flux through the flat circle,
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑑 𝐴 = =0
𝜀0
𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 =0
𝐸0 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠180˚ + 𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0
𝐸 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 =𝐸0 𝜋𝑟 2 21
Problem 24.8: A cone with base radius 𝑅 and Problem 24.11: Four closed surfaces,
height ℎ is located on a horizontal table. A 𝑆1 through 𝑆4 , together with the
horizontal uniform field 𝐸 penetrates the cone, charges −2𝑄 , 𝑄 , and −𝑄 are
as shown in figure. Determine the electric flux sketched in figure. (The colored lines
that enters the left-hand side of the cone. are the intersections of the surfaces
with the page.) Find the electric flux
through each surface.
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 =
𝜖0

−2𝑄 + 𝑄 𝑄
The flux entering the closed surface equals the Through 𝑆1 : Φ𝐸 = =−
𝜖0 𝜖0
flux exiting the surface. The flux entering the
left side of the cone is
+𝑄 − 𝑄
Through 𝑆2 : Φ𝐸 = =0
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐸(𝑅ℎ)𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜖0

This is the same as the flux that exits the right −2𝑄 + 𝑄 − 𝑄 2𝑄
Through 𝑆3 : Φ𝐸 = =−
side of the cone. 𝜖0 𝜖0
Note that for a uniform field only the cross
sectional area matters, not shape. Through 𝑆4 : Φ𝐸 = 0
22
Problem 24.15: A point charge
𝑄 is located just above the (a) With 𝛿 very small, all points on the hemisphere are nearly at a
center of the flat face of a distance 𝑅 from the charge, so the field everywhere on the curved
𝑘 𝑄
hemisphere of radius R as surface is 𝑒2 radially outward (normal to the surface). Therefore,
𝑅
shown in figure. What is the the flux is this field strength times the area of half a sphere:
electric flux (a) through the
curved surface and (b) through Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
the flat face?
𝑄 1 2
1
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋𝑅 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑄 2𝜋 = 𝑄 2𝜋
𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜖0
+𝑄
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 =
2𝜖0

(b) The closed surface encloses zero charge Gauss’s law gives

Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 + Φ𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 0
−𝑄
Φ𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 = −Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 =
2𝜖0
23
Problem 24.17: A point charge 𝑄 = 𝑞𝑖𝑛
5.00 𝜇𝐶 is located at the center of a Φ𝐸 =
𝜖0
cube of edge 𝐿 = 0.100 𝑚 . In
addition, six other identical point
charges having 𝑞 = −1.00 𝜇𝐶 are The total charge is 𝑄 − 6 𝑞 . The total outward
𝑄−6 𝑞
positioned symmetrically around 𝑄 as flux from the cube is , of whicf one-sixth goes
𝜖0
shown in figure. Determine the
through each face:
electric flux through one face of the
1 𝑄−6 𝑞 𝑄−6 𝑞
cube. Φ𝐸 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = ∗ =
6 𝜖0 6𝜖0

5 − 6 ∗ 10−6
Φ𝐸 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =
6(8.85 ∗ 10−12 )

Φ𝐸 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = −18.8 ∗ 103 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶

24
Problem 24.19: An infinitely long line charge having a
uniform charge per unit length 𝜆 lies a distance 𝑑
from point 𝑂 as shown in figure. Determine the total
electric flux through the surface of a sphere of radius
𝑅 centered at 𝑂 resulting from this line charge.
Consider both cases, where 𝑅 ≤ 𝑑 and 𝑅 > 𝑑.
If 𝑅 ≤ 𝑑 , the sphere
encloses no charge and
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = =0
𝜖0
If 𝑅 > 𝑑, the lenght of
line falling within the
sphere is 2 𝑅2 − 𝑑 2
2𝜆 𝑅2 − 𝑑2
Φ𝐸 =
𝜖0
Problem 24.31: Consider a thin spherical shell
of radius 14.0 𝑐𝑚 with a total charge of
32.0 𝜇𝐶 distributed uniformly on its surface.
Find the electric field (a) 10.0 𝑐𝑚 and (b)
20.0 𝑐𝑚 from the center of the charge
distribution.
(a) 𝐸 = 0
(b)
𝑘𝑒 𝑄 (8.99 ∗ 109 )(32 ∗ 10−6 )
𝐸= 2 =
𝑟 (0.2)2
𝐸 = 7.19 ∗ 106 𝑁/𝐶
radially outward
25
Problem 24.50: A conducting spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius 𝑏 carries a
net charge 𝑄. A point charge 𝑞 is placed at the center of this shell. Determine the surface
charge density on (a) the inner surface of the shell and (b) the outer surface of the shell.

(a) The charge +𝑞 at the center induces charge −𝑞 on the inner surface of the
conductor, where its surface density is:

−𝑞
𝜎𝑎 =
4𝜋𝑎2

(b) The outer surface carries charge Q + 𝑞 with density

𝑄+𝑞
𝜎𝑏 =
4𝜋𝑏 2

26
Problem 24.55: A solid insulating sphere of radius 𝑎 carries a net positive charge 3𝑄, uniformly distributed
throughout its volume. Concentric with this sphere is a conducting spherical shell with inner radius 𝑏 and
outer radius 𝑐, and having a net charge −𝑄, as shown in figure. (a) Construct a spherical gaussian surface of
radius 𝑟 > 𝑐 and find the net charge enclosed by this surface. (b) What is the direction of the electric field at
𝑟 > 𝑐? (c) Find the electric field at 𝑟 > 𝑐. (d) Find the electric field in the region with radius 𝑟 where 𝑐 > 𝑟 >
𝑏. (e) Construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius 𝑟, where 𝑐 > 𝑟 > 𝑏, and find the net charge enclosed by
this surface. (f) Construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius 𝑟, where 𝑏 > 𝑟 > 𝑎, and find the net charge
enclosed by this surface. (g) Find the electric field in the region 𝑏 > 𝑟 > 𝑎.

(a) 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = +3𝑄 − 𝑄 (d) Since all points within this region are located inside
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = +2𝑄 conducting material, 𝐸 = 0 for b < r < c.
(b) The charge (e) Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴 = 0 ⇒ 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝜖0 Φ𝐸 = 0
distribution is spherically
symetric and 𝑞𝑖𝑛 > 0 . (f) 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = +3𝑄
Thus, the field is directed
𝑘 𝑞 3𝑘 𝑄
radially outward. (g) 𝐸 = 𝑒 2𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒2
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 𝑞𝑖𝑛 2𝑘𝑒 𝑄 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏.
(c) 𝐸 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≥ 𝑐.
𝑟2 𝑟2

27
Continue…
+3𝑄 4 𝑟3
(h) Construct a spherical gaussian surface of (h) 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑉 = 4 𝜋𝑟 3 = +3𝑄 3
𝜋𝑎3 3 𝑎
radius 𝑟 < 𝑎, and find an expression for the 3

net charge enclosed by this surface, as a 𝑘𝑒 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑒 𝑟3 𝑟

(i) 𝐸 = = +3𝑄 3 = 3𝑘𝑒 𝑄 3
function of 𝑟. Note that the charge inside this 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑎 𝑎
surface is less than 3𝑄. (i) Find the electric 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎.
field in the region 𝑟 < 𝑎. (j) Determine the
charge on the inner surface of the conducting (j) From part (d), 𝐸 = 0 for b < r < c . Thus, for a
shell. (k) Determine the charge on the outer spherical gaussian surface with b < r < c, 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = +3𝑄 +
surface of the conducting shell. (l) Make a plot 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 0 where 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 is the charge on the inner
of the magnitude of the electric field versus 𝑟. surface of the conducting shell. This yields 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = −3𝑄

(k) Since the total charge on the conducting shell is

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = −𝑄
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = −𝑄 − 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = −Q − −3Q = +2Q

(l) This is shown

in the figure to
the right.

28
A flat slab of nonconducting material carries a uniform charge per unit volume, 𝜌𝐸. The slab has
thickness d which is small compared to the height and breadth of the slab. Determine the electric
field as a function of x inside the slab, and outside the slab (at distances much less than the slab’s
height or breadth). Take the origin at the center of the slab.

29