4

1
 Section 24.1: Electric Flux
• The product of the magnitude of the electric field 𝐸 and the surface area 𝐴
perpendicular to the field:
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴
𝑁
• SI units: ∙ 𝑚2
𝐶

• 𝜑𝐸 is proportional to the number of field lines that penetrate the surface.

• Since the number of field lines that go through the area 𝐴┴ is the same as the
number that go through area 𝐴, then the flux through 𝐴 equals the flux
through 𝐴┴ :
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴┴ = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃
• Electric flux is given by:
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐄 ∙ 𝐀 assuming 𝑬 is uniform
⇒ 𝜑𝐸 is maximum when 𝜃 = 0° (the normal to the surface is parallel to the
field) → surface perpendicular to field.
⇒ 𝜑𝐸 is minimum when 𝜃 = 90° (the normal to the surface is perpendicular to
the field) → surface parallel to field.
- If the field varies over the surface, 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 is valid only for a small
element of area.
Dr. Suhad Sbeih 2
• In General:

- At each element, the area ∆𝐀 𝑖 is normal to the surface and:

∆𝜑𝐸 = 𝐄 ∙ ∆𝐀 𝒊

- When ∆𝐀 𝑖 → 0, the total flux:

𝜑𝐸 = lim σ𝑖 𝐄 ∙ ∆𝐀 𝒊
∆𝐀 𝑖 →0

𝜑𝐸 = න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀
surface

- The value of flux depends on both: the field pattern and the surface.

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 3

* Flux through a closed surface:
- Closed surface: divides space into inside and outside regions.
- Consider a closed surface and an electric field penetrating
through that surface.

𝜑𝐸 = ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀

the integration over a closed surface

- The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net

number of lines leaving the surface.

⇒ Net number = # of lines leaving the surface

− # of lines entering the surface

= 𝑁out − 𝑁in

• If 𝑁out > 𝑁in ⇒ 𝜑𝐸 is positive.

• If 𝑁out < 𝑁in ⇒ 𝜑𝐸 is negative.
the field lines are the field lines the field lines are
crossing the surface graze surface; crossing the surface
from the outside to θ = 90o, 𝜑 = 0 from the inside to
the inside; the outside; θ < 90o,
180 > 𝜃 > 90°
o 𝜑 is positive.
, 𝜑 is negative. Dr. Suhad Sbeih 4
Net electric flux through the closed surface is given by:

𝜑𝐸 = ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀

This is equal to the flux through the six open-surfaces (cube faces):

𝜑𝐸 = ‫ 𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׬‬+ ‫𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׬‬+ ‫𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׬‬+ ‫𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׬‬+ ‫𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׬‬+ ‫𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׬‬
1 2 3 4 5 6

‫ 𝐴𝑑 𝐸 ׬‬cos 90 = 0 ( because 𝐄 ┴ 𝑑𝐀 ) The electric field lines are

perpendicular to faces (1 and 2) and
parallel to the other four faces.
𝜑𝐸 = ‫ 𝐴𝑑 𝐸 ׬‬cos 180 + ‫ 𝐴𝑑 𝐸 ׬‬cos 0
1 2

𝜑𝐸 = −𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 = −𝐸𝑙2 + 𝐸𝑙2 = 0

Net electric flux through closed surface is ZERO.

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 5

 Section 24.2: Gauss’s Law
• It says that the net electric flux 𝜑𝐸 through any gaussian surface (closed surface) is equal to the net charge
𝑞𝑖𝑛 inside the surface divided by 𝜀0 .
• Consider a positive point charge 𝑞 located at the center of a sphere of radius 𝑟.
• The magnitude of its electric field 𝐸 at a distance 𝑟 is:
𝑞
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑟2
• Electric field lines are directed radially outwards and perpendicular to the
surface; parallel to the vector ∆𝐀 𝒊 .
• The flux through an element area is given by: 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐄 ∙ ∆𝐀 𝒊 , 𝐄 ∆𝐀𝒊
= 𝐸 ∆𝐴𝑖
• The net flux is: 𝜑𝐸 = ‫𝐴𝑑 ׯ 𝐸 = 𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׯ‬
- 𝐸 is constant over the surface (everywhere on the surface).

• For a spherical surface:

𝑞
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 , 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟2

𝑞 2
4𝜋 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐴 = 𝑘𝑒 × 4𝜋𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑘 𝑒 𝑞 = = ⇒ 𝜑𝐸 = 𝜀 𝝋𝑬 is 𝒓-independent
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀0 0
1
𝑘𝑒 =
4𝜋𝜀0
• Gauss’s law is valid for any charge configuration but in practice it is limited to symmetric situations.
• We always choose a symmetric gaussian surface. Dr. Suhad Sbeih 6
• Consider several closed surfaces surrounding a charge 𝑞.
• Surface 𝑆1 is spherical but surfaces 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 are not.
• Since the flux is proportional number of electric field lines passing through the
surface, the net electric flux is the same through all the surfaces.
𝜑𝐸 𝑆1 = 𝜑𝐸 𝑆2 = 𝜑𝐸 𝑆3

• Therefore, the net flux through any closed surfaces surrounding a point charge
𝑞
𝑞 is given by and is independent of the shape of the surface.
𝜀0
• The mathematical form of Gauss’s Law is:
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜑𝐸 = ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀0
𝑞𝑖𝑛
⇒ ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀0

- 𝐸 is the electric field at any point on the surface.

- 𝑞𝑖𝑛 is the net charge inside the surface.

• What if the charge is outside the closed surface with any arbitrary shape?

• Any field line entering the surface leaves at another point.

• The electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge is ZERO.
Dr. Suhad Sbeih 7
* Example: Find the electric flux through the three surfaces shown.

𝑞1
𝜑𝐸 𝑆 =
𝜀0
𝒒𝟐 +𝒒𝟑
𝑞2 − 𝑞3 Or we can write but taking
𝜺𝟎
𝜑𝐸 𝑆′ = the charge sign into consideration.
𝜀0

𝜑𝐸 𝑆 ′′ =0 No charge inside

* Notes:

• Its true that the Flux has no direction. But whether the field line is directed inward or outward matters
in flux calculation. Remember the angle between 𝐄 and 𝐀 matters in the dot product.

• Zero flux is not zero field! If the NET charge enclosed is zero or there is no charge inside a closed
surface doesn’t mean that there is no field. Gauss’s law states that the flux is proportional to the
enclosed charge not electric field.

• Even if the gaussian surface (closed surface) is not symmetric, Gauss’s law is satisfied. But we can't
calculate the integral. We need to choose a symmetric surface.

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 8

𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 𝜃
The maximum value of 𝜑𝐸 occurs when 𝜃 = 0 (field is perpendicular to the area).
𝜑𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝐸𝐴
The area of the circular loop: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜑𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜑𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑥 5.2×105
𝐸= = = 4.14 × 106 = 4.41 MN/C
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋 0.2 2

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 9

 𝑦

(a) The electric field is perpendicular to the surface, so 𝜃 = 0°:

𝑥
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 0 = 3.5 × 103 0.35 × 0.7 × 1 = 858 N.m2/C
𝑧
𝑦

(b) The electric field is parallel to the surface, so 𝜃 = 90°:

𝐸
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 90 = zero
𝑥

𝑧
(c) For the specified plane, so 𝜃 = 40°: 𝑦
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 40 = 3.5 × 103 0.35 × 0.7 × 0.766 = 657 N.m2/C
𝐸

𝑧 Dr. Suhad Sbeih 10

more lines entering than leaving

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 11

 𝑄
(a) From 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑟2

𝐸 𝑟2 890×0.752
𝑄= = = 5.57 × 10−8 C
𝑘𝑒 8.99×109

But 𝑄 is negative since 𝐄 points inwards, so:

𝑄 = −5.57 × 10−8 = −55.7 nC

(b) The negative charge has a spherically symmetric charge distribution, concentric
with the spherical shell.

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 12

The total charge is 𝑄 − 6 𝑞 .
𝑄−6 𝑞
The total outward flux from the cube is , of which one-sixth goes through each face:
𝜀0

𝑄−6 𝑞 5.00−6.00 ×10−6

𝜑𝐸 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = = = −18.8 kN.m2 / C
6 𝜀0 6×8.85×10−12

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 13

 Section 24.3: Application of Gauss’s Law to Various Charge Distributions

• To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a gaussian surface over which the surface integral can be simplified,
and the electric field determined. Take advantage of symmetry.

• Try to choose a gaussian surface that satisfies one or more of these conditions:
- The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be constant over the surface.
- The dot product of 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀 can be expressed as a simple algebraic product 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 because 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are parallel.
- The dot product is 0 because 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are perpendicular.
- The field is zero over the portion of the surface.

• Remember: gaussian surface is an imaginary surface you construct to satisfy these conditions. It doesn’t have
to coincide with a physical surface in the situation. is not a real surface.

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 14

To reflect the spherical symmetry, let’s choose a spherical gaussian surface of
radius 𝑟 > 𝑎 , outside (enclosing) the charged sphere and concentric with it for
finding the electric field at a point outside the sphere.
Applying Gauss’s law and integrate over the gaussian surface:

𝑞𝑖𝑛
ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀 = 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are parallel everywhere
𝜀0

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝐴: area of gaussian surface

ර 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = → 𝐸 ර 𝑑𝐴 = → 𝐸𝐴 = (area of sphere with radius 𝑟)
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝜀0

𝐸 is constant everywhere

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐸 4 𝜋 𝑟2 = → 𝐸= → 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 for (𝑟 > 𝑎)
𝜀0 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟2

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 15

 • Let’s choose a spherical gaussian surface of radius 𝑟 < 𝑎, inside the insulating
charged sphere and concentric with it.
• Apply Gauss’s law and integrate over the gaussian surface:

𝑞𝑖𝑛
ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀0
• Let 𝑉 ′ be the volume of the smaller sphere of the gaussian surface.
• To apply Gauss’s law in this situation, recognize that the charge 𝑞𝑖𝑛 within the
𝑄
gaussian surface of volume 𝑉 ′ is less than 𝑄 and can be calculated as:
4
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌 𝑉 ′ = 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3
3
4
𝑉′ = 𝜋 𝑟3
4 4 4 3
𝜌 3 𝜋 𝑟3 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3
3 3
‫= 𝐴𝑑 𝐸 ׯ‬ 𝜀0
→ 𝐸 ‫= 𝐴𝑑 ׯ‬
𝜀0
→ 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0 4
𝑉= 𝜋 𝑎3
𝐄 𝑑𝐀 𝐸 = constant 3
1
𝑟
𝜀0 =
4 𝜋𝑘𝑒
2 2 𝜌 4 𝜋 𝑟3 𝜌𝑟 4
𝐴=4𝜋𝑟 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 = → 𝐸= → 𝐸 = 𝜋𝑘𝑒 𝜌 𝑟
3 𝜀0 3𝜀0 3

𝑄 𝑄
• Also, to give the answer in terms of 𝑄, substitute: 𝜌 = =4
𝑉
3
𝜋 𝑎3

𝑄𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 for (𝑟 < 𝑎)
𝑎3
Dr. Suhad Sbeih 16
• E over all:

𝑄 ,𝑟<𝑎
𝑘𝑒 𝑟
𝑎3
𝐸=
𝑄
𝑘𝑒 ,𝑟>𝑎
𝑟2

𝑄 𝑄
• At 𝑟 = 𝑎 : 𝑘𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑎3 𝑎2
𝑎2

1
𝐸∝
𝐸∝𝑟 𝑟2

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 17

(a) If 𝑅 < 𝑑, the sphere encloses No charge.
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜑𝐸 = = 0.
𝜀0
𝑙
2
(b) If 𝑅 > 𝑑, the length of line falling within the 𝑅

Sphere is: 𝑙 𝑑
𝑅
𝑙 = 2 𝑅2 − 𝑑2 2
𝑑 𝑅 2
𝑅 =𝑑 +
𝑙 2
- The charge enclosed by the sphere in this case: 2
𝑂 2
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = λ 𝑙 = 2 λ 𝑅2 − 𝑑2 𝑙
= 𝑅2 − 𝑑2
2
- So flux equals: 𝑙
= 𝑅2 − 𝑑2
2
2 λ 𝑅2 − 𝑑2
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀0

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 18

 Electric field lines
(Top view)

• The electric field lines are perpendicular to the linear charge

distribution (radially outward).
• To reflect the symmetry of charge distribution, let’s choose a
cylindrical gaussian surface of radius 𝑟 and length 𝑙, coaxial with the
line charge.
• 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are parallel for the cylinder’s side (curved surface) →
max. flux, but are perpendicular at the cylinder’s bases → zero flux.
• Apply Gauss’s law and integrate over the gaussian surface:

𝑞𝑖𝑛
‫= 𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׯ‬ 𝜀0
,𝐄 𝑑𝐀 and 𝐸 is constant for the side surface

𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = , 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = λ𝑙 , 𝐴𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑙
𝜀0
λ𝑙 λ 1 1
𝐸 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑙 = 𝐸= , 𝑘𝑒 = 2 𝑘𝑒 =
𝜀0 2𝜋 𝑟 𝜀0 4 𝜋 𝜀0 2 𝜋 𝜀0

λ
𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑒
𝑟
Dr. Suhad Sbeih 19
• The electric field lines are perpendicular to the plane and pointing away +
+ +
𝐄 + +
from the both sides of the plane. (on both sides). + + + +
+ +
• To reflect the symmetry of charge distribution, let’s choose a cylindrical + + + +
+ +
+ + + 𝐄
gaussian surface whose axis is perpendicular to the plane, and whose ends + +
+ +
each has an area 𝐴 and are equidistant from the plane. + + +
+ +
+ + + +
• 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are parallel at the ends of the cylinder (bases) → max. flux, but +
+ +
are perpendicular for the cylinder’s side (curved surface) → zero flux.
• Apply Gauss’s law and integrate over the gaussian surface:

𝑞𝑖𝑛
‫= 𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׯ‬ 𝜀0
,𝐄 𝑑𝐀 for the 2 bases

𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝐴+𝐸𝐴= , A = 𝜋𝑟 2 , 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝐴
𝜀0
𝜎𝐴
2𝐸𝐴=
𝜀0
𝑑𝐀
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜀0

• The electric field has the same magnitude at any distance from the plane.
Dr. Suhad Sbeih 20
 Section 24.4: Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

• When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor

is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium.

• If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge resides on its
surface.

• The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor. Whether the
conductor is solid or hollow

• The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is

perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude of σ/εo . 𝜎 is the surface
charge density at that point.

• On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest

at locations where the radius of curvature is the smallest.

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 21

(1) for 𝑟 < 𝑎:
𝑄 𝑟
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜌 𝑉′
‫= 𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׯ‬ 𝜀0
→ 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑎

𝜌4𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 4
𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 = → 𝐸= , 𝜌= =4 4 𝑉′ =
3
𝜋 𝑟3
3𝜀0 3𝜀0 𝑉
3
𝜋𝑎3 𝑉 = 𝜋 𝑎3
3
𝑄𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑎3

(2) for 𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏:

𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
‫= 𝐀𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 ׯ‬ → 𝐸𝐴 = → 𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 = → 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝜀0 𝑟2

(3) for 𝑏 < 𝑟 < 𝑐:

𝐸=0 → inside the conductor

(4) for 𝑟 > 𝑐:

𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 = , 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄 + −2𝑄 = −𝑄
𝜀0
−𝑄 𝑄
𝐸= → 𝐸 = −𝑘𝑒
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀0 𝑟2
Dr. Suhad Sbeih 22
 𝑞

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Dr. Suhad Sbeih 23

 Side View

(a) (b) (c)

𝜎+ 𝜎−
The electric field for an infinite non-conducting sheet is:
𝜎
𝐄 =
2𝜀0

𝜎 𝜎 (d)
(a) 𝐄 = 𝐄+ + 𝐄− = − =0 𝐸+
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝐸−

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸+
(b) 𝐄 = 𝐄+ + 𝐄− = + =
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝜀0
𝐸−

𝜎 𝜎
(c) 𝐄 = 𝐄+ + 𝐄− = − =0
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝐸− 𝐸+ 24
Dr. Suhad Sbeih
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