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Capacitance
 Introduction to Capacitors and Capacitance

Capacitors are devices that store large amount of energy in the form of electric field. They
can act as instantaneous sources of energy for a very short interval of time.
A good capacitor stores energy in a confined region.

The capacitance of a conductor can be defined as the amount of charge required to

increase the potential of the conductor by 1 𝑉.

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉

1𝐶
The SI unit of Capacitance is 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑. ⇒ 1 𝐹 =
1𝑉
 Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Capacitor

𝑄 +𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉

𝐾𝑄 1 𝑄
∵𝑉= =
𝑅 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅
𝑅

4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅
⇒𝐶=𝑄×
𝑄

𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅

Capacitance of a system is independent of both 𝑄

and 𝑉 but depends on the dimensions of the body.
 1000 small water drops each of capacitance 𝐶 join to form one large
spherical drop. The capacitance of the bigger sphere is,

+ + + +
𝑅
+ + +
𝑟
+ +
+ + 𝐶 𝐶′ = ? ?
+

We know that , total volume of 1000 drops = Volume of the large drop

4 3 4
⇒ 𝜋𝑟 × 1000 = 𝜋𝑅3
3 3
⇒ 𝑅 = 10𝑟
⇒ 𝐶′ = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅 = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 10𝑟 ⇒ 𝐶′ = 10 𝐶
Find the capacitance of Earth. (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 6.4 × 106 𝑚)

Solution - 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ

⇒ 𝐶 = 4𝜋 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 6.4 × 106

⇒ 𝐶 = 711 × 10−6 𝐹

⇒ 𝐶 = 711 𝜇𝐹
 Some Points to Remember

• Practically 1 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 is a very large unit. Generally, we measure

capacitance in 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜 − 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜇𝐹 , 𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜 − 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑛𝐹 , 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑜 −
𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑝𝐹).

• Consider an isolated spherical capacitor of radius 1 𝑚.

𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅

⇒ 𝐶 = 4𝜋 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 1

⇒ 𝐶 = 111 × 10−12 𝐹

• The capacitance of an isolated spherical capacitor is very small.

So in this case the energy stored is very small and is scattered
from 𝑅 − ∞.
 Storing Electrical Energy in a Confined Zone

Case: Bringing another Neutral Isolated Case: Bringing another Oppositely Charged
Capacitor closer Isolated Capacitor closer 𝑄
𝑄 𝐶1 = = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅
𝐶1 = = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅 𝑉
𝑉 𝑄
𝐶2 ቚ =
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑄
𝐶2 ቚ =
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄
𝐶3 ቚ =
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉′𝑛𝑒𝑡
∵ 𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑡 < 𝑉

𝐶2 ቚ > 𝐶1 𝐶3 ቚ > 𝐶2 ቚ > 𝐶1

𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Good capacitors consist of two conductors, having opposite

charges on the surfaces of the conductors facing each other
and they store energy in confined region.
Energy stored in Capacitors

t=0 Charge = 0 Potential = 0

t=𝑡 Charge = 𝑞 Potential = 𝑉 ′

After
Charge = 𝑄 Potential = 𝑉
charging

𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 ′ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶

𝑄
𝑞 𝑄2
න 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑑𝑞 ⇒ 𝑊 =
𝑜 𝐶 2𝐶

∵ Work Done = Energy Stored

𝑄2 𝐶𝑉 2 𝑄𝑉
𝑊=𝐸= = =
2𝐶 2 2
At ∞
Two metal spheres 𝐴 and 𝐵 of radii 𝑎 and 𝑏 (𝑎 < 𝑏) respectively are a large
distance apart. Each sphere carries a charge of 100 𝜇𝐶 . The spheres are
connected by a conducting wire. Then

𝐾𝑄 𝐾𝑄
100 𝜇𝐶 𝑉𝐴 = , 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑎 𝑏
100 𝜇𝐶
𝑏 ∵ 𝑎 < 𝑏, 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵
𝑎
∵ Positive charge always moves
from higher potential to lower
𝐴 𝐵 potential.

Charge will flow from 𝐴 to 𝐵.

Common Voltage and Redistribution of charges

Before Redistribution
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
⇒ 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2

After Redistribution
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑄1 ′ + 𝑄2 ′
⇒ 𝑄𝑓 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 Initial 𝑄1 , 𝐶1 , 𝑉1 𝑄2 , 𝐶2 , 𝑉2

Final 𝑄1′ , 𝐶1 , 𝑉 𝑄2′ , 𝐶2 , 𝑉

From Conservation of charge
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑄𝑖
⇒ 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2

𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
𝑉=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
 Common Voltage and Redistribution of charges
Energy loss in Redistribution of charges

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄1 ′ + 𝑄2 ′
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 𝑄
𝑉= ⇒𝑉=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Charge 𝑄1′ = 𝐶1 𝑉

𝐶1 1
⇒ 𝑄1′ = 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑄1′ = 𝑄
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 1 + 𝐶2 /𝐶1
1 1
Initial Energy − 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉22
2
𝑄1′ 𝐶1 𝑟1 𝑟1 2 2
Using ′ = = 𝑄1′ =𝑄
𝑄2 𝐶2 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 2
1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
Final Energy − 𝑈𝑓 =
𝑟2 2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Similarly , we have 𝑄2′ = 𝑄
𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2 𝐶1 𝐶2
Energy Loss − 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 =
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
 Two conducting spherical bodies of capacitance, 𝐶1 = 10 𝐹 and 𝐶2 =
100 𝐹 are given 𝑄 = 100 𝐶 charge each. They're then connected to each
other by a conducting wire. Find the common voltage attained as well as
loss in energy in the transfer of charge.

𝑄 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
Solution - 𝑎) 𝑉 = =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

200 20 100 𝐶 100 𝐶

⇒𝑉= ⇒ 𝑉= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
110 11

𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑏) 𝑉1 = = 10 𝑉, 𝑉2 = =1𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2 𝐶1 𝐶2
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 =
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

10 − 1 2 × 1000
⇒𝐸= ⇒ 368 𝐽
2 10 + 100
 Types of Capacitors

Spherical Capacitor Cylindrical Capacitor Parallel plate Capacitor

All three capacitors store energy in the form of

electric field in confined region as shown.
 Spherical Capacitor

As the sphere 𝑆2 is earthed, its potential is zero.

Thus, 𝑉𝑆2 = 0 1

As Capacitance of spherical capacitor is given by 2

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑆2

𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄
𝑉𝑆1 = −
𝑎 𝑏 𝑆2
1
𝑆1 𝑏
𝑄
⇒𝐶= 𝑎
𝑉𝑆1 − 0 𝑟 2
+𝑄
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏
𝐶= −𝑄
𝑏−𝑎
 Electric Field due to an infinitely long, uniformly
charged hollow conducting cylinder

Case 1: 𝑟 < 𝑅 Case 2: 𝑟 > 𝑅

𝑅 𝑅
+∞ Gaussian +∞ Gaussian
Surface Surface

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
𝜆 𝐶/𝑚

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
𝜆 𝐶/𝑚
𝐴1 𝐴1
𝑟
𝑟
𝐸 𝐸
𝐿 𝐿 𝐴3
𝐴3

𝐴2 𝐴2

−∞ −∞

2𝑘𝜆
𝐸=0 𝐸=
𝑟
 Cylindrical Capacitor

As the cylinder 𝐶2 is earthed, its potential is zero. Capacitance of the Cylindrical capacitor is
given by-
Thus, 𝑉𝐶2 = 0
𝑉𝐶 1 − 𝑉𝐶 2 = න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟Ԧ
Capacitance of the Cylindrical capacitor is
𝑄 𝜆𝑙 𝑏
2𝑘𝜆
𝐶= = ⇒ 𝑉𝐶 1 − 𝑉𝐶 2 = න 𝑑𝑟
𝑉𝐶1 − 𝑉𝐶2 𝑉𝐶1 − 𝑉𝐶2 𝑟
𝑎
𝐶 𝜆 𝑏
⇒ = ⇒ 𝑉𝐶 1 − 𝑉𝐶 2 = 2𝑘𝜆 ln
𝑙 𝑉𝐶1 − 𝑉𝐶2 𝑎
𝐶 𝜆
⇒ =
𝐸 = 𝐸1 (due to 𝐶1 ) + 𝐸2 (due to 𝐶2 ) 𝑙 2𝑘𝜆 ln 𝑏
2𝑘𝜆 𝑎
⇒𝐸= +0 (𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏)
𝑟

𝐶 2𝜋𝜀0
=
𝑙 𝑏
ln
𝑎
Electric Field due to a large thin sheet (single layer) of uniform
Charge Distribution

From Gauss’s Law

𝑞𝑖𝑛
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜖𝑜
𝑞𝑖𝑛
⇒ 𝐸 න 𝑑𝐴2 + 𝐸 න 𝑑𝐴3 =
𝜖𝑜
𝜎. 𝜋𝑅2
⇒ 𝐸. 𝜋𝑅2 + 𝐸. 𝜋𝑅2 =
𝜖𝑜
𝜎
⇒𝐸=
2𝜖𝑜
 Parallel Plate Capacitor

The charge density at the outer The charge density at the outer
plates is 0, and charge density at plates is 0, and charge density
inner plates is 𝜎 and −𝜎 at inner plates is 𝜎 and −𝜎

Electric field at point 𝐴 Capacitance of Parallel plate

𝐴 capacitor -
𝜎 𝜎 𝐸𝐴 = 0
𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝑄
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝐶=
𝑉𝑃1 − 𝑉𝑃2
Electric field at point 𝐵
𝐵 𝜎𝑑 𝑄𝑑
𝜎 𝜎 𝐸𝐵 = 0 𝑉𝑃1 − 𝑉𝑃2 = 𝐸𝑑 = =
𝐸2 = 𝐸1 = 𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

𝑄
Electric field at point 𝐶 ⇒𝐶=
𝐶 𝜎 𝑄𝑑
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐴𝜀0
𝜎 𝜎 𝜀0
𝐸2 = 𝐸1 =
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0
𝐶=
𝑑
Two identical metal plates of surface area 𝐴 with charges +𝑄 and 0 𝐶 are
separated by a distance 𝑑 as shown in the figure. If the switch 𝑆 is closed,
find the capacitance of the system and the potential difference between
the plates.

Initially, charge on outermost surfaces,

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑄
𝑞= =+
2 2

After closing switch 𝑆, electric field and potential difference

between the plates is due to charge ±𝑄
𝜎 𝑄
𝑉= 𝑑= 𝑑
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝐴
𝑞 𝑄
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑄
𝜖𝑜 𝐴 𝑑
 Energy Stored inside a parallel plate capacitor

Work done by external agent to take

+ 𝑄 from plate 2 to plate 1, will be
stored in the form of electric field or
energy in capacitor.

Work done = Energy stored

𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 ′ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
𝑄
𝑞
⇒𝑊=𝑈=න 𝑑𝑞
0 𝐶

1 𝑄2
𝑈=
2 𝐶
 Energy Stored inside a parallel plate capacitor

We can derive energy stored in a

1 𝑄2 𝑑
⇒𝑈=
parallel plate capacitor using the 2 𝐴𝜀0
concept of Energy density.
1 𝑄2 1 2 1
⇒𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉
𝑈 Energy 2 𝐶 2 2
= = Energy density (𝑢)
𝐴𝑑 Volume

1 2
Energy density - 𝑢 = 𝜀0 𝐸
2
𝜎 𝑄
Electric field - 𝐸 = =
𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0

Energy stored - 𝑈 = 𝑢 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑢 × 𝐴 × 𝑑

1
⇒ 𝑈 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 × 𝐴 × 𝑑
2
2
1 𝑄
⇒ 𝑈 = 𝜀0 ×𝐴×𝑑
2 𝐴𝜀0
A parallel plate capacitor, after charging, is kept connected to a battery and
the plates are further pulled apart with the help of insulating handles.
Which of the following quantities will decrease?

Solution – Capacitance 𝐶 = 𝐴𝜖𝑜 /𝑑

⇒ Since 𝑑 increases, 𝐶 decreases

Charge 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
⇒ Since 𝐶 decreases, 𝑄 decreases

Energy Stored 𝑈 = 1/2 𝐶𝑉 2

⇒ Since 𝐶 decreases, 𝑈 decreases
 Electromotive force (EMF) of a battery

• If 𝑊 work is done by the battery in taking a charge 𝑄 from negative terminal to

positive terminal, then work done by the battery per unit charge is called EMF (𝐸)
of the battery.

𝐸
𝑄 + − 𝑄 𝑊
𝐸=
𝑄
𝑉

• During this transition, the entire work done by the battery is not
transferred to the charge. That implies, there is some loss.

• The final value of Work done by the battery per unit charge which we
obtain after the loss is known as potential difference (𝑉).

• For an ideal battery, the potential difference (𝑉) across its terminals is
equal to the emf (𝐸) of the battery
 Power supplied by a Battery and Loss of Energy in the Circuit

If a net charge 𝑄 moves through a potential Energy supplied by Battery = 𝑄𝑉

difference 𝑉 in a time interval Δ𝑡, the change in ⇒ Work done by the battery 𝑊𝐵 = 𝑄𝑉
electric potential energy of the charge is 𝑄𝑉. ⇒ 𝑊𝐵 = 𝐶𝑉 2

Energy = Work Done = 𝑄𝑉 Energy stored in the Capacitor

𝑄
∵ 𝐼 = ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐼. 𝑡 Heat Generated 𝐻 = 𝑊𝐵 − 𝑈
𝑡
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝐼. 𝑡. 𝑉
1 2 1 2
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 𝐻 = 𝐶𝑉
Power 𝑃 = Rate of change of Energy 2 2

⇒ 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
 A capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 is carrying a charge 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 initially. It is now
connected to a battery of EMF ′2 𝑉′ as shown. Find out the heat generated
in the new circuit.

1 2 1
Initial Energy 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉 Final Energy 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶 2𝑉 2 ⇒ 𝑈𝑓 = 2𝐶𝑉 2
2 2
Charge flowing in the circuit 𝑞 = 3𝐶𝑉
Work Done by battery 𝑊𝐵 = 𝑞𝑉 = 3𝐶𝑉 2𝑉 ⇒ 𝑊𝐵 = 6𝐶𝑉 2

Heat generated/Loss of Energy = Energy supplied by battery/batteries + σ 𝑈𝑖 − σ 𝑈𝑓

⇒ 𝐻 = 6𝐶𝑉 2 + (0.5𝐶𝑉 2 − 2𝐶𝑉 2 )

⇒ 𝐻 = 4.5 𝐶𝑉 2
 Force between the Plates of Parallel Plate Capacitors

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 1

𝐹12 𝐸1 = 𝜎/2𝜀0
𝐸2 = 𝜎/2𝜀0
𝐹21

𝜎 𝑄
Attractive Force on plate 2: 𝐹21 = 𝑄𝐸1 = 𝑄 × =𝑄×
2𝜖𝑜 2𝐴𝜀0

𝑄2
𝐹21 = 𝐹12 =
2𝐴𝜀0
 A capacitor is given a charge 𝑞. The distance between the plates of the capacitor
is 𝑑. One of the plates is fixed and the other plate is moved very slowly, till the
distance between them becomes 2𝑑. Find the work done by the external force.

When one plate is fixed, the other plate is

attracted towards it with the force −
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝑞2 + −
𝐹= = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 −
2𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐹 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡

Hence, an external force of the same magnitude

will be applied in opposite direction to increase
the separation between the plates. Fixed Smooth

𝑞2 𝑑
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 =𝐹=
2𝐴𝜖𝑜 2𝑑
So, the work done by external force −
𝑞2 𝑑
𝑊=
𝑞2 2𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝑊 = 𝐹 2𝑑 − 𝑑 = ×𝑑
2𝐴𝜖𝑜
 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

(KCL) (KVL)

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶3
𝐶1 𝐶2

𝐶3
𝐴
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶4 𝐹 𝐸 𝐷
𝑉1 𝑉2
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• Node or Junction : It is a point in a circuit at which

more than two conductors meet. Here 𝐴 is a node.

Part of a • In a node or junction of an electrical network, the sum

bigger circuit of charges or currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of charges or current leaving it.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) simply tells us that

the net sum of current through a node or a junction
is zero.

• KCL is based on the principle of conservation of charge.

On applying KCL at 𝐴

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 𝒊𝟏 = 𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟑 + 𝒊𝟒
 Determine the value of the charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 in the given circuit.

Using KCL,
−𝑞2 20 𝑉
𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 = 0
𝑞2
−𝑞1 𝑞1 ⇒ 2 𝑥 − 10 + 4 𝑥 − 20 + 2 𝑥 − 5 = 0
𝐶2 = 4𝐹
55
10 𝑉 𝑞3 ⇒𝑥=
𝑥 −𝑞3 4
𝐶1 = 2𝐹
5𝑉 Now we know that,
𝐶3 = 2𝐹
𝑞1 = 2 𝑥 − 10 ⇒ 𝑞1 = 7.5 𝐶
𝑞2 = 4 𝑥 − 20 ⇒ 𝑞2 = −25 𝐶
𝑞3 = 2 𝑥 − 5 ⇒ 𝑞3 = 17.5 𝐶

𝑞1 = 7.5 𝐶 𝑞2 = −25 𝐶 𝑞3 = 17.5 𝐶

 Calculate the potential at point 𝑥 and the charge flowing in different branches of
the circuit shown.

Using KCL,
Now we know that,
𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 = 0
𝑞1 = 2 𝑥 − 4 ⇒ 𝑞1 = −5 𝜇𝐶
Assuming 𝑥 to be large,
𝑞2 = 2 𝑥 + 6 ⇒ 𝑞2 = 15 𝜇𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 − 4 2 + 𝑥 + 6 2 + 𝑥 − 10 2
+ 𝑥+2−0 2=0 𝑞3 = 2 𝑥 − 10 ⇒ 𝑞3 = −17 𝜇𝐶

⇒ 4𝑥 − 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑉 𝑞4 = 2 𝑥 + 2 ⇒ 𝑞4 = 7 𝜇𝐶

𝑞1 = −5 𝜇𝐶
𝑞3 = −17 𝜇𝐶

𝑞2 = 15 𝜇𝐶 𝑞4 = 7 𝜇𝐶
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) - Basics
Sign Convention for Potential Difference Example

+𝑞 −𝑞 From 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑞
⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − = 𝑉𝐵
𝐶
𝐶 From 𝐵 → 𝐴, 𝑉𝐵 − 10 = 𝑉𝐴
𝐴 𝐵
From 𝐵 → 𝐴, 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝐴 From 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑉𝐴 + 10 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑉1 𝑞
⇒ 𝑉𝐵 + = 𝑉𝐴
𝐶

+𝑞 −𝑞 +𝑞 −𝑞
From 𝐴 → 𝐵,

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 Here, 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝐴 − 10
𝑞 𝑞
⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − − = 𝑉𝐵
𝐶 𝐶 From 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑉𝐴 − 10 + 5 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑉1 𝑉2
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• In a loop or mesh of an electrical network, the
sum of voltages across the components and
the EMFs of the sources is always zero.
or
• As one traverses a loop or a mesh to reach the
same point again then algebraic sum of all
the potential drops or gain and EMFs
encountered in the path is equal to zero.
′ ′′
For loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹, −𝑉 − 𝑉 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉1 = 0
𝑄1 𝑄2
− − + 𝑉2 + 𝑉1 = 0
𝐶1 𝐶2

For loop 𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐹, − 𝑉 ′ − 𝑉 ′′′ + 𝑉1 = 0

𝑄1 𝑄3 Let potential at point 𝐵 be 𝑥,
− − + 𝑉1 = 0
𝐶1 𝐶3
⇒ 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 0

For loop 𝐵𝐶𝐸𝐷, − 𝑉 ′′ + 𝑉2 + 𝑉′′′ = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑉1 𝐶1 + 𝑥 + 𝑉2 𝐶2 + 𝑥 − 0 𝐶3 = 0

𝑄2 𝑄3
− + 𝑉2 + =0
𝐶2 𝐶3
 Find the charges on the three capacitors shown below. (Using KVL)

𝑞1 𝑞2
For loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹, − + − 6 + 6 = 0
2 4
⇒ 2𝑞1 = 𝑞2 . . . (𝑖)

For loop 𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐹, − 𝑞1 − (𝑞1 + 𝑞2 ) + 6 = 0

2 5
−5𝑞1 − 2𝑞1 − 2𝑞2 + 60 = 0

⇒ 7𝑞1 + 2𝑞2 = 60 . . . (𝑖𝑖)

Using 𝑖 in (𝑖𝑖) we get, 11𝑞1 = 60 𝑞1 = 5.45 𝐶

Using (𝑖), 2𝑞1 = 𝑞2 𝑞2 = 10.9 𝐶

Considering 𝑞3 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 𝑞3 = 16.35 𝐶
 Calculate the charge (𝑞) flowing through the switch and the final charges
on the capacitors.

Let us consider that 𝑞 charge flows in the circuit to

achieve steady state.
Capacitance of Charge on Charge on
the Capacitor & higher Lower
Initial Charge potential Plate Potential Plate
𝐶1 = 4 𝜇𝐹
40 − 𝑞 −40 + 𝑞
𝑞1 = 40 𝜇𝐶
𝐶2 = 2 𝜇𝐹 Capacitance of Potential
+𝑞 −𝑞 the Capacitor Difference
𝑞2 = 0 𝜇𝐶
𝐶3 = 2 𝜇𝐹 𝐶1 = 4 𝜇𝐹 𝑉1 = (40 − 𝑞)/4
10 + 𝑞 −10 − 𝑞
𝑞3 = 10 𝜇𝐶
𝐶2 = 2 𝜇𝐹 𝑉2 = 𝑞/2
At steady state, the potential difference across
the capacitors becomes: 𝐶3 = 2 𝜇𝐹 𝑉3 = (10 + 𝑞)/2
Applying KVL in clockwise direction we get,
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0 𝑞 = 4 𝜇𝐶
On solving we get
 Combination of Capacitors

Combination of
Capacitors

Series Parallel
Combination Combination

𝐶1
𝐶1 𝐶2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵

𝐶2
 Series Combination of Capacitors
Charge remains the same for the capacitors in series combination.

1 1 1 1
= + +
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Special Case – For 2 Capacitors Equivalent circuit

1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2

⇒ ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
 Series Combination of Capacitors

• Redistribution of Voltage

𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 =
𝐶1 𝐶2

𝐶1 , 𝑄 𝐶2 , 𝑄 1 1 1
𝑉1 : 𝑉2 : 𝑉3 = : :
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

+ − + −

6𝐹 3𝐹
1 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝑉1 : 𝑉2 = : = 1: 2
6 3
1
+ − + − 𝑉1 = × 10 = 3.33 𝑉
𝑉1 𝑉2 3
2
𝑉2 = × 10 = 6.67 𝑉
3
10 𝑉
 Parallel Combination of Capacitors

• Potential difference across all capacitors remains the same.

𝐶1 , 𝑄1 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉

𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐴 𝐵
𝐶2 , 𝑄2
𝑄 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉 + −
𝐵 ⇒ 𝑄
𝐴
𝑉 0
𝐶3 , 𝑄3

𝑉
Equivalent circuit

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
 Find the capacitance of the combination between terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵.

2 𝜇𝐹 2 𝜇𝐹 2 𝜇𝐹 2 𝜇𝐹

𝐴
2 𝜇𝐹 1𝜇𝐹 1𝜇𝐹 1𝜇𝐹 𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 1 𝜇𝐹

𝐵
 Three capacitors each of capacity 4 𝜇𝐹 are to be connected in such a way
that effective capacitance is 6 𝜇𝐹 . This can be done by

Connecting all of them in series Connecting all of them in parallel 4 𝜇𝐹

4 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹
4 𝜇𝐹
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 4 + 4 + 4
4 𝜇𝐹
1 1 1 1 4 ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 12 𝜇𝐹
= + + ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑒𝑞 4 4 4 3

Connecting two in series and one in parallel. Connecting two in parallel and one in series.

4 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹 𝐶′
1 1 1 4 𝜇𝐹
= + 𝐶 ′ = 8 𝜇𝐹
𝐶′ 4 4
4 𝜇𝐹
⇒ 𝐶 ′ = 2 𝜇𝐹 𝐴 𝐵
4 𝜇𝐹 1 1 1 𝐴 𝐵
= + 4 𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑒𝑞 8 4
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 4 + 2 8
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜇𝐹
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 6 𝜇𝐹 3
Connecting two in series and one in parallel.
 Find the capacitance of the combination between terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵.

6𝐹
𝑉 𝑉
6𝐹 3𝐹 2𝐹 3𝐹
𝐴
𝑉
0
𝑉
0
𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴
𝑉 0
𝐵 𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 11 𝐹

2𝐹
0 0

0
1
𝐶 1 𝐶

2 3 2
𝐶
𝐵
0 𝐶
𝐴 𝑉
𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴
3
𝐶
𝐵 𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 4𝐶

𝐶 4 4
𝐶

0
Find the capacitance of the combination between terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵.

1 2
𝐶 𝐶
1 𝐶 2

3
𝐴
𝑉
⇒ 𝐴
3
𝐶
𝑥 4
𝐶 𝐵

5
𝐶
5
𝐶 𝐵
𝑥 0
4

𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐶
 Find the equivalent capacitance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit.

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
𝐴 𝑥 𝑥 𝐵
𝑉 𝑉 𝑥 0
1 2 3 4 5 6

Capacitor between same potential points is ineffective

⇒
𝐶
1

𝐶 𝐶
𝐴 𝑥 𝐵 3𝐶. 𝐶 3𝐶
2 6 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝑉 0 4𝐶 4

3
𝐶
 Three capacitors, each of capacitance 4 𝜇𝐹 are connected to a battery of
voltage 10 𝑉. Determine the value of the charge which will flow through
the battery when key 𝐾 is closed.

When key is open When key is closed

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 4 𝜇𝐹
4×8 8
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜇𝐹 ⇒ 𝑄𝑓 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑄𝑓 = 40 𝜇𝐶
4+8 3
80 Charge flowing through the battery is
⇒ 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑄𝑖 = 𝜇𝐶
3
40
𝑄𝑓 −𝑄𝑖 = 𝜇𝐶
3
 A network of four capacitors of capacities equal to 𝐶1 = 𝐶 , 𝐶2 = 2𝐶, 𝐶3 = 3𝐶,
and 𝐶4 = 4𝐶, are connected to a battery as shown in the figure. The ratio of
the charge on 𝐶2 to that on 𝐶4 is

𝐶1 = 𝐶 𝐶2 = 2𝐶 𝐶3 = 3𝐶 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
𝑄1
𝑄2 𝑉 0 𝑄2 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉
𝑄 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3 6𝐶𝑉
⇒ 𝑄2 =
11
𝐶2
𝑉
𝑄1 𝐶1 𝐶3 𝑄3

𝑄1 𝐶4
𝑄4
𝑉 0 𝐶4 = 4𝐶
𝑄 𝑄4 𝑄4 𝑄4 = 4𝐶𝑉
𝑉 0
𝑄2 3
𝑄 𝑄4 ⇒ =
𝑉 𝑄4 22

𝑉
 Determine the value of charge on the 4 𝐹 capacitor, in the given circuit.

1𝐹 6𝐹 1𝐹 1𝐹
8𝐶 8𝐶 𝑥
10 𝑉 + 4𝐶 4𝐶
2𝐹 10 𝑉 + 10 𝑉 +
2𝐹 3𝐹 ⇒ 2𝐹 4𝐹 ⇒ 2𝐹 2𝐹
− 𝑞 𝑞
4𝐹 − 4𝐹 −

𝑞 =?
𝑞

4 Applying KCL at 𝑥,
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐹 ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉 = 8 𝐶
5
𝑥 − 10 . 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 0 ⇒𝑥 =2𝑉

⇒𝑞 =4𝐶
 Effective Capacitance of a System of Parallel Plates
These three parallel plates, each of area 𝐴 and plate
separation 𝑑, are forming two parallel plate capacitors
𝑃
𝑑
𝑄 𝐴𝜖0 𝐴𝜖0
𝑑 𝐶𝑃𝑄 = 𝐶𝑄𝑅 =
𝑑 𝑑
𝑅

If the plates 𝑃 and 𝑅 are connected by a thin conducting wire at terminal 𝑋 and another wire is
connected to plate 𝑄 as terminal 𝑌, then we want to find 𝐶𝑥𝑦 .
We see that, here
capacitor 1 and
capacitor 2 are in
parallel.

2𝐴𝜖𝑜
⇒ 𝐶𝑋𝑌 = 2𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶𝑋𝑌 =
𝑑
 Effective Capacitance of a System of Parallel Plates

If the plates 𝑃 and 𝑆 are connected by a thin conducting wire and two other wires are
connected to plates 𝑄 and 𝑅 as terminals 𝑋 and 𝑌 respectively, then we want to find 𝐶𝑥𝑦 .

𝑃 𝐶 1
1 𝑑
𝑋 1 3
𝑄
𝑋 𝑋 𝐶 𝑌
𝑄 𝐶
2 𝑑 𝐶 2
𝑌 𝑅 𝑌 2
𝑅
𝑑 3 𝐶 3 𝐶
𝑆
𝑆

𝐶 3𝐶 3𝐴𝜖𝑜
⇒ 𝐶𝑋𝑌 = +𝐶 = ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2 2 2𝑑
 Find the equivalent capacitance of the infinite ladder between the points
𝐴 and 𝐵.

𝐶 𝑃 𝐶 𝐶 𝑃
𝐴 𝐴

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 𝑥
𝐵 𝐵
𝑄 𝑄

Determining the equivalent capacitance, we get

𝐶×𝑥
+𝐶 =𝑥 ⇒ 𝐶 × 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝐶2
𝐶+𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶 2 = 0
+𝐶 ± 𝐶 5
Solving this quadratic equation, we get 𝑥 =
2
Since Capacitance cannot be negative, 𝐶+𝐶 5 1+ 5
𝑥= ⇒𝑥= 𝐶
2 2
 Find the equivalent capacitance of the infinite ladder between the points
𝐴 and 𝐵.

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝑃
𝐴 𝑃 𝐴

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 𝑥

𝐵 𝑄 𝐵
𝑄

Determining the equivalent capacitance, we get

(𝐶 + 𝑥) × 𝐶
=𝑥 ⇒ 𝐶 2 + 𝐶𝑥 = 2𝐶𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2𝐶 + 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶 2 = 0
−𝐶 ± 𝐶 5
Solving this quadratic equation, we get 𝑥 =
2
−𝐶 + 𝐶 5 5−1
Since Capacitance cannot be negative, 𝑥 = ⇒𝑥= 𝐶
2 2
 If 𝐶1 = 18 𝜇𝐹, 𝐶2 = 3 𝜇𝐹, 𝐶3 = 7 𝜇𝐹, 𝐶4 = 2 𝜇𝐹, 𝐶5 = 4 𝜇𝐹
The equivalent capacitance across 𝐴𝐵 is

≡ ≡ ≡

Equivalent capacitance across 𝐴𝐵 ∶

1 1 1 1 1 3
= + ′′′ = + =
𝐶𝐴𝐵 𝐶1 𝐶 18 9 18

𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 6 𝜇𝐹
 Balanced Wheatstone Bridge
𝐶2 , 𝑄1 This tells us that
𝐶1 , 𝑄1
Potential at junction 𝑀 = Potential at junction 𝑁
𝑥
𝑀 𝑉𝑀 = 𝑉𝑁
𝑄1
𝑄 𝑉 0 𝑉𝑀 = 𝑉𝑁 = 𝑥
𝐴 𝐶5 𝐵 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐶3 , 𝑄2 𝐶4 , 𝑄2 ⇒ 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐶3 = 𝑉 − 𝑥 ⇒ =
𝑄2 𝐶1 𝐶3
𝑁 𝑄1 𝑄2
⇒ 𝑉𝐶2 = 𝑉𝐶4 = 𝑥 − 0 ⇒ =
𝑥 𝐶2 𝐶4
We obtain the condition for balanced
Wheatstone bridge
𝐶1 𝐶3
𝑉 0 =
𝐶2 𝐶4

For a balanced Wheatstone bridge, the Equivalent Capacitance across 𝐴𝐵

charge on capacitor 𝐶5 is zero.
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶4
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = +
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶3 + 𝐶4
 Find the equivalent capacitance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit.

1 𝜇𝐹 1 𝜇𝐹 3 𝜇𝐹

3 𝜇𝐹

𝐴
2 𝜇𝐹 5 𝜇𝐹
𝐵 ≡ 𝐴
5 𝜇𝐹
𝐵

2 𝜇𝐹 6 𝜇𝐹
6 𝜇𝐹

Since the Wheatstone bridge is balanced, we consider

that there is no charge on 5 𝜇𝐹 capacitor.

1×3 2×6 3 3
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = + = +
4 8 4 2

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 2.25 𝜇𝐹
 Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

𝑥
8𝐹 8𝐹
3𝐹
6𝐹 8𝐹
𝑦
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝑥
3𝐹 5𝐹 2𝐹 ≡ 6𝐹 5𝐹 4𝐹 ≡ 𝐴 𝐵

2𝐹 3𝐹 4𝐹
3𝐹 3𝐹 𝑦

6×8 3×4
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = +
14 7

36
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐹
7
 Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

In loop 1

𝑥−𝑉 2+ 𝑥−0 1+ 𝑥−𝑦 2=0 2 𝜇𝐹 1 𝜇𝐹

⇒ 5𝑥 − 2𝑉 = 2𝑦 𝑥
𝑞1 −𝑞1
𝑞1
In loop 2 2 𝜇𝐹 Loop 1
𝑦−𝑉 1+ 𝑦−0 2+ 𝑦−𝑥 2= 0
⇒ 5𝑦 − 2𝑥 = 𝑉 𝐴 𝐵
𝑞2 Loop 2
Solving for 𝑥 and 𝑦 we get 𝑞 𝑞2 −𝑞2 𝑦
4𝑉 3𝑉
𝑥=
7
,𝑦 =
7 1 𝜇𝐹 2 𝜇𝐹

Thus, we get
6𝑉 + −
𝑞1 = 𝑉 − 𝑥 . 2 ⇒ 𝑞1 =
7
𝑉
4𝑉
𝑞2 = 𝑉 − 𝑦 . 1 ⇒ 𝑞2 =
7
𝑞1 + 𝑞2 10
∵ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ⇒
𝑉 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜇𝐹
7
 Dielectric
• Dielectric materials are non-conducting
substances with no free electron Non-Polar Dielectrics
availability. • A dielectric in which the center of the positive
• A dielectric is a non-conductor up to a charges coincides with the centre of the negative
certain value of applied electric field charges.
depending upon its nature. • Every molecule has a zero-dipole moment.
Examples of Dielectrics:

Non-Polar Molecules
Uses of Dielectric: Polar Dielectrics
Partial
It provides the support to alignment
the capacitor plates.

It increases the
capacitance of the system. Polar Molecules
 Polarization of Dielectric and Susceptibility of Dielectric

When a dielectric material is placed in an Susceptibility is the quantitative measure of

external electric field, dipole moment appears the extent to which an electric field applied
in its volume. to a dielectric material causes polarization.

Dipole moment per unit volume of a dielectric The polarization 𝑃 is directly

material is called Electric Polarization. proportional to the applied electric
field 𝐸.
𝑛𝑝Ԧ SI Unit: 𝐶/𝑚2
𝑃=
𝑉 ⇒𝑃∝E
Dimensions: [𝐿−2 𝑇𝐼]
Here, 𝜒𝑒 = Electric Susceptibility
𝑛 = No. of molecules 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
𝑝Ԧ = Dipole moment of individual molecule
of Dielectric
𝑉 = Total Volume
 Dielectric in an External Electric Field

The net electric field inside the dielectric medium is reduced by a factor
which is known as Dielectric Constant (𝐾)or Relative Permittivity 𝜺𝒓 for
the given medium.

|𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 | = |𝐸0 | − |𝐸𝑖 |

𝐸𝑜 𝐸0 Dielectric constant (𝐾) is the

𝐾 = 𝜀𝑟 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 property of the material
𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑜

Air or vacuum 𝐾=1

Conductor 𝐾=∞

Water 𝐾 = 81

Range of dielectric constant, 1 < 𝐾 < ∞

 Force on Plates

+𝜎 −𝜎
• Force on positively charged plate will
be due to negatively charged plate and
vice-versa.
𝐹 𝐹
• Due to this force, plates try to come
𝐴 closer to each other.
𝜎
𝐹 = (𝜎𝐴)𝐸; 𝐸 =
2𝜀0

𝜎 2𝐴
𝐹=
2𝜀0
 Effect of Dielectric on Charge Density

Isolated Capacitor: 𝜎 𝜎𝑖 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝜎

𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐾 𝐾𝜀0

𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝜎 Potential 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = difference
𝐾 𝐾𝜀0
𝜎 𝑄
𝑉= 𝑑 ∵𝜎=
𝐾𝜀0 𝐴

𝑄
Net electric field inside dielectric: 𝑉= 𝑑
𝐴𝜀0 𝐾

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝜀0 𝐾

⇒ Charge Q = 𝑉
𝑑
𝜎 𝜎𝑖 𝜎
− =
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0 𝐾
Capacitance =
𝑑
1
𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎(1 − )
𝐾
 Insertion of Dielectric at a Constant Potential

Before Insertion: After Insertion:

𝑄𝒇 = 𝐾𝐶𝑉
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶 =
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐶𝑓 = 𝐾𝐶 = 𝐾 𝑑
𝑑
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉
𝐶𝑉 2
Energy =
𝐶𝑉 2 Energy = 𝐾 2
2
𝑉
𝑉 𝐸𝑓 = 𝑑
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑑
 Insertion of Dielectric at a Constant Potential

Before Insertion: After Insertion:

𝑉 = Constant
+𝑄𝒊
+𝑄𝒇
𝐾
𝑉 𝑑 𝐾
−𝑄𝒊 −𝑄𝒇

𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑉 2
Initial Energy (𝑈𝑖 ) = Final Energy(𝑈𝑓 ) = 𝐾
2 2

Work done by battery = (𝐾 − 1)𝐶𝑉 2

𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑉 2
Energy increased in Capacitor by ∆𝑈: ∆𝑈 = 𝐾 − ⇒ ∆U = (𝐾 − 1)
2 2 2
𝐶𝑉 2
Work done by external agent = Energy consumed = (𝐾 − 1)
2
 Insertion of Dielectric at a Constant Potential

Force between the plates (Before insertion) Force between the plates (After insertion)

𝑄
𝜎=𝐴
𝐹′ 𝐹′

𝑉 𝑉

𝜎 2𝐴 𝑄 𝐾 2𝐶 2𝑉 2
𝐹= ∵𝜎= 𝐹′ =
2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝐴𝜀0

𝑄2 𝐶 2𝑉 2
𝐹= ⇒𝐹=
2𝐴𝜀0 2𝐴𝜀0
 Insertion of Dielectric at a Constant Charge

𝑄 = Constant 𝑄 = Constant

𝑄𝒇 = 𝑄𝑜
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑜 After Insertion:
Before Insertion: 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐶𝑓 =
𝐶𝑖 = 𝑑
𝑑 𝑄𝑜
𝑄𝑜 𝑉𝑓 =
𝑉𝑖 = 𝐾𝐶𝑖
𝐶𝑖
𝑄𝑜 2
𝑄𝑜 2 Energy(𝑈𝑓 ) =
Energy(𝑈𝑖 ) = 2𝐾𝐶𝑖
2𝐶𝑖
𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑓 =
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴
 Insertion of Dielectric at a Constant Charge
Energy comparison between both cases:

Before Insertion: After Insertion:

𝑄𝑜
𝑄𝑜
𝑑 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾

−𝑄𝑜 −𝑄𝑜

𝑄𝑜 2 𝑄𝑜 2
Initial Energy (𝑈𝑖 ) = Final Energy (𝑈𝑓 ) =
2𝐶 2𝐾𝐶

Energy increased in Capacitor by ∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖

𝑄𝑜 2 𝑄𝑜 2 1 𝑄𝑜 2
∆𝑈 = − = ( − 1)
2𝐾𝐶 2𝐶 𝐾 2𝐶
1 𝑄𝑜 2
Work done by external agent ⇒ ∆𝑈 = ( − 1)
𝐾 2𝐶
 Insertion of Dielectric at a Constant Charge

Force between the plates (Before insertion) Force between the plates (After insertion)

𝑄𝑜
−𝜎𝑖 Electric field by −𝜎 :
𝑑 𝐾 𝑄𝑜
𝐸−𝜎 =
+𝜎𝑖 2𝐴𝜀0
−𝑄𝑜

𝜎 2𝐴 𝑄𝑜 𝐹 ′ = 𝑄𝑜 ∙ (𝐸−𝜎 + 𝐸+𝜎𝑖 + 𝐸−𝜎𝑖 )

𝐹= ; 𝜎=
2𝜀0 𝐴
𝐹 ′ = 𝑄𝑜 ∙ (0 + 𝐸−𝜎 )
𝑄𝑜 2
𝐹= 𝑄𝑜 ∙ 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜 2
2𝐴𝜀0 ′
𝐹 = =
2𝐴𝜀0 2𝐴𝜀0

⇒ Force is same for both the cases.

 Series Combination of Dielectrics

For combination of 2 dielectrics:

1 𝐴
1 1 1
= +
𝐾1 𝑡1 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶1
𝑑
𝐾2 𝐶2 𝑡2 1 𝑡1 𝑡2
= +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾2 𝜀0 𝐴
2
1 1 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝐾1 𝐾2
= +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾2 ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑡2 𝐾1 + 𝑡1 𝐾2
𝐾1 𝐾2
For combination of 𝑛 dielectrics:

1 1 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡𝑛
= + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛
𝐶1 𝐶2
 Parallel Combination of Dielectrics

For combination of 2 dielectrics:

𝐴1 1 𝐴2
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑑 𝐴1 𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴2 𝐾2 𝜀0
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = +
𝑑 𝑑

2 𝜀0
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴 𝐾 + 𝐴2 𝐾2
𝑑 1 1

𝐶1 For combination of 𝑛 dielectrics:

𝜀0
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐾1 + 𝐴2 𝐾2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝐾𝑛
𝑑
𝐶2
If three dielectric slabs of dielectric constant 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 and 𝐾3 are inserted between
the parallel plate capacitor of area 𝐴 as shown, then find the equivalent
capacitance.

𝐶1 and 𝐶3 are in series:

1 𝑑/2 𝑑/2 1 𝑑 𝐾1 + 𝐾3
⇒ = + ⇒ =
𝐶𝑒𝑞1 𝜀0 𝐾1 𝐴/2 𝜀0 𝐾3 𝐴/2 𝐶𝑒𝑞1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾3
⇒
𝐶2 and 𝐶3 are in series:
1 𝑑/2 𝑑/2 1 𝑑 𝐾2 + 𝐾3
⇒ = + ⇒ =
𝐶𝑒𝑞2 𝜀0 𝐾2 𝐴/2 𝜀0 𝐾3 𝐴/2 𝐶𝑒𝑞2 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾2 𝐾3
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑒𝑞1 𝐶1 𝐶3
Resultant of 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 and 𝐶1 , 𝐶3 are in Parallel: 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶𝑒𝑞1 + 𝐶𝑒𝑞2
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾2 𝐾3 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾3
⇒ ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝑑 𝐾2 + 𝐾3
+
𝑑 𝐾1 + 𝐾3

𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾3 𝐾3 𝐾2
1 1 1 ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = +
𝐶𝑒𝑞2
= +
𝐶2 𝐶3 𝑑 𝐾1 + 𝐾3 𝐾3 + 𝐾2
 Variable Dielectric Constant in x and y -Direction

𝐾(𝑥) is the variable dielectric constant in x-direction 𝐾(𝑦) is the variable dielectric constant in 𝑦-direction

Consider a small strip of dielectric at 𝑥 from one of the Consider a small strip of dielectric at 𝑦 from one of the
end having thickness 𝑑𝑥. The whole dielectric slab is plates having thickness 𝑑𝑦. The whole dielectric slab is
made of multiple such strips connected in parallel. made of the multiple such strips connected in series.
If the length of strip is 𝑙, its cross-section area is, 𝑑𝐴 = If the length of strip is 𝑙, its area is 𝑙2
𝑙(𝑑𝑥).
𝜀0 𝐾 𝑦 𝑙 2
𝜀0 𝐾 𝑥 𝑙(𝑑𝑥) Capacitance of small strip: 𝑑𝐶 =
Capacitance of small strip: 𝑑𝐶 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑
𝑑
𝑙 1 𝑙
1 1 1 𝑑𝑦
𝜀0 𝑙 𝑙 ⇒ =න = න
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = න 𝑑𝐶 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = න 𝐾 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜀𝑜 𝑙 2 0 𝐾(𝑦)
0 𝑑 0 0 𝑑𝐶
 Variable Dielectric Constant in Square plate diagonally
1 𝑦 𝑑−𝑦
⇒ = +
𝑑𝐶 𝜀𝑜 𝑙𝐾1 𝑑𝑥 𝜀𝑜 𝑙𝐾2 𝑑𝑥

1 1 𝐾2 𝑦 + 𝐾1 𝑑 − 𝐾1 𝑦
⇒ = ( )
𝑑𝐶 𝜀𝑜 𝑙𝑑𝑥 𝐾1 𝐾2

Put, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑/𝑙

Two dielectric materials are placed such that 1 𝑑 𝐾1 𝑙 + 𝑥(𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )

dielectric constant is continuously varying. ⇒ = ( )
𝑑𝐶 𝜀𝑜 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐾1 𝐾2

From bottom, dielectric constant up to length 𝑦 is 𝜀𝑜 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐾1 𝐾2

𝐾1 . Thus, dielectric constant 𝐾2 is for length d − 𝑦. 𝑑𝐶 = ( )
𝑑 𝐾1 𝑙 + 𝑥(𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )
𝑑 𝑦 𝑥𝑑
tan 𝜃 = = ⇒𝑦= 𝑙
𝑙 𝑥 𝑙 ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = න 𝑑𝐶
0
1 1 1
Capacitance of small strip: = + 𝜀𝑜 𝑙 2 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾2
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝐶1 𝑑𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ln
𝑑(𝐾2 − 𝐾1 ) 𝐾1
 Dielectric Strength and Breakdown Voltage

The value of electric field 𝐸𝑜 at which the stress is developed in the dielectric material as a
result of which collapsing of the dielectric material takes place is called dielectric strength.
• As we increase the electric field across a material, the force on molecular dipoles increases.
Although the net force is zero as the forces are equal and opposite, stress on the material is
not zero.
• For a value of electric field, material breaks due to stress.
• The maximum limit of electric field that a material can sustain is known as dielectric
strength.
• Dielectric strength depends on material.

The voltage across the capacitor at which collapsing, or breakdown of the material takes place
due to high electric filed is called Breakdown Voltage.
• Breakdown Voltage depends on the type of material,
shape and size.

𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜 × 𝑑
A capacitor is to be designed with the requirements 𝐶 = 2 𝜇𝐹 and 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 400 𝑉.
If a dielectric material of dielectric constant 𝐾 = 2 has dielectric strength 𝐸𝑜 =
2000 𝑁/𝐶, then find the minimum area of the plates of the capacitor required.

𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 400 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑑

𝐶 = 2 𝜇𝐹 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 400 𝑉 1
⇒ 𝐸𝑜 × 𝑑 > 400 ⇒𝑑>
5

𝜀0 𝐾𝐴
We know that, capacitance = 𝐶 =
𝑑
𝐾=2 8.85 × 10−12 × 2 × 𝐴
⇒ 2 × 10−6 =
𝑑
𝐴 106
⇒ =
𝑑 8.85

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 22.6 × 103 𝑚2

 Three capacitors of capacitance 2 𝜇F, 6 𝜇F and 12 𝜇F of breakdown voltage 200 𝑉,
400 𝑉 and 20 𝑉 respectively are connected in series as shown. Find the
equivalent breakdown voltage.

Solution: 𝐶1 = 2 𝜇𝐹 𝐶2 = 6 𝜇𝐹 𝐶3 = 12 𝜇𝐹
Maximum charge that can be stored by individual capacitors:
𝑄1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200 × 2 = 400 𝜇𝐶
𝑄2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 400 × 6 = 2400 𝜇𝐶 200 𝑉 400 𝑉 20 𝑉
𝑄3𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 × 12 = 240 𝜇𝐶

When the capacitors are connected to battery in series, same charge flows
through all three of them. Thus, maximum charge that can flow through the
circuit before breakdown of 𝐶3 is 240𝜇𝐶.

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 |𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
1 1 1 1 Breakdown voltage =
∵ = + + 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
240
4 Breakdown voltage =
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜇𝐹 4/3
3
Breakdown voltage = 180 𝑉