ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

CHAPTER 1
 BASIC
PROPERTIES 1)Additivity
OF ELECTRIC
CHARGE 2)Quantisation
3)Conservation
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
1) Additivity
The total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all the
individual charges located at different points in the system.

𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + … … + 𝒒𝒏
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
2) Quantisation
The total charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of
a basic quantum of charge (e)

𝒒 = 𝒏𝒆
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟎, ±𝟏, ±𝟐, ±𝟑, …

Electric charges occur in discrete amounts

BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
3) Conservation
The total charge of an isolated system remains constant.
Electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed, they
can only be transferred from one body to another.
COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTRIC FORCE
It states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two
stationary point charges is (i) directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the two charges and (ii) inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭 ∝ 𝟐
𝒓
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌 𝟐
𝒓
COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTRIC FORCE
Where k is electrostatic force constant
𝟏
𝒌= = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎

𝜺𝟎 is called permittivity of free space

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭= . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Permittivity is a property of the medium which determines the
electric force between two charges situated in that medium.

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 = . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 = . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓

𝜺 is called absolute permittivity or just permittivity of the intervening

medium.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
=
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
. 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓

𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 𝜺
=
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝜺𝟎

𝜺
Ratio is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant K of given
𝜺𝟎
medium
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
𝜺 𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄
𝜺𝒓 = 𝜥 = =
𝜺𝟎 𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅

The dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium is defined

as the ratio of force between two charges placed some distance apart
in free space to the force between the same two charges when they
are placed the same distance apart in the given medium.

𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 =
𝜥
COULOMB’S LAW IN VECTOR FORM
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒒𝟐 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒒𝟏
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
= . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟏

𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒒𝟏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒒𝟐

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
= . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝑭𝟐𝟏 = − 𝑭𝟏𝟐
As 𝒓ෞ
𝟐𝟏 = − 𝒓ෞ
𝟏𝟐
THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

It states that when a number of charges are interacting, the total

force on a given charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted on it
due to all other charges. The force between two charges is not
affected by the presence of other charges.
THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

According to principle of
superposition, the total force on
charge 𝑞1 is given by

𝐹1 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + ….. + 𝐹1𝑁

FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ 𝟏𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑

𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏𝟐 + 𝑭𝟏𝟑

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒 𝟑
= . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ 𝟏𝟐 + . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑
 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
For system of 𝑛 charges,
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏𝟐 + 𝑭𝟏𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑭𝟏𝒏

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒏
= . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ 𝟏𝟐 + . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ 𝟏𝟑 +…+ . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝒏 𝟏𝒏

𝒒𝟏 𝒏 𝒒𝒊
= σ𝒊=𝟐 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝒊 𝟏𝒊
ELECTRIC FIELD
The electric field or the electric intensity or the electric field strength 𝐸
at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive test
charge placed at that point, without disturbing the position of source
charge.
𝐹Ԧ
𝐸=
𝑞0
The electric field at a point is defined as the electrostatic force per unit
test charge acting on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed at
that point.
𝐹Ԧ
𝐸 = lim
𝑞0 →0 𝑞0
 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE
Force on charge 𝑞0 is
1 𝑞𝑞0
𝐹Ԧ = . 2 𝑟Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Electric field at point P is
𝐹Ԧ 1 𝑞
𝐸= = . 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Magnitude of field 𝐸 is
1 𝑞
𝐸= . 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
SI unit of electric field is N/C
 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGE
Force on test charge 𝑞0 is
𝟏 𝒒 𝟏 𝒒𝟎
𝑭𝟏 = . 𝟐 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝑷 𝟏𝑷
Electric field at point P due to charge
𝑞1 is
𝑭𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟏
𝑬𝟏 = = . 𝒓ෞ
𝒒𝟎 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟏𝑷 𝟏𝑷
Similarly, electric field at P due to
charge 𝑞2 is
𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑬𝟐 = . 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟐𝑷 𝟐𝑷
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGE
By principle of superposition of electric fields, the electric field at any
point due to a group of charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric
fields produced by each charge individually at that point, when all other
charges are assumed to be absent.

𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + … + 𝐸𝑁
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟐
= . 𝒓ෞ + . 𝒓ෞ +…+ . 𝒓ෞ
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟏𝑷 𝟏𝑷 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟐𝑷 𝟐𝑷 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟐𝑷 𝑵𝑷
1 𝑁 𝑞𝑖
𝐸= σ𝑖=1 2 𝑟ෞ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑖𝑃 𝑖𝑃
 ELECTRIC DIPOLE

An electric dipole is a pair of equal and

opposite charges separated by a small
distance
 ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

It is a vector whose magnitude is

either charge times the separation
between the two opposite charges.

Its direction is along the dipole axis

from the negative to the positive
charge.

𝒑 = 𝒒 × 𝟐𝒂
ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

It’s magnitude is
𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎

It’s SI unit is coulomb metre (Cm)

 ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN AXIAL POINT OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Electric field due to charge −𝑞 at point
P is
−𝒒
𝑬−𝒒 = ෝ
𝒑 (towards left)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓+𝒂 𝟐

Electric field due to charge +𝑞 at point

P is
𝒒
𝑬+𝒒 = ෝ
𝒑 (towards right)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓−𝒂 𝟐
ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN AXIAL POINT OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Resultant electric field at point P is
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸+𝑞 + 𝐸−𝑞
𝑞 1 1
= 2 − 𝑝ො
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟−𝑎 𝑟+𝑎 2
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
= . 2 2 2 𝑝ො
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 −𝑎
1 2𝑝𝑟
= . 2 2 2 𝑝ො
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 −𝑎
(as 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎)
 ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN AXIAL POINT OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
For a short dipole, 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 , 𝑎2 can be neglected in comparison to 𝑟 2
1 2𝑝
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = . 3 𝑝Ƹ (towards right)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 is in the direction of dipole moment 𝑝Ԧ
ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Electric field at point 𝑃 due to
+ 𝑞 is
1 𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = . 2 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 +𝑎
along BP

Electric field at point 𝑃 due to

− 𝑞 is
1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = . 2 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 +𝑎
along PA
ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE
1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = 𝐸+𝑞 = . 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 + 𝑎2
Components of 𝐸+𝑞 and 𝐸−𝑞 normal to dipole
axis cancel each other. Components parallel to
dipole axis get added up.

Total electric field at P is opposite to 𝑝Ԧ and given

by,
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = − 𝐸−𝑞 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸+𝑞 cos 𝜃 𝑝Ƹ
= −2𝐸−𝑞 cos 𝜃 𝑝Ƹ
ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE
1 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = −2. 2 2
. 𝑝Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 𝑎
(𝑎𝑠 cos 𝜃 = )
𝑟2 + 𝑎2

𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎
For a short dipole, 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 , 𝑎2 can be neglected in comparison to 𝑟 2
1 𝑝
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = − . 3 𝑝ො
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

It is antiparallel to dipole moment 𝑝Ԧ

 TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
Dipole moment of electric dipole
𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎

Force exerted by field 𝐸 on charge +𝑞

= 𝑞𝐸 (along 𝐸 )

Force exerted by field 𝐸 on charge −𝑞

= −𝑞𝐸
(opposite to 𝐸 )
TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
Net translating force acting on
dipole is zero.
Torque acting on dipole = Either
force x perpendicular distance
between forces

𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑎 sin 𝜃
= 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃

𝜏Ԧ = 𝑝Ԧ × 𝐸
 TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
When 𝜃 = 900 , 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝐸

If 𝐸 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝜃 = 900 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜏 = 𝑝

Dipole moment can be defined as the torque acting on an electric

dipole, placed perpendicular to a uniform electric field of unit strength.
DIPOLE IN A NON-UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

Net force acts on a dipole in a non-uniform electric field as forces

acting on charges −𝑞 and +𝑞 of the dipole are not equal and opposite.

Net torque acts on the dipole depending on location of dipole.

𝜏Ԧ = 𝑝Ԧ × 𝐸 𝑟Ԧ
 WHEN DIPOLE IS PARALLEL OR ANTIPARALLEL TO NON-UNIFORM 𝑬

Net torque on the dipole is zero as forces on

charges −𝑞 and +𝑞 become linear.

There is a net force acting on dipole.

When 𝑝Ԧ is parallel to 𝐸 , a net force acts in

the direction of increasing 𝐸 .

When 𝑝Ԧ is antiparallel to 𝐸 , a net force acts

in the direction of decreasing 𝐸 .
ELECTRIC LINE OF FORCE

It may be defined as the curve along which a small positive charge

would tend to move when free to do so in an electric field and the
tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the electric field at
that point.
ELECTRIC FLUX

The electric flux through a given area held inside an electric field is a
measure of the total number of electric lines of force passing normally
through that area.
PROPERTIES OF LINES OF FORCE
1) The lines of force are continuous smooth curves without any
breaks.
2) The lines of force start at positive charges and end at negative
charges. They cannot form closed loops.
3) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the
electric field at that point.
4) No two lines of force can cross each other.
5) The relative closeness of the lines of force gives a measure of
strength of the electric field in any region.
 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
OF A POINT POSITIVE CHARGE OF A POINT NEGATIVE CHARGE
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES OF A POSITIVELY CHARGED PLANE
CONDUCTOR
 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
OF TWO EQUAL AND OPPOSITE POINT OF TWO EQUAL AND POSITIVE POINT
CHARGES CHARGES
ELECTRIC FLUX
𝜟𝝓𝑬 = 𝑬 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 × ∆𝑺
𝜟𝝓𝑬 = 𝑬𝜟𝑺 𝜟𝝓𝑬 = 𝑬 . 𝑺
GAUSS’ THEOREM
It states that the total flux through a closed surface is
1Τ𝜀0 times the net charge enclosed by the closed surface.
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 = ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀0
PROOF
Consider an isolated positive point
charge 𝑞.
Surface 𝑆 is a sphere of radius 𝑟 with
𝑞 at centre. It is a Gaussian surface.
Electric field at any point on 𝑆 is
1 𝑞
𝐸= . 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝜃 = 00
PROOF
Flux through area 𝑑𝑆 is
𝑑𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 cos 00
= 𝐸𝑑𝑆
Flux through area 𝑆 is
𝜙𝐸 = ර 𝑑𝜙𝐸

= ‫𝑆𝑑 ׯ 𝐸 = 𝑆𝑑𝐸 ׯ‬
= 𝐸 × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
PROOF
1 𝑞
𝜙𝐸 = . 2 . 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑞
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
This proves Gauss’s Theorem
FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY LONG CHARGED WIRE
Consider an infinitely long straight
wire having uniform linear charge
density 𝜆 C/m

Imagine Gaussian surface as shown

in figure with curved surface 𝑆1 and
flat surfaces 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 .

𝑑𝑆1 ∥ 𝐸 , 𝑑𝑆2 ⊥ 𝐸 , 𝑑𝑆3 ⊥ 𝐸

FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY LONG CHARGED WIRE
𝜙𝐸 = ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆
= ‫𝐸 𝑆׬‬. 𝑑𝑆1 + ‫𝐸 𝑆׬‬. 𝑑𝑆2 + ‫𝐸 𝑆׬‬. 𝑑𝑆3
1 2 3

= ‫𝑆𝑑𝐸 𝑆׬‬1 cos 00 + ‫𝑆𝑑𝐸 𝑆׬‬2 cos 900 + ‫𝑆𝑑𝐸 𝑆׬‬3 cos 900
1 2 3

= 𝐸 ‫𝑆𝑑 ׬‬1 + 0 + 0
= 𝐸 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY LONG CHARGED WIRE
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸2𝜋𝑟𝑙
By Gauss’s Theorem,
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
𝜆𝑙
𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0
𝜆
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1
𝐸 ∝
𝑟
𝜆
𝐸= 𝑛ො
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY LONG CHARGED WIRE
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITE
PLANE SHEET
Consider a thin, infinite plane
charged sheet with uniform surface
charge density 𝜎

Consider cylindrical Gaussian

surface with length 2𝑟 and cross-
sectional area 𝐴.

Flux through curved surface = 0

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED
INFINITE PLANE SHEET
Flux through plane-end faces of
cylinder is
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 = 2𝐸𝐴

By Gauss’s Theorem,
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
𝜎𝐴
2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED
INFINITE PLANE SHEET
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜀0

𝜎
𝐸= 𝑛ො
2𝜀0
FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SHELL
Point P lies outside spherical shell( 𝑟 > 𝑅)
Total charge inside Gaussian surface
𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜎
Flux through Gaussian surface
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
2 𝑞
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 =
𝜀𝑜
1 𝑞
𝐸= . 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑞
𝐸= . 𝑟Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SHELL

Point P lies on spherical shell ( 𝑟 = 𝑅)

2 𝑞
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑅 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀𝑜
as 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜎
FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SHELL

Point P is inside spherical shell (𝑟 < 𝑅)

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐸=
𝜀𝑜
𝐸=0
FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SHELL