SHINOSH MATHEW

BEE CHE, CS A
PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

A purely resistive or non-inductive circuit is one which has an inductance so

small that at small frequency its reactance is so small as compared to its resistance.
Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive inductive reactance of R Ωs
connected across a sinusoidal voltage represented by, v = VmSin 𝜔𝜔t.
The applied voltage has to overcome the Ohmic drop or iR only.
i.e, iR =v.
𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
or 𝑖𝑖 = = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝜋𝜋
Current will be maximum when 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = or sin 𝜔𝜔t =1.
2
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 =
𝑅𝑅
And instantaneous current may be expressed as
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
From the expressions of the instantaneous applied voltage and current, it is
evident that in a pure resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each
other, as shown by the wave and phasor diagram.

E S . I N
KTU NOT
POWER IN PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit is the product of the instantaneous
values of applied voltage and current.
i.e,
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣 × 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 × 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
= 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑝 = (1 − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
2
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
= − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
2 2
𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼
Since the average of 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 over a complete cycle is zero,

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑝𝑝 = = × = 𝑉𝑉 × 𝐼𝐼 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
2 √2 √2

Where V and I are the rms values of the applied voltage and current

Thus for a purely resistive circuit, the expression for power is same as for a dc
circuit. It is evident from the graph that power consumed is not a constant but it is fluctuating.
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 SHINOSH MATHEW
BEE CHE, CS A
However it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current
are either both positive or negative and therefore, the product is always positive.

PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible
resistance. Practically pure inductance can never be hard as the inductive coil has small
resistance. However a thick copper conductor wound on a laminated core has negligible
resistance and is known as a choke coil.
When an alternating current is applied to a purely inductive coil, an EMF, known
as self induced EMF is induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since the coil has
negligible resistance, at every instant applied voltage has to overcome this self induced EMF
only.

. I N
Let the applied voltage v = Vm sin𝜔𝜔t.

E S
NOT
And self inductance of the coil = L Henry.

KTU
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Self induced EMF in the coil, 𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 = −𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Since applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the self induced EMF i.e, v = - eL

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = −𝑒𝑒 = − �−𝐿𝐿 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. , 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 − cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝜔
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
=− sin � − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔� ∵ cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = sin � − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔�
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖 = sin � − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔� ∵ sin � − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔� = − sin �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − �
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2 2 2
𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − �
2
Where,

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BEE CHE, CS A
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 =
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
From the expression of the instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing
through a purely inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by
π/2.

𝜔𝜔L in the above expression is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL. Therefore
XL=𝜔𝜔L.

Power in purely inductive circuit.

Instantaneous power

E S . I N
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣 × 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 × 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 −
𝜋𝜋
� = −𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

NOT
2

KTU =
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
2
sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since the
average of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in
inductive circuits the power consumed or absorbed is zero.

Q FACTOR OF A COIL

Reciprocal of power factor is called the Q – factor of a coil or its figure of merit. It is also known
as the quality factor of the coil

1 1 𝑍𝑍
Q − factor = = =
Power Factor cos 𝜙𝜙 𝑅𝑅

If R is small as compared to reactance, then Q factor is,

𝑍𝑍 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Q − factor = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Also,

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 SHINOSH MATHEW
BEE CHE, CS A
Maximum Energy Stored
𝑄𝑄 = 2𝜋𝜋
Energy dissipated per cycle

PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS

Let an alternating voltage represented by v = Vm Sin 𝜔𝜔t be applied across a capacitor of

capacitance C farads. The expression for the instantaneous charge is given by q = CVmax Sin 𝜔𝜔t.
Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may be
obtained by differentiating the above equation.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖 = = (𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜋𝜋/2)
1�
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + )
2

Here it is observed that the current leads the applied current by an angle of π/2. The term 1/ C𝜔𝜔
are known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC.

Power in purely capacitive circuits.

Instantaneous power p is
𝜋𝜋

E S . I N
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣 × 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 × 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 +
2
)

NOT
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

KTU
2

Therefore the average power observed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero.

Wave forms

RESISTANCE – INDUCTANCE (R L) SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider an ac circuit consisting of R Ω and an inductor of L Henry’s connected in
series.

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BEE CHE, CS A

Let the supply voltage frequency be f and current flowing through the circuit be of I
amperes.
The voltage drop across the resistor, VR = I × R in phase with the current.
The voltage drop across the inductor, VL = I × XL, leading I by π/2 radians.
𝑉𝑉 = �𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿2 = �(𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)2 + (𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 )2 = 𝐼𝐼�𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

The quantity �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 is known as impedance, denoted by Z and is expressed in ohms.
From the phasor diagram it is evident that the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle
Ф which is then given by,
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
Tan Ф = = =

E S . I
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
N 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑋𝑋
𝑅𝑅

NOT
𝐿𝐿
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 Ф = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇−1 � �
𝑅𝑅

Where
KTU
If the applied voltage v = VmaxSin (𝜔𝜔t – Ф) then the expression for the current will be
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 – Ф)

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Ф = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇−1 � �
𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅
According to j operator format we can write it as,
VR = IR and VL = I IXL
VR and VL are added vectorial and the vector sum is equal to the applied voltage V
�⃗ = 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 ����⃗ ���⃗ �����⃗ ��������⃗
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅 +𝚥𝚥𝚥𝚥𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼(𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 )
𝑉𝑉
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

WAVE FORMS

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 SHINOSH MATHEW
BEE CHE, CS A

RESISTANCE CAPACITANCE (R-C) SERIES CIRCUIT

E S . I N
KTU NOT
Phasor diagram
Consider an AC circuit consisting of resistance of R Ω and capacitance of C farads
connected in series. Let the supply frequency be of f Hz and the current flowing through the
circuit be of I amperes.
The voltage drop across the resistance VR = IR in phase with the current.
The voltage drop across the capacitor VC = IXC lagging by 900.
The applied voltage being the phasor sum of VR and VC, is given in magnitude by,
𝑉𝑉 = �(𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 )2 = �(𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)2 + (𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2

= 𝐼𝐼�𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

From the impedance triangle, power factor, cosФ =R/Z
The instantaneous value of voltage = VmSin𝜔𝜔t,
Then the instantaneous value of current = ImSin (𝜔𝜔t + Ф)
And the power consumed in the circuit is given by P = VICosФ.
WAVE FORMS

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BEE CHE, CS A

RESISTANCE-INDUCTANE- CAPACITANCE (R-L-C) SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit consisting of resistance of R Ω, inductance of L Henry, and a

S . I N
capacitance of C farad. Let the frequency be f HZ and the current flowing be of I amps.
E
Drop across resistance R is VR = I × R

KTU
Drop across resistance L is VL = I × XL NOT
Drop across resistance C is Vc = I × Xc
There can be two cases they are as flows;
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
When XL > XC VL is greater than VC and the resultant of VL and VC is directed towards VL. The
circuit is said to be inductive in nature.

From the voltage triangle,

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BEE CHE, CS A

𝑉𝑉 = �(𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 )2

= �(𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)2 + (𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2

= 𝐼𝐼�(𝑅𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2

𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 × 𝑍𝑍

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅
tan 𝜙𝜙 = � � , cos 𝜙𝜙 =
𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍 = �(𝑅𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2

XC > XL.

E S . I N
KTU NOT
APPARENT, ACTIVE (TRUE OR REAL) AND REACTIVE POWER
Every circuit has two components
(i). Active component
(ii). Reactive component
“Active component” consumes power in the circuit while “reactive component” is responsiable
for the field which lags or leads the ain current from the voltage.
From the figure below, active component is Iactive =I cosϕ and reactive component is
Ireactive = I sin ϕ
So,
𝐼𝐼 = �(𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )2 + (𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 )2

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BEE CHE, CS A
(i). Apparent power (S)
It is given by the product of RMS values of applied voltage and circuit current
∴ 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 × 𝐼𝐼 = (𝐼𝐼 × 𝑍𝑍) × 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑍𝑍 volt − amperes (VA)
(ii). Active or True or Real Power (P or W)
It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜙𝜙 Watts
(iii). Reactive Power (Q)
A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume ant power, since in a half cycle
what so ever power is received from the source by these components the same is returned to the
source. This power flows back and forth or reacts upon itself is called “reactive power”
The current in phase with the voltage produces active or true or real power, while the
current 900 out of phase with the voltage contributes to reactive power.
For example, in a R-L circuit, reactive power which is the power developed in the
inductive reactance of the circuit is given as,
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼 3 𝑍𝑍 sin 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼 × (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) sin 𝜙𝜙
= 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜙𝜙 volt − amperes − reactive (VAR)
Relation between VA, W and VAR
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜙𝜙
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜙𝜙
𝑊𝑊
∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =

E S . I N cos 𝜙𝜙

NOT
And,
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

KTU
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
sin 𝜙𝜙
Power factor, p.f
𝑊𝑊 True Power
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 Apparent Power

AC PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Methods for solving AC parallel circuits
(i). Phasor or vector method
(ii). Admittance method
(iii). Vector algebra (symbolic method or j – method)
1. Phasor or Vector Method
Consider a parallel circuit consisting of two branches of impedance Z1 (R1, L) and Z2 (R2,
C) respectively connected in parallel across an alternating voltage of V volts. Since two branches
are connected in parallel the voltage across each branch is the same and equals the supply
voltage V but current through them will be different.

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BEE CHE, CS A

Branch 1

Impedance 𝑍𝑍1 = �(𝑅𝑅1 )2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 )2

Current I1,
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼1 = ,
𝑍𝑍1
Power Factor,

cos 𝜙𝜙1 =
E S . I
𝑅𝑅1
N 𝑅𝑅1
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜙𝜙1 = cos −1 � �

NOT
𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍1

KTU
Current I1 lags behind the applied voltage by ϕ1
Branch 2

Impedance 𝑍𝑍2 = �(𝑅𝑅2 )2 + (𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 )2

Current I2,
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼2 =
𝑍𝑍2
Power factor, p.f,
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓 = cos 𝜙𝜙2 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜙𝜙2 = cos −1 � �
𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍2
Current I2 leads V by ϕ2
Resultant current I, which is Phasor sum of I1 and I2 can be determined either by using
parallelogram law of Phasor or resolving branch currents I1 and I2 along X- axis and Y- axis and
determining the resultant of these components analytically.
Components of resultant currents I along X-axis
= sum of components of branch currents I1 and I2 along X-axis
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼1 cos 𝜙𝜙2 + 𝐼𝐼2 cos 𝜙𝜙2
Similarly, components of resultant current I along Y-axis

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= sum of components of branch currents I1 and I2 along Y-axis
𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜙𝜙 = −𝐼𝐼1 sin 𝜙𝜙1 + 𝐼𝐼2 sin 𝜙𝜙2
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = �(𝐼𝐼1 cos 𝜙𝜙2 + 𝐼𝐼2 cos 𝜙𝜙2 )2 + (−𝐼𝐼1 sin 𝜙𝜙1 + 𝐼𝐼2 sin 𝜙𝜙2 )2
And,
𝐼𝐼1 cos 𝜙𝜙2 + 𝐼𝐼2 cos 𝜙𝜙2
tan 𝜙𝜙 =
−𝐼𝐼1 sin 𝜙𝜙1 + 𝐼𝐼2 sin 𝜙𝜙2
If tan ϕ is positive then current I will lead the applied voltage V and if tan ϕ is negative current I
will lag behind the applied voltage V
Power factor of the whole circuit is given by
𝐼𝐼1 cos 𝜙𝜙2 + 𝐼𝐼2 cos 𝜙𝜙2 X − Component
cos 𝜙𝜙 = =
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
2. Admittance Method
Admittance (Y) of a circuit is defined as the reciprocal of its impedance
1 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
∴ 𝑌𝑌 = = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑌𝑌 =
𝑍𝑍 𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
The unit of admittance is Siemens (S or mho)
As the impedance Z of a circuit has two components R and X similarly as shown in
figure, admittance Y also has two components G (conductance –X-component) and B
(susceptance-Y-component)

1 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝐺𝐺 = 𝑌𝑌 cos 𝜙𝜙 =

E S .
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍
I N
× = 2= 2
𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑋𝑋 2

NOT
1 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜙𝜙 = × = 2 = 2

KTU
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑋𝑋 2
∴ Admittance , 𝑌𝑌 = �𝐺𝐺 2 + 𝐵𝐵2

Q-factor of a parallel Circuit

It is defined as the ratio of the current circulating between its two branches to the line
current drawn from the supply of simply, as the current magnification
1 𝐿𝐿
𝑄𝑄 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = �
𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶

PHASOR ALGEBRA
The following are the methods of representing vector quantities
(i). Symbolic notation
(ii). Trigonometrical form
(iii). Exponential form
(iv). Polar form
Symbolic notation
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Trigonometrical form
𝐸𝐸 = �𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃)

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Exponential form
𝐸𝐸 = �𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑒𝑒 ±𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Polar form
𝐸𝐸 = �𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 ∠ ± 𝜃𝜃

Addition and subtraction of vector quantities

𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏2
Addition
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 ) + (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏2 )
The magnitude of the resultant vector

𝑉𝑉 = �(𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 )2 + (𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2 )2

𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2
𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 � �
𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2
Subtraction
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 ) − (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏2 )

E S . N
= (𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑏𝑏2 )
I
NOT
The magnitude of the resultant vector

KTU = �(𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 )2 + (𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑏𝑏2 )2

𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 �
𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑏𝑏2
𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2
�

Multiplication and division of vector quantities

Consider two voltages Phasor represented as
𝑏𝑏1
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 = 𝑉𝑉1 ∠𝜃𝜃1 , where 𝜃𝜃1 = tan−1 � �
𝑎𝑎1
𝑏𝑏2
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏2 = 𝑉𝑉2 ∠𝜃𝜃2 , where 𝜃𝜃2 = tan−1 � �
𝑎𝑎2
Multiplication
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑉2 = (𝑉𝑉1 ∠𝜃𝜃1 ) × (𝑉𝑉2 ∠𝜃𝜃2 ) = 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 ∠(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 )
Division
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 ∠𝜃𝜃1 𝑉𝑉1
𝑉𝑉 = = = ∠(𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 )
𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 ∠𝜃𝜃2 𝑉𝑉2

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