Unit 2

AC Circuits
Formulas used for numericals
A.C.FUNDAMENTALS

1. e = Em sin 2πft = Em sin( 2 )t

T
2. I = Im sin 2πft = Im sin ( 2 )t
T
3. F= PN / 120 where N = revolutions in rpm and P = number of poles.
1
4. 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑖(𝜃)𝑑𝜃
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

2𝐼𝑚
5. For sine wave : 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋
2𝑉𝑚
6. For sine wave : 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋
2 2
i d
7. RMS value: I = 0 base
Im
8. For sinewave: Irms =
2
𝑉𝑚
9. For sinewave : 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
10. Power utilized: P = Irms2R
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
11. 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔
0.707 𝐼𝑚
12. For the sine wave : 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
0.637 𝐼𝑚

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑚
13. 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Im
14. For the sine wave : Peak factor = = 2 = 1.41414
Im
2
𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
15. Instantaneous Power: 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
16. Average power consumed by pure resistive circuit
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

17. Pure resistive circuit:

1
 Applied voltage: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
𝑉𝑚
Where, 𝐼𝑚 = is the maximum / peak current
𝑅
Power factor: cosφ = 1
Applied voltage: 𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0𝑜
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Resultant current : 𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0𝑜 , where 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅
Average power consumed by an ac circuit:
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
18. For pure inductive circuit:
Applied voltage: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
𝑉𝑚
Where, 𝐼𝑚 = is the maximum / peak current
𝑋𝐿

Applied voltage: 𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0𝑜

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Resultant current : 𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠−90𝑜 , where 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = , 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 and
𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (for sinusoidal ac source).
√2
Average power consumed: 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Power Factor (PF)=cos Φ
where φ is the phase difference between the applied voltage and the resultant
current.
Φ=90o
PF=cos 90o = 0
Power consumed is given as : 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0 = 0

19. Pure Capcitive circuit:

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 Average power consumed by pure capacitive circuit over one cycle is given as:
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Power consumed is given as : 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0 = 0
Power consumed by a capacitive circuit =0.

Series RL AC Circuits
1. Phasor diagram:

𝑉̅ = 𝑉
̅̅̅ ̅
𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 = |𝑉|∠𝜑
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝐼 ̅ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅

|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2

𝑉𝐿
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅

𝑉̅ 𝑉∠0𝑜 𝑉
𝐼̅ = = = ∠ − 𝜑𝑜
𝑍 ̅ |𝑍| ∠𝜑 |𝑍|

𝑉
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼| ∠ − 𝜑, where |𝐼| = |𝑍|
and

𝑉𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝐿 𝑅

Impedance Triangle:

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Circuit Impedance:
𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = (|𝑍|∠𝜑 ) Ω

𝑋𝐿
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 Ω , 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Average power consumed : =𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2

Power factor = PF = cos φ

PF = cosФ= VR / V= R/Z,

Active, Reactive and Apparent Power:-

Power triangle:

1. Apparent power:
S = Vrms.Irms = = Irms 2.Z volt-amperes (VA).
2. Active power:
P = Irms 2R = Vrms Irms cosФ watts.
3. Reactive power:
Q = Vrms. Irms sinФ volt-ampere reactive (VAR)

A.C. analysis of RC circuit

Phasor Diagram:

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Voltage Triangle:
𝑉̅ = 𝑉
̅̅̅ ̅
𝑅 + 𝑉𝑐 = |𝑉|∠𝜑
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝐼 ̅ 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑐2
𝑉𝑣
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅

Resultant current:
𝑉̅ 𝑉∠0𝑜 𝑉
𝐼̅ = = = ∠+𝜑
𝑍̅ |𝑍| ∠ − 𝜑 |𝑍|

𝑉
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼| ∠ + 𝜑, where |𝐼| = |𝑍|
and

𝑉𝑐 𝑋𝑐
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅 𝑅

Hence if the applied voltage is 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

In other words, current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle Ф.
𝑉𝑚
Then current equation is 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑚 = |𝑍|

Impedance Triangle:

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Circuit Impedance:
𝑍̅ = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 = (|𝑍|∠ − 𝜑 ) Ω

𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐2 Ω , 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
Power: -
Instantaneous power consumed by series RL circuit is given as
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
Average power consumed : =𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

Power factor = cos φ = R/Z

Power Factor :
Power factor = PF = cos φ
PF = cosФ= VR / V = R/Z.

Active, Reactive and Apparent Power:-

Power triangle:

1). Apparent power (S):- S = Vrms.Irms = Irms 2.Z volt-amperes (VA).

2). Active power (P or W): - P = Irms 2R = Vrms Irms cosФ watts.

3). Reactive Power (Q): - Q= Vrms. Irms sinФ volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
S2 = P2 + Q2 or S = (P2 + R2)1/2
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 Series RLC circuit
Applied voltage: 𝑉̅ = 𝑉
̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑐

𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ ( 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
Where, 𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐
𝑍̅ = |𝑍| ∠𝜑
As frequency varies the value of XL and Xc varies resulting in the following cases:
Case (i) XL > Xc
𝑉̅ = 𝐼. 𝑍̅ , where 𝑍̅ = |𝑍|∠𝜑
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
Voltage triangle:

𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅̅̅ ̅
𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑐
̅
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )
𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 + 𝑗 (𝑉̅𝐿 − 𝑉̅𝑐 )
𝑉̅ = |𝑉| ∠𝜑
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶
|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 and ∠𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅

Impedance triangle:
𝑍̅ = |𝑍| ∠𝜑
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅

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Phase angle Ф is given by
tanФ = (XL – XC) / R = X / R
Power factor cosФ = R / Z
R R
cos  
R  X L  X C  R X2
2 2 2

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Case(ii): XL = Xc

Power factor: cosФ = R / Z = R/R = 1

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Case(iii): XL < Xc

Power factor : cosФ = R / Z

R R
cos  
R2   X C  X L  R  X2
2 2

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Impedance:
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 In general, for RLC series circuit impedance is given by,
Z=R+jX
X = XL – Xc = Total reactance of the circuit

If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive, Z=R+jX, where X=XL –XC

If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive, Z=R-jX, where X=XC –XL
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive, Z=R
tan ф = [(XL - Xc )∕R]
cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc ) 2)

Power and power triangle:

Average power consumed :
Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power consumed by L) +
(Average power consumed by C)

P = Vrms Irms cos ф

Power factor: cos ф = R/Z
Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = VI= I2Z
P = Active power = VI Cos ф
Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф

Series RLC resonant circuit

9
 Impedance of the circuit : Z = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
Net reactance of the circuit : X= (XL – XC) ohm
1
Where, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 Ω and 𝑋𝑐 = Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Resonant frequency:
1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
a. At resonant frequency : Supply frequency f = fo ,
the circuit is at resonance and resistive,
Z = R.
b. At low frequencies : Supply frequency f > fo , XL > XC,
the circuit is inductive
Z = R + j X.
c. At high frequencies: Supply frequency f < fo , XL < XC,
the circuit is capacitive
Z=R-jX
𝑅 𝑅
Bandwidth: 𝐵𝑊 = (𝐻𝑧) = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋𝐿 𝐿

𝐵𝑊
𝑓2 = 𝑓𝑟 + Hz
2
𝐵𝑊
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑟 − Hz
2

Half Power Frequencies :

Power at resonance frequency = Io2R
Power at half power frequencies:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑜2 𝑅
𝑃𝑓1, 𝑓2 = =
2 2

Half power frequencies ω1 and ω2 :

1
ω1,2 = R  rad/sec
2L LC

ω1,2 = R  ωo rad/sec
2L
ωo is the resonant frequency.

10
Q-Factor of series circuit:
0 L 2f 0 L
   tan 
Q -factor R R

1 L
Q=
R C
Voltage across inductor and capacitor at resonance:
VL = Vc = V. Q , where Q is the voltage magnification factor / quality factor.

PARALLEL RESONANT A.C. CIRCUIT

Resonant frequency:
1 1 R2
f0   2 Hz
2 LC L
This is the resonant frequency and is given in Hz if R is in Ohm; L is in Henry & C in farad.

11
 1
If R is negligible then f 0 
2 LC
Current at resonance:
𝑉
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝐿
𝐿
Dynamic impedance of parallel resonant circuit: 𝑍𝐿 = Ω
𝐶𝑅

cos ΦL = R / ZL
I = VR  V
L L
C CR

Q-Factor of a parallel circuit:

𝐼𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐶
𝑄 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼
Ic
Q=  tan 
I
Where Φ is the power factor angle of the coil.
2f 0 L 1 L
Q= 
R R C

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