Image impedance is a concept used in electronic network design and analysis and most especially in filter

design. The term image impedance applies to the impedance seen looking into the ports of a network. Usually a
two-port network is implied but the concept is capable of being extended to networks with more than two ports.
The definition of image impedance for a two-port network is the impedance, Zi 1, seen looking into port 1 when
port 2 is terminated with the image impedance, Zi 2, for port 2. In general, the image impedances of ports 1 and 2
will not be equal unless the network is symmetrical (or anti-symmetrical) with respect to the ports.

Derivation

Simple 'L' network with series impedance Z and shunt admittance Y. Image impedances Zi 1 and Zi 2 are shown

Showing how a T section is made from two cascaded L half sections. Zi 2 is facing Zi 2 to provide matching
impedances

Showing how a Π section is made from two cascaded L half sections. Z i 1 is facing Zi 1 to provide matching
impedances
As an example, the derivation of the image impedances of a simple 'L' network is given below. The L network
consists of a series impedance, Z, and a shunt admittance, Y.
The difficulty here is that in order to find Z i 1 it is first necessary to terminate port 2 with Z i 2. However, Zi 2 is also
an unknown at this stage. The problem is solved by terminating port 2 with an identical network: port 2 of the
second network is connected to port 2 of the first network and port 1 of the second network is terminated with Zi 1.
The second network is terminating the first network in Zi 2 as required. Mathematically, this is equivalent to
eliminating one variable from a set of simultaneous equations. The network can now be solved for Z i 1. Writing
out the expression for input impedance gives;
 and solving for Zi 1,

Zi 2 is found by a similar process, but it is simpler to work in terms of the reciprocal, that is
image admittance Yi 2,

Also, it can be seen from these expressions that the two image impedances are
related to each other by;

Usage in filter design

When used in filter design, the 'L' network analysed above is usually referred to as a half section. Two half
sections in cascade will make either a T section or a Π section depending on which port of the L section comes
first. This leads to the terminology of Zi T to mean the Zi 1 in the above analysis and Zi Π to mean Zi 2.

Relation to characteristic impedance

Image impedance is a similar concept to the characteristic impedance used in the analysis of transmission lines.
In fact, in the limiting case of a chain of cascaded networks where the size of each single network is approaching
an infinitesimally small element, the mathematical limit of the image impedance expression is the characteristic
impedance of the chain. That is,

The connection between the two can further be seen by noting an alternative, but equivalent, definition of image
impedance. In this definition, the image impedance of a network is the input impedance of an infinitely long chain
of cascaded identical networks (with the ports arranged so that like impedance faces like). This is directly
analogous to the definition of characteristic impedance as the input impedance of an infinitely long line.
Conversely, it is possible to analyse a transmission line with lumped components, such as one utilising loading
coils, in terms of an image impedance filter.

Transfer function

The transfer function of the half section, like the image impedance, is calculated for a network
terminated in its image impedances (or equivalently, for a single section in an infinitely long chain of

identical sections) and is given by,

where γ is called the transmission function, propagation function or transmission parameter and is given
by,

, The term represents the voltage ratio that would be observed if the
maximum available power was transferred from the source to the load. It would be possible to absorb
this term into the definition of γ, and in some treatments this approach is taken. In the case of a
network with symmetrical image impedances, such as a chain of an even number of identical L sections,
the expression reduces to,
In general, γ is a complex number such that,

The real part of γ, represents an attenuation parameter, α in nepers and the imaginary part represents a
phase change parameter, β in radians. The transmission parameters for a chain of n half sections,
provided that like impedance always faces like, is given by;

As with the image impedance, the transmission parameters approach those of a transmission line as the
filter section become infinitesimally small so that,

with α, β, γ, Z, and Y all now being measured per metre instead of per half section.

Relationship to two-port network parameters

ABCD parameters

For a reciprocal network (AD−BC=1), the image impedances can be expressed in terms of ABCD
parameters as,

.
The image propagation term, γ may be expressed as,

.
Note that the image propagation term for a transmission line segment is equivalent to the Propagation
constant of the transmission line times the length.
Image filter end terminations
Filters designed using the image impedance methodology suffer from a peculiar flaw in the theory. The
predicted characteristics of the filter are calculated assuming that the filter is terminated with its own
image impedances at each end. This will not usually be the case; the filter will be terminated with fixed
resistances. This causes the filter response to deviate from the theoretical. This article explains how the
effects of image filter end terminations can be taken into account.
Generally, the effect of the terminations is to cause a rounding of the frequency response at cut-off. The
image method predicts a sharp discontinuity in the slope of the response at cut-off which is not realised
in practice, although a well designed image filter may get close to this. Another prediction of the image
method is zero loss in the passband (assuming ideal lossless components). Again, this cannot be
achieved in practice because reflections from the end terminations always cause some loss.

Symbols used in this presentation

Impedances

 the image impedance at end 1

 the image impedance at end 2

 the image impedance when both ends are identical

 the terminating resistance at end 1

 the terminating resistance at end 2

 the terminating resistance when both ends are identical

Coefficients

 the reflection coefficient at end 1

 the reflection coefficient at end 2

 the reflection coefficient when both ends are identical

 the transmission coefficient at end 1

 the transmission coefficient at end 2

 the complex propagation coefficient of the filter

 the attenuation coefficient of the filter

 the phase coefficient of the filter

Note that all of these coefficients are defined relative to the image impedance and not the actual input
impedance of the filter.

General case
An arbitrary image filter with resistive end terminations. Because the terminations are not the image
impedance, the input and output impedance is not ZI1 and ZI2, nor is the input voltage actually Vi.
The transfer function of any filter connected as shown in the diagram above is given by the expression

where

Note that Vi is the nominal voltage that would be delivered by the generator if it were terminated in its
characteristic impedance (i.e. R1), not the actual voltage appearing at the input terminals of the filter.
It can further be noted that the first part of the expression,

,
is the same as the expression for the transfer function without taking into account the end terminations.
The second part of the expression is thus that part of the response caused by the mismatched
impedances;

Symmetrical case
Where the filter has symmetrical image impedances and terminations, the expression can be
considerably reduced. Note that there is no requirement for the filter to be symmetrical internally, only
that the end sections have the same image impedance facing into identical terminating impedances.

A further simplification can be made if there are no resistive losses in the filter (or they are assumed to
be negligible). In this case, the image impedance is purely real (RI) in the passband and purely
imaginary (iXI) in the stopband. The magnitude of the transfer function is given by

where for the passband,

and for the stopband,

Antimetrical case
A similar simplification can be made for lossless antimetrical filters. In this case the substitution

is made into the general equation. For the passband,

and for the stopband,

Antimetrical, in this context, means that the filter image impedances and terminations at each end are
the dual of each other. This will be the case if the filter has a series and shunt section of the same type,
respectively, at each end. Symmetrical filters have an even number of half-sections and antimetrical
filters have an odd number of half-sections. In the vast majority of cases the filter design will be either
symmetrical or antimetrical and one of these reduced expressions will apply.

Some example response plots

Response of a low-pass prototype T-filter with the

Theoretical response of a correctly terminated low-pass
effect of resistive end terminations taken into
prototype T-filter
account
The response of the same T-filter with the theoretical
response removed. That is, the component of the response
due only to the effects of the end terminations.

Constant k filter
Constant k filters, also k-type filters, are a type of electronic filter designed using the image method.
They are the original and simplest filters produced by this methodology and consist of a ladder network
of identical sections of passive components. Historically, they are the first filters that could approach
the ideal filter frequency response to within any prescribed limit with the addition of a sufficient
number of sections. However, they are rarely considered for a modern design, the principles behind
them having been superseded by other methodologies which are more accurate in their prediction of
filter response.

History
Constant k filters were invented by George Campbell. He published his work in 1922,[1] but had clearly
invented the filters some time before,[2] as his colleague at AT&T Co, Otto Zobel, was already making
improvements to the design at this time. Campbell's filters were far superior to the simpler single
element circuits that had been used previously. Campbell called his filters electric wave filters, but this
term later came to mean any filter that passes waves of some frequencies but not others. Many new
forms of wave filter were subsequently invented; an early (and important) variation was the m-derived
filter by Zobel who coined the term constant k for the Campbell filter in order to distinguish them.[3]
The great advantage Campbell's filters had over the RL circuit and other simple filters of the time was
that they could be designed for any desired degree of stop band rejection or steepness of transition
between pass band and stop band. It was only necessary to add more filter sections until the desired
response was obtained.[4]
The filters were designed by Campbell for the purpose of separating multiplexed telephone channels on
transmission lines, but their subsequent use has been much more widespread than that. The design
techniques used by Campbell have largely been superseded. However, the ladder topology used by
Campbell with the constant k is still in use today with implementations of modern filter designs such as
the Tchebyscheff filter. Campbell gave constant k designs for low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters.
Band-stop and multiple band filters are also possible.[5]

Terminology
Some of the impedance terms and section terms used in this article are pictured in the diagram below.
Image theory defines quantities in terms of an infinite cascade of two-port sections, and in the case of
the filters being discussed, an infinite ladder network of L-sections. Here "L" should not be confused
with the inductance L – in electronic filter topology, "L" refers to the specific filter shape which
resembles inverted letter "L".

The sections of the hypothetical infinite filter are made of series elements having impedance 2Z and
shunt elements with admittance 2Y. The factor of two is introduced for mathematical convenience, since
it is usual to work in terms of half-sections where it disappears. The image impedance of the input and
output port of a section will generally not be the same. However, for a mid-series section (that is, a
section from halfway through a series element to halfway through the next series element) will have the
same image impedance on both ports due to symmetry. This image impedance is designated ZiT due to
the "T" topology of a mid-series section. Likewise, the image impedance of a mid-shunt section is
designated ZiΠ due to the "Π" topology. Half of such a "T" or "Π" section is called a half-section, which
is also an L-section but with half the element values of the full L-section. The image impedance of the
half-section is dissimilar on the input and output ports: on the side presenting the series element it is
equal to the mid-series ZiT, but on the side presenting the shunt element it is equal to the mid-shunt ZiΠ .
There are thus two variant ways of using a half-section.
Parts of this article or section rely on the reader's knowledge of the complex impedance representation of
capacitors and inductors and on knowledge of the frequency domain representation of signals.

Derivation

Constant k low-pass filter half section. Here inductance L is equal Ck2

Constant k band-pass filter half section.
L1 = C2k2 and L2 = C1k2

Image impedance ZiT of a constant k prototype low-pass filter is plotted vs. frequency . The impedance is
purely resistive (real) below , and purely reactive (imaginary) above .
The building block of constant k filters is the half-section "L" network, composed of a series impedance
Z, and a shunt admittance Y. The "k" in "constant k" is the value given by,[6]

Thus, k will have units of impedance, that is, ohms. It is readily apparent that in order for k to be
constant, Y must be the dual impedance of Z. A physical interpretation of k can be given by observing
that k is the limiting value of Zi as the size of the section (in terms of values of its components, such as
inductances, capacitances, etc.) approaches zero, while keeping k at its initial value. Thus, k is the
characteristic impedance, Z0, of the transmission line that would be formed by these infinitesimally
small sections. It is also the image impedance of the section at resonance, in the case of band-pass
filters, or at ω = 0 in the case of low-pass filters.[7] For example, the pictured low-pass half-section has

.
Elements L and C can be made arbitrarily small while retaining the same value of k. Z and Y however,
are both approaching zero, and from the formulae (below) for image impedances,

Image impedance
The image impedances of the section are given by[8]

and

Provided that the filter does not contain any resistive elements, the image impedance in the pass band of
the filter is purely real and in the stop band it is purely imaginary. For example, for the pictured low-
pass half-section,[9]

The transition occurs at a cut-off frequency given by

Below this frequency, the image impedance is real,

Above the cut-off frequency the image impedance is imaginary,

Transmission parameters

The transfer function of a constant k prototype low-pass filter for a single half-section showing attenuation in
nepers and phase change in radians.
The transmission parameters for a general constant k half-section are given by[10]

and for a chain of n half-sections

For the low-pass L-shape section, below the cut-off frequency, the transmission parameters are given
by[8]

That is, the transmission is lossless in the pass-band with only the phase of the signal changing. Above
the cut-off frequency, the transmission parameters are:[8]

Prototype transformations

The presented plots of image impedance, attenuation and phase change correspond to a low-pass
prototype filter section. The prototype has a cut-off frequency of ωc = 1 rad/s and a nominal impedance
k = 1 Ω. This is produced by a filter half-section with inductance L = 1 henry and capacitance C = 1
farad. This prototype can be impedance scaled and frequency scaled to the desired values. The low-pass
prototype can also be transformed into high-pass, band-pass or band-stop types by application of
suitable frequency transformations.[11]

Cascading sections

Gain response, H(ω) for a chain of n low-pass constant-k filter half-sections.

Several L-shape half-sections may be cascaded to form a composite filter. Like impedance must always
face like in these combinations. There are therefore two circuits that can be formed with two identical
L-shaped half-sections. Where a port of image impedance ZiT faces another ZiT, the section is called a Π
section. Where ZiΠ faces ZiΠ the section so formed is a T section. Further additions of half-sections to
either of these section forms a ladder network which may start and end with series or shunt elements.[12]
It should be borne in mind that the characteristics of the filter predicted by the image method are only
accurate if the section is terminated with its image impedance. This is usually not true of the sections at
either end, which are usually terminated with a fixed resistance. The further the section is from the end
of the filter, the more accurate the prediction will become, since the effects of the terminating
impedances are masked by the intervening sections.

m-derived filter
m-derived filters or m-type filters are a type of electronic filter designed using the image method.
They were invented by Otto Zobel in the early 1920s.[1] This filter type was originally intended for use
with telephone multiplexing and was an improvement on the existing constant k type filter.[2] The main
problem being addressed was the need to achieve a better match of the filter into the terminating
impedances. In general, all filters designed by the image method fail to give an exact match, but the m-
type filter is a big improvement with suitable choice of the parameter m. The m-type filter section has a
further advantage in that there is a rapid transition from the cut-off frequency of the pass band to a pole
of attenuation just inside the stop band. Despite these advantages, there is a drawback with m-type
filters; at frequencies past the pole of attenuation, the response starts to rise again, and m-types have
poor stop band rejection. For this reason, filters designed using m-type sections are often designed as
composite filters with a mixture of k-type and m-type sections and different values of m at different
points to get the optimum performance from both types.[3]

Midpoint impedance
The parameter m is given this symbol because of its association with midpoint impedance, a concept used by
Zobel in his original treatment of the subject. Midpoint impedance arises in the following way. In this article and
most modern textbooks, the starting point is the simple half-section, and more complex filters are built up from
this. In Zobel's treatment and that of his contemporaries, the starting point is always the infinite ladder network.
A "mid-series" section is derived by "cutting through the middle" of the series impedance Z and results in a T
section. The image impedance ZiT is referred to as the mid-series image impedance. Similarly, a "mid-shunt"
section is derived by cutting through the middle of the shunt admittance Y and results in a Π section with a mid-
shunt image impedance. A "series m-derived section" is shorthand for "mid-series derived ladder type section".
This makes it clear that the word series is referring to the ends of the T section being (half) a series component
and not as is sometimes thought, because the additional component is in series with the shunt element. Similarly,
"shunt m-derived section" is shorthand for "mid-shunt derived ladder type section".[4]

Background
Zobel patented an impedance matching network in 1920[5] which, in essence, used the topology of what
are now called m-type filters, but Zobel did not name them as such or analyse them by the image
method. This pre-dated George Campbell's publication of his constant k-type design in 1922 on which
the m-type filter is based.[6] Zobel published the image analysis theory of m-type filters in 1923.[7] Once
popular, M-type filters and image parameter designed filters in general are now rarely designed, having
been superseded by more advanced network synthesis methods.[8]

Derivation

m-derived series general filter half section.

m-derived shunt low-pass filter half section.

The building block of m-derived filters, as with all image impedance filters, is the "L" network, called a
half-section and composed of a series impedance Z, and a shunt admittance Y. The m-derived filter is a
derivative of the constant k filter. The starting point of the design is the values of Z and Y derived from
the constant k prototype and are given by

where k is the nominal impedance of the filter, or R0. The designer now multiplies Z and Y by an
arbitrary constant m (0 < m < 1). There are two different kinds of m-derived section; series and shunt.
To obtain the m-derived series half section, the designer determines the impedance that must be added
to 1/mY to make the image impedance ZiT the same as the image impedance of the original constant k
section. From the general formula for image impedance, the additional impedance required can be
shown to be[9]

To obtain the m-derived shunt half section, an admittance is added to 1/mZ to make the image
impedance ZiΠ the same as the image impedance of the original half section. The additional admittance
required can be shown to be[10]

The general arrangements of these circuits are shown in the diagrams to the right along with a specific
example of a low pass section.
A consequence of this design is that the m-derived half section will match a k-type section on one side
only. Also, an m-type section of one value of m will not match another m-type section of another value
of m except on the sides which offer the Zi of the k-type.[11]

Operating frequency

For the low-pass half section shown, the cut-off frequency of the m-type is the same as the k-type and is
given by
The pole of attenuation occurs at;

From this it is clear that smaller values of m will produce closer to the cut-off frequency and
hence will have a sharper cut-off. Despite this cut-off, it also brings the unwanted stop band response of
the m-type closer to the cut-off frequency, making it more difficult for this to be filtered with
subsequent sections. The value of m chosen is usually a compromise between these conflicting
requirements. There is also a practical limit to how small m can be made due to the inherent resistance
of the inductors. This has the effect of causing the pole of attenuation to be less deep (that is, it is no
longer a genuinely infinite pole) and the slope of cut-off to be less steep. This effect becomes more
marked as is brought closer to , and there ceases to be any improvement in response with an m of
about 0.2 or less.[11][12][13]

Image impedance

m-derived prototype shunt low-pass filter ZiTm image impedance for various values of m. Values below cut-off
frequency only shown for clarity.
The following expressions for image impedances are all referenced to the low-pass prototype section.
They are scaled to the nominal impedance R0 = 1, and the frequencies in those expressions are all scaled
to the cut-off frequency ωc = 1.
Series sections[edit]
The image impedances of the series section are given by[14]

and is the same as that of the constant k section

Shunt sections
The image impedances of the shunt section are given by[11]

and is the same as that of the constant k section

As with the k-type section, the image impedance of the m-type low-pass section is purely real below the
cut-off frequency and purely imaginary above it. From the chart it can be seen that in the passband the
closest impedance match to a constant pure resistance termination occurs at approximately m = 0.6.[14]

Transmission parameters

m-Derived low-pass filter transfer function for a single half-section

For an m-derived section in general the transmission parameters for a half-section are given by[14]

and for n half-sections

For the particular example of the low-pass L section, the transmission parameters solve differently in
three frequency bands.[14]
For the transmission is lossless:

For the transmission parameters are

For the transmission parameters are

Prototype transformations

The plots shown of image impedance, attenuation and phase change are the plots of a low-pass
prototype filter section. The prototype has a cut-off frequency of ωc = 1 rad/s and a nominal impedance
R0 = 1 Ω. This is produced by a filter half-section where L = 1 henry and C = 1 farad. This prototype
can be impedance scaled and frequency scaled to the desired values. The low-pass prototype can also be
transformed into high-pass, band-pass or band-stop types by application of suitable frequency
transformations.[15]

Cascading sections
Several L half-sections may be cascaded to form a composite filter. Like impedance must always face
like in these combinations. There are therefore two circuits that can be formed with two identical L
half-sections. Where ZiT faces ZiT, the section is called a Π section. Where ZiΠ faces ZiΠ the section
formed is a T section. Further additions of half-sections to either of these forms a ladder network which
may start and end with series or shunt elements.[16]
It should be born in mind that the characteristics of the filter predicted by the image method are only
accurate if the section is terminated with its image impedance. This is usually not true of the sections at
either end which are usually terminated with a fixed resistance. The further the section is from the end
of the filter, the more accurate the prediction will become since the effects of the terminating
impedances are masked by the intervening sections. It is usual to provide half half-sections at the ends
of the filter with m = 0.6 as this value gives the flattest Zi in the passband and hence the best match in
to a resistive termination.