STD Xii Physics

S.B.O.A MATRIC.HR.SEC.SCHOOL.
,
COIMBATORE-39
STD XII PHYSICS
COMPLETE NOTES
CONTENTS:
2 MARKS, 3 MARKS AND 5 MARKS
BOOK BACK OBJECTIVE
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
CHAPTER-1
ELECTROSTATICS
Chapter-1- Electrostatics (BOOK BACK SHORT ANSWERS)
1. What is meant by quantisation of charges?
The charge q on any object is equal to an integral multiple of this fundamental unit of charge
e. = ne He e n is any intege , ± , ± , ± , ± ……….. . This is called quantisation ofelectric
charge.
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2. Write do Coulo s la i vector form and mention what each termrepresents.
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3. What are the differences between Coulomb force and gravitational force?
s.no Coulomb force Gravitational force

1 Coulombforce between two charges can be The gravitational force
attractive or repulsive, depending on between twomasses is always
the nature of charges. attractive
2 The valueof the constant k in Coulomb law The value of the gravitational
is constantG = 6.626 × 10-11N
k = 9 × 109N m2C-22Since k is much m2 kg
more greater than G,
3 the electrostatic force is always greater in Gravitational force is always
magnitude than gravitational force for lesser in magnitude than
smaller size objects. electrostatic force
4 the electrostaticforce between the two The gravitational force
charges dependson nature of the medium in between twomasses is
which thetwo charges are kept at rest. independent of the medium
5 If the charges are in motion, yet another The gravitational force
force (Lorentz force) comes into play in between twopoint masses is
addition to coulomb force. the same whether twomasses
are at rest or in motion.
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4. Write a short note on superpositionprinciple.
The superposition principle explains the interaction between multiple charges. According to
this superposition principle,the total force acting on a given charge is
equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other charges.
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5. Defi e Ele tri field .
The electric field at the point P at a distance r from the point charge q is the force experienced
by a unit charge and it is given by
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6. What is ea Ele tri field li es ?
Electric field vectors are visualized by the concept of electric field lines. They form aset of
continuous lines which are the visualrepresentation of the electric field in some region of
space.
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7. The electric field lines never intersect.Justify.
As a consequence, if some charge is placed in the intersection point, then it has
to move in two different directions at the same time, which is physically
impossible. Hence, electric field lines do not intersect.
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8. Defi e Ele tri dipole
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an electric
dipole. In many molecules, the centers of positive and negative charge do not coincide. Such
molecules behave as permanent dipoles. Examples: CO, water, ammonia, HCl etc.
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9. What is the general definition of electric dipole moment? Give its unit.
The magnitude of the electric dipole moment is equal to the product of the magnitude of one
of the charges and the distance between them,
The electric dipole moment vector lies along the line joining two charges and is directed
from –q to +q. The SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb meter (Cm)
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10.Defi e ele trostati pote tial”.
The electric potential at a point P is equal to the work done by an external force
to bring a unit positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to the point P in
the region of the external electric field
11.What is an equipotential surface?
An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same potential.
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12.What are the properties of an equipotential surface?
a) The work done to move a charge q between any two points A and B, W = q (VB – VA). If
the points A and B lie on the same equipotential surface, work done is zero because
VA = VB.
b) The electric field is normal to an equipotential surface. If it is not normal, then there is a
component of the field parallel to the surface. Then work must be done to move a charge
between two points on the same surface. This is a contradiction. Therefore the electric field
must always be normal to equipotential surface.
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13. Give the relation between electric fieldand electric potential.
Consider a positive charge q kept fixed at the origin. To move a unit positive charge by a small
distance dx in the electric field E, the work done is given by dW = -E dx. The minus sign implies
that work is done against the electric field. This work done is equal to electric potential
difference. Therefore,
The electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential. In general,
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14. Defi e ele trostati pote tial e erg .
The electrostatic potential energy U is equal to the total external work done to
assemble the n number of charges at the given locations against the Colombian forces.
Example. The electrostatic potential energy in three system of charges is given by the
expression
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15.Defi e ele tri flu
The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the electricfield lines is
called electric flux. It is usuallydenoted by the Greek letter
and its unit is Electric flux is a scalar quantity.
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16. What is meant by electrostatic energy density?
17. Write a short notes on electrostatic shielding?
Using Gauss law, we proved that the electric field inside the charged spherical shell is
zero,Further, we showed that the electric field inside both hollow and solid conductors is zero.
Whatever the charges at the surfaces and whatever the electrical disturbances outside, the
electric field inside the cavity is zero. A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected
from external electrical disturbance is kept inside this cavity. This is called electrostatic
shielding.
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18. What is Polarisiation?
In the presence of an external electric field, the dipole moment is induced in
the dielectric material. Polarisation defined as the total dipole moment per
unit volume of the dielectric. For most dielectrics (linear isotropic), the Polarisation
is directly proportional to the strength of the external electric field.
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19. What is dielectric strength?
When the external electric field applied to a dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms
apart so that the bound charges become free charges. Then the dielectric starts to
conduct electricity. This is called dielectric breakdown.
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20. Defi e apa ita e . Gi e its u it.
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge on either of
the conductor plates to the potential difference existing between the conductors.
The SI unit of capacitance is coulomb per volt or farad.

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21. What is corona discharge?
Smaller the radius of curvature, the larger is the charge density.
The end of the conductor which has larger curvature (smaller radius) has a large charge
accumulation. As a result, the electric field near this edge is very high and it ionizes the
surrounding air. The positive ions are repelled at the sharp edge and negative ions are
attracted towards the sharper edge. This reduces the total charge of the conductor near the
sharp edge. This is called action at points or corona discharge.
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EXTRA 2 MARK QUESTIONS
22.What is meant by conservation of charges
The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created
nor be destroyed. In any physical process, the net change in charge will always be zero.
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23.State oulo s la i ele trostati s
Coulomb's law states that the electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of
the magnitude of the two point charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the two point charges.
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24.Why water is considered as good solvent?
The strength of the force between the two charges in water is reduced by 80 times compared
to the force between the same two charges in vacuum. When common salt (NaCl) is taken in
water, the electrostatic force between Na and Cl ions is reduced due to the high relative
permittivity of water (εr = 80). This is the reason water acts as a good solvent.
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25.Differentiate uniform and non uniform electric field.
There are two kinds of the electric field: uniform (constant) electric field and non-
uniform electric field. Uniform electric field will have the same direction and constant
magnitude at all points in space.
Non-uniform electric field will have different directions or different magnitudes or both
at different points in space. The electric field created by a point charge is basically a non
uniform electric field. This non-uniformity arises, both in direction and magnitude, with
the direction being radially outward (or inward) and the magnitude changes as distance
increases.
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26.Write short notes on microwave oven.
Microwave oven works on the principle of torque acting on an electric dipole. The food
we consume has water molecules which are permanent electric dipoles. Oven produces
microwaves that are oscillating electromagnetic fields and produce torque on the water
molecules. Due to this torque on each water molecule, the molecules rotate very fast
and produce thermal energy. Thus, heat generated is used to heat the food
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27.State Gauss s la .
Gauss s law states that if a charge Q is enclosed by an arbitrary closed surface, then
the total electric flux ΦE through the closed surface is 1/εO times of the net charged
enclosed by the surface.
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28.Draw the graph is plotted between the electric field and radial distance for a spherical
shell of
radius R.
A graph is plotted between the electric field and radial distance.
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29.Define elelctrostatic induction.
The type of charging the uncharged body without actual contact with charged body is
called electrostatic induction.
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30.What are polar molecules? Give examples.
In polar molecules, the centers of the positive and negative charges are separated even
in the absence of an external electric field. They have a permanent dipole moment. Due
to thermal motion, the direction of each dipole moment is oriented randomly. Hence
the net dipole moment is zero in the absence of an external electric field. Examples of
polar molecules are H2O, N2O, HCl, NH3.
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31.What are non-polar molecules?. Give examples.
A non-polar molecule is one in which centers of positive and negative charges coincide. As a
result, it has no permanent dipole moment. Examples of non-polar molecules are hydrogen
(H2), oxygen (O2), and carbon dioxide (CO2) etc.
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32.State the properties of conductors at electrostatic equilibrium.
1.The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor. This is true regardless of
whether the conductor is solid or hollow.
2.There is no net charge inside the conductors. The charges must reside only on the
surface of the conductors.
3.The electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor and has a magnitude of σ/ εO whe e σ is the su face cha ge density at that
point.
4. The electrostatic potential has the same value on the surface and inside of the
conductor.
33.Tabulate the following when (i) the battery is disconnected with dielectric is inserted
(ii) when the battery is connected with dielectric is inserted.
a) Charge, b) voltage c) electric field d) Capacitance e) energy
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12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
3. Explain Electric field at a point dueto system of 5. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an
PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS charges (or) Superposition of electric fields. electric dipole placed in the uniform electric field.
ANSWERS
1. Discuss the basic properties of electric charge. Superposition of electric field : Torque experienced by the dipole in electric field :
(i) Electric charge :  The electric field at an arbitrary point due to
 Like mass, the electric charge is also an system of point charges is simply equal to the
intrinsic and fundamental property of vector sum of the electric fields created by the
particles. individual point charges. This is called
 The unit of electric charge is coulomb superposition of electric fields.
(ii) Conservation of electric charge : Explanation :
 The total electric charge in the universe is  Consider a system of n charges , , … ,
constant and charge can neither be created  The electric field at P due to n charges
nor be destroyed. ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
 In any physical process, the nte change in 𝜀
charge will be zero. This is called conservation
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂  Let a dipole of moment ⃗⃗⃗ is placed in an uniform
of charges 𝜀
(iii) Quanisation of charge : electric field ⃗⃗⃗
 The chage q of any object is equal to an finally, ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂  The force on +q = + ⃗⃗⃗
𝜀
integral multiple of this fundamental unit of  The total electric field at P due to all these n The force on -q = − ⃗⃗⃗
charge e i.e = charges will be,  Then the total force acts on the dipole is zero.
 where n  integer and = . 𝑿 − 𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 
= + + ……+ But these two forces constitute a couple and the
2. Define superposition principle. Explain how dipole experience a torque which tend to rotate
superposition principle explans the interaction ⃗⃗⃗ = [ ̂ + ̂ + ⋯+ ̂ ] the dipole along the field.
between multiple charges. 𝝅𝜺
4. List the properties of electric field lines.  The total torque on the dipole about the point O
Superposition principle :
Electric field lines : ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (− ⃗⃗⃗ ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (+ ⃗⃗⃗ )
 According to Superposition principle, the total
force acting on a given charge is equal to the  A set of continuous lines which are the visual |⃗⃗𝜏| = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | |− ⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃 + |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | | ⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃
vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other representation of the electric field in some region 𝜏= + sin 𝜃
charges. of space. 𝜏 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 [ = = 𝑎]
Explanation : Properties of electric field lines : 𝝉 = 𝐬𝐢 𝜽
 Consider a system of n charges , , … , 1) They starts from positive charge and end at  where, 𝑎 = → dipole moment
 By Coulomb s law, force on by , … , are negative charge or at infinity.  In vector notation, ⃗⃗𝝉 = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ =
2) The electric field vector at a point in space is  The torque is maximum, when 𝜃 = 
̂ tangential to the electric field line at that point. 6. Obtain an expression electric potential at a point
3) The electric field lines are denser in a region due to a point charge.
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ where the electric field has larger magnitude and Potential due to a point charge :
less dense in region where the electric field is of
finally. ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ smaller magnitude. (i.e) the number of lines
passing through a given surface area
 Then total force action on due to all charges,
perpendicular to the line is proportional to the
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ + … … + ⃗⃗⃗  Consider a point charge + at origin.
magnitude of the electric field.
⃗⃗⃗ 4) No two electric field lines intersect each other  P be a point at a distance r from origin.
= [ ̂ + ̂ + ⋯+ ̂ ]
5) The number of electric field lines that emanate  By definition, the electric field at P is
from the positive charge or end at a negative ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of 𝜀
the charges.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
 Hence electric potential at P is  The potential at C due to charges & 9. Explain the process of electrostatic induction.
Electrostatic induction:
= & =
= − ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫ ̂ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜀 𝜀
𝜀
∞ ∞  To bring third charge to C , work has to be
done against the electric field due to & .
= − ∫ ̂ . ̂ [ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂]  Thus work done on charge is,
𝜀
∞
= + = [ + ]
𝜀
= − ∫ [ ̂. ̂= ]
𝜀
∞ = [ + ] −−−−
𝝅𝜺
= − [− ] = [ − ]  Hence the the total electrostatic potential energy of
𝜀 ∞ 𝜀 ∞
system of three point charges is
=
𝝅𝜺 = [ + + ] −−−
𝝅𝜺
 If the source charge is negative (− ) , then the 8. Obtain an expression for electrostatic potential  The type of charging without actual contact of
potential also negative and it is given by energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field. charged body is called electrostatic induction.
=− Potential energy of dipole in uniform electric field:  Let a negatively charged rubber rod is brought
𝝅𝜺 near to spherical conductor, the electrons in the
7. Obtain an expression for potential energy due to a conductor are repelled to farther side and hence
collection of three point charges which are positive charges are induced near the region of the
separated by finite distances. rod. So the distribution of charges are not uniform,
Potential energy of system of three charges : but the total charge is zero
 If the conducting sphere is connected to ground,
the electrons are flows to the ground, but the
positive charges will not flow to the ground,
 Let a dipole of moment ⃗⃗⃗ is placed in a uniform because they are attracted by the negative charges
electric field ⃗⃗⃗ of the rod.
 Here the dipole experience a torque, which rotate  When the grounding wire is removed from the
 Electrostatic potential energy of a system of the dipole along the field. sphere, the positive charges remain near the rod.
charges is defined as the work done to assemble  To rotate the dipole from 𝜃 to 𝜃 against this  If the charged rod is taken away, the positive
the charges torque, work has to be done by an external torque charges are distributed uniformly on the surface
 consider a point charge at A (𝜏 ) and it is given by, of the sphere.
 Electric potential at B due to is,    Thus the neutral conducting sphere becomes
= = ∫𝜏  = ∫ sin 𝜃  positively charged without any contact.
𝜀 10. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel
 
 To bring second charge to B , work has to be = [−cos 𝜃] = − [ 𝜃− 𝜃 ] plate capacitor.
done against the electric field created by = [ 𝜃 − 𝜃] Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor :
 The work done on the charge is,  This work done is stored as electrostatic potential
= = energy of the dipole.
𝜀  Let the initial angle be 𝜃 =  , then
 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential = = [ − 𝜃]
energy of system of two charges and = − 𝐜 𝐬  = − ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
= −−−−  If 𝜃 =  , then potential energy is maximum
𝝅𝜺
 If 𝜃 =  , then potential energy is mimimum
 Consider a capacitor consists of two parallel plates  The energy stored per unit volume of space is Principle of lightning conductor (Action of point) :
each of area A separated by a distance d defined as energy density ( .  Action of point is the principle behind the
 Let 𝝈′ be the surface charge density of the plates. lightning conductor.
= = 𝜺  We know that smaller the radius of curvature, the
 The electric field between the plates,
𝝈 12. Explain in detail how charges are distributed in a larger is the charge density.
= = −−−−−−−
𝜺 𝑨𝜺 conductor and the principle behind the lightning  If the conductor has sharp end which has larger
 Since the field is uniform, the potential difference conductor. curvature (smaller radius), it has a large charge
between the plates, Distribution of charges in a conductor : accumulation.
 As a result, the electric field near this edge is very
= = [ ] −−−−−
𝑨𝜺 high and it ionizes the surrounding air.
 Then the capacitance of the capacitor,  The positive ions are repelled at the sharp edge
and negative ions are attracted towards the
= = sharper edge.
[ ]  This reduces the total charge of the conductor
𝜀
𝜺 𝑨  Consider two conducting spheres A and B of near the sharp edge. This is called action of points
𝑪= −−−−−−− radii and . Let >
or corona discharge.
 Thus capacitance is,  Let the two spheres are connected by a thin 13. Explain the principle, construction and action of
(i) directly proportional to the Area (A) and conducting wire. lightning conductor.
(ii) inversely proportional to the separation (d)  If a charge Q is given to either A or B, this charge Lightning conductor :
11. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor is redistributed in both the spheres until their  This is a device used to
Energy stored in capacitor: potential becomes same. protect tall building from
 Capacitor is a device used to store charges and  Now they are uniformly charged and attain lightning strikes;
energy. electrostatic equilibrium.  It woks on the principle of
 When a battery is connected to the capacitor,  At this stage, let the surface charge densities of acion of points or corona
electrons of total charge -Q are transferred from A and B are 𝜎 and 𝜎 respectively, then discharge.
one plate to other plate. For this work is done by Charge residing on suface of A = =𝜎  It consists of a long thick copper rod passing from
the battery. Charge residing on suface of B = =𝜎 top of the building to the ground.
 This work done is strored as electrostatic energy  Then the total charge ; Q = +  The upper end of the rod has a sharp spike or a
in capacitor.  There is no net charge inside the conductors. sharp needle. The lower end of the rod is
 To transfer ′ ′ for a potential difference V , the  Electrostic potential on the surface of A and B is connected to the copper plate which is buried
work done is = & = deep in to the ground.
𝜀 𝜀  When a negatively charged cloud is passing above
= = [ = ]  Under elecrostic equilibrium. = the building, it induces a positive charge on the
 The total work done to charge a capacitor, = spike.
𝜀 𝜀  Since the charge density is large at the spike,
= ∫ = [ ] = action of point takes place.
=
 This positive charge ionizes the surrounding air
 This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of 𝜎 𝜎
= which in turn neutralizes the negative charge in
the capacitor, (i.e)
the cloud.
= = 𝑪 [ = ] 𝜎 = 𝜎  The negative charge pushed to the spikes passes
𝑪 through the copper rod and is safely diverted to
𝜀𝑂 𝝈 = 𝒂
 We know that, = & = the Earth.
 Thus the surface charge density is inversely
𝜀  Thus the lighting arrester does not stop the
𝐸 = = 𝜀 proportional to the radius of the sphere.
lightning, but it diverts the lightning to the ground
 Hence for smaller radius , the charge density will
 where, → safely
be larger and vice versa
14. Give the applications and disadvantage of  Due to this torque on each water molecule, the
capacitors molecules rotate very fast and produce thermal
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Applications of capacitor: energy. 1. Explain in detail Coulomb s law and its various aspects.
 Flash capacitors are used in digital camera to take  Thus, heat generated is used to heat the food. Coulomb s law :
photographs
 During cardiac arrest, a device called heart
defibrillator is used to give a sudden surge of a
large amount of electrical energy to the patient s
chest to retrieve the normal heart function. This  Consider two point charges and separated
defibrillator uses a capacitor of 175 µF charged to by a distance ′ ′
a high voltage of around 2000 V  According to Coulomb law, the force on the point
 Capacitors are used in the ignition system of charge exerted by is
automobile engines to eliminate sparking. ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
 Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations
 where, k → constant
in power supplies and to increase the efficiency of
̂ → unit vector directed from to
power transmission.
Important aspects :
Disadvantages :
 Coulomb law states that the electrostatic force is
 Even after the battery or power supply is
1) directly proportional to the product of the
removed, the capacitor stores charges and energy
magnitude of two point charges
for some time. It caused unwanted shock.
2) inversely proportional to the square of the
15. Define equipotential surface. Give its properties.
distance between them
Equipotential surface:
 The force always lie along the line joining the two
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which all
charges.
the points are at the same potential.
1) For a point charge the equipotential surfaces  In S.I units, = = 𝑿 𝑪−
𝝅𝜺
are concentric spherical surfaces.  Here is the permittivity of free space or vacuum
2) For a uniform electric field, the equipotential and its value is
surfaces form a set of planes normal to the
electric field. 𝜺 = = . 𝑿 − 𝑪 − −
𝝅
Properties :  The magnitude of electrostatic force between two
 The wor kdone to move a charge q between any charges each of 1 C separated by a distance of 1 m
two points A and B is = − . If A and B is 𝑿
lie on the same equipotential surface then =  The Coulomb law in vacuum and in medium are,
Hence work done is zero = ⃗ = ̂
 The electric field is always normal to an 𝝅𝜺
equipotential surface.
& ⃗ = ̂
16. Write a note on microwave oven. 𝝅𝜺
Microwave oven : where, 𝜀 = 𝜀 𝜀 −→ permittivity of the medium
 It works on the principle of torque acting on an - Thus the relative permittivity of the given medium
𝜀
electric dipole. is defined as , 𝜀 = . For air or vacuum, 𝜀 =
𝜀𝑜
 The food we consume has water molecules which and for all other media 𝜀 >
are permanent electric dipoles. Oven produce
 Coulomb s law has same structure as Newton s law
microwaves that are oscillating electromagnetic
of gravitation. (i.e)
fields and produce torque on the water molecules.
= & =
9 −
 Here = and 3. How do we determine the electric field due to a  Then the electric field due to surface of total
−
= 6.6 6 𝑔− continuous charge distribution? Explain. charge Q is
Since k is much more greater than G , the Continuos distribution of charges 𝝈 𝑨 𝝈 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ̂= ∫ ̂
electrostatic force is always greater than  Consider a charged object of 𝝅𝜺 𝝅𝜺
gravitational force for smaller size objects irregularshape which is divided c) Volume charge distribution :
 Electrostatic force between two point charges into a large number of charge  If the charge Q is uniformly distributed in a
depends on the nature of the medium in which elements ∆ , ∆ , ∆ , … ∆ volume V , then charge per unit volume i.e
two charges are kept at rest.  The electric field at P due to volume charge density ; =
𝑉
 Depending upon the nature of the charges, it may this charged object is equal to
sum of all the charged  Hence, =
either be attractive or repulsive
 Then the electric field due to volume of total
 If the charges are in motion, another force called elements. (i.e)
∆ ∆ ∆ charge Q is
Lorentz force come in to play in addition with ⃗⃗⃗ = [ ̂ + ̂ + ⋯+ ̂ ]  
Coulomb force. 𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ̂= ∫ ̂
 Electrostatic force obeys Newton s third law. i.e 𝝅 𝜺 𝝅 𝜺
∆ 𝒊 4. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
⃗ = − ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = ∑ ̂𝒊
2. Define electric field. Explain its various aspects. 𝝅 𝜺 𝒊
axial line.
𝒊=
Electric field due to dipole on its axial line :
Electric field :  For continuous distribution of charge, we have
 The electric field at the point P at a distance r ∆ → = . Hence
from the point charge q is the force experienced
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ̂ −−−−−−−
by a unit charge and is given by 𝝅𝜺
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = = ̂
𝝅𝜺  Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole
Important aspects : moment be = 𝒂 and its direction be along
 If q is positive, the electric field points away and − to + .
if q is negative the electric field points towards  Let C be the point at a distance r from the mid
the source charge. point O on its axial line.
 Electric field at C due to +
⃗+= ̂
 The force experienced by the test charge placed 𝝅𝜺 −𝒂
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ a) Linear charge distribution :  Electric field at C due to −
in electric field is , =
 The electric field is independent of test charge  If the charge Q is uniformly distributed along ⃗−= − ̂
the wire of length L , then charge per unit 𝝅𝜺 +𝒂
and it depends only on souce charge
length (i.e) linear charge density ; 𝜆 =  Since + is located closer to pont C than − ,
 Electric field is a vector quantity. So it has unique 𝐿 ⃗+> ⃗−
direction and magnitude at every point.  Hence, = 𝜆
  By superposition principle, the total electric field
Since electric field is inversely proportional to the  Then the electric field due to line of total
distance, as distance increases the field decreases. at C due to dipole is,
charge Q is
 The test charge is made sufficiently small such 𝝀 𝝀 ⃗ = ⃗+ + ⃗−
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ̂= ∫ ̂
that it will not modify the electric field of the 𝝅𝜺 𝝅𝜺 ⃗ = ̂ − ̂
source charge. b) Surface charge distribution : 𝜀 −𝑎 𝜀 +𝑎
 For continuous and finite size charge  If the charge Q is uniformly distributed on ⃗ = [ − ] ̂
distributions, integration techniques must bt used the surface of area A , then charge per unit 𝜀 −𝑎 +𝑎
 There are two kinds of electric field. They are +𝑎 − −𝑎
area (i.e) surface charge density ; 𝜎 = ⃗ = [ ] ̂
(1) Uniform or constant field 𝜀 −𝑎 +𝑎
(2) Non uniform field  Hence, = 𝜎
+𝑎 + 𝑎− −𝑎 + 𝑎  But the horizontal components | ⃗ + | 𝜽 and  Apply cosine law in  BOP
⃗ = [ ] ̂
𝜀 −𝑎 +𝑎 ⃗
| −| 𝜽 are equal and in same direction (−̂) r = r + a − r a cos θ
𝑎 a a
⃗ = [ ] ̂ will added up to give total electric field. Hence r = r [ + − cos θ]
𝜀 − 𝑎 ⃗ = | ⃗ +| 𝜃 − ̂ + | ⃗ −| 𝜃 − ̂ r r
2
 Here the direction of total electric field is the ⃗ ⃗  If 𝑎
= − | +| 𝜃 ̂ then neglecting 2
dipole moment ⃗⃗⃗ . a
 If 𝑎 , then neglecting 𝑎 . We get ⃗ = − [ ] cos 𝜃 ̂ r = r [ − cos θ]
𝑎 𝑎 𝜀 + 𝑎 r
⃗ = [ ] ̂ = [ ] ̂ 𝑎
𝜀 𝜀 ⃗ = − [ ] ̂ d
𝜀 + 𝑎 r = r[ − cos θ]
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑎 r
⃗ = [ 𝑎 ̂ = ⃗⃗⃗ ] 𝑎 −
𝝅𝜺 ⃗ = − ̂ a
5. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its 𝜀 = [ − cos θ]
+ 𝑎 r r r
equatorial line. ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ a
Electric field due to dipole on its equatorial line : ⃗ = − = − = [ + cos θ] –− − −
𝜀 𝜀 r r r
+ 𝑎 + 𝑎
 Apply cosine law in  AOP
 If 𝑎 then neglecting 𝑎 r = r + a + r a cos −θ
⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = − [ 𝑎 ̂= ̂ = ⃗⃗⃗ ] a a
𝝅𝜺 r =r [ + + cos θ]
r r
6. Derive an expression for electro static potential 2
due to electric dipole.  If 𝑎 then neglecting 2
Electrostatic potential due to dipole : a
r = r [ + cos θ]
r
a
r = r[ + cos θ]
r
−
a
= [ + cos θ]
 Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole r r r
moment be = 𝒂 and its direction be along a
− to + . = [ + cos θ] –− − −
r r r
 Let C be the point at a distance r from the mid  Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole  Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
point O on its equatorial plane. moment be = 𝒂 and its direction be along 𝑎 𝑎
 Electric field at C due to + (along BC) = { [ + 𝜃] − [ − 𝜃]}
− to + 𝜀
| ⃗ +| =  Let P be the point at a distance r from the mid 𝑎 𝑎
𝝅𝜺 + 𝒂 point O = [ + 𝜃− + 𝜃]
𝜀
 Electric field at C due to − (along CA)  Let ∠ = 𝜃, = and = 𝑎 𝑎
 Electric potential at P due to + = 𝜃= 𝜃
| ⃗ −| = 𝜀 𝜀
𝝅𝜺 + 𝒂 q
⃗ ⃗ V = = 𝜽 [ = 𝑎]
 Here | + | = | − | πε r 𝝅𝝐
 Resolve ⃗ + and ⃗ − in to two components.  Electric potential at P due to − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ̂
q = [ 𝜃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ̂ ]
 Here the perpendicular components | ⃗ + | 𝒊 𝜽 V = − 𝝅𝝐
πε r 
and | ⃗ − | 𝒊 𝜽 are equal and opposite will cancel Here ̂ is the unit vector along OP
 Then total potential at P due to dipole is
each other
V =V + = q [ − ] −−−
πε r r
case -1 : If  = °;  = then,  By Gauss law,  The electric flux through the curved surface,
𝑖
= Φ𝐸 = Φ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos =
𝝅𝜺 𝜀
Case -2 : If  = °;  = − then, 𝜆𝐿  The total electric flux through through the
𝐿 =
𝜀 Gaussian surface,
=− 𝝀 Φ𝐸 = Φ + 𝚽  + Φ
𝝅𝜺 =
Case -3 : If  = °;  = then, 𝝅𝜺 𝚽 = ∫ + ∫ + = ∫
=  In Vector notation,
7. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an 𝝀 𝚽 = 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂  By Gauss law,
infinitely long charged wire. 𝝅𝜺
𝑖
Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire :  Here ̂ → unit vector perpendicular to the curved Φ𝐸 =
𝜀
surface outwards.
𝜎
 If 𝜆 > , then ⃗⃗⃗ points perpendicular outward EA=
𝜀
( ̂ ) from the wire and if 𝜆 < , then ⃗⃗⃗ points 𝝈
perpendicular inward (− ̂ ) 𝐄 =
𝜺
8. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an  In vector notation,
charged infinite plane sheet. 𝝈
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
Electric field due to charged infinite plane sheet : 𝜺
 Here ̂ → unit vector perpendicular to the plane
sheet outwards.
 If 𝜎 > , then ⃗⃗⃗ points perpendicular outward
( ̂) from the plane sheet and if 𝜎 < , then ⃗⃗⃗
points perpendicular inward (− ̂)
 Consider an infinitely long straight wire of 9. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an
uniform linear charge density  uniformly charged spherical shell.
 Let P be a point at a distance r from the wire. Let Electric field due to charged spherical shell :
E be the electric field at P  Consider an uniformly charged spherical shell of
 Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length radius R and charge Q
L and radius r 1) At a point outside the shell ( > ) :
 The electric flux through the top surface,
Φ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos =  Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface
charge density 𝜎
 The electric flux through the bottom surface,
 Let P be a point at a distance r from the sheet.
Φ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos = Let E be the electric field at P
 The electric flux through the curved surface,  Here the direction of electric field is
perpendicularly outward from the sheet.
Φ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos  = ∫  Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length
Φ = 𝐿 2r and area of cross section A
 Then the total electric flux through the Gaussian  The electric flux through plane surface P
surface, Φ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos  = ∫  Let P be the point outside the shell at a distance r
Φ𝐸 = Φ + Φ + Φ
 The electric flux through plane surface P from its centre.
𝚽 = 𝝅 𝑳  Here electric field points radially outwards if Q >0
𝚽  = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos  = ∫ and radially inward if Q < 0.
 Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r  Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged  The total electric flux is independent of the
which encloses the total charge Q spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell. location of charges inside the closed surface and
 Since ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are along radially outwards, we 10. Obtain Gauss law from Coulomb’s law. shape on the closed surface.
have 𝜃 =  Gauss law from Coulomb’s law :  Gauss law is another form of Coulomb law and
 The electric flux through the Gaussian surface, also applicable to charges in motion.
11. Discuss the various properties of conductors in
Φ𝐸 = ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮  electrostatic equilibrium.
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium :
𝚽 = ∮ 𝑨= 𝝅
 An electrical conductor has a large number of
 By Gauss law, mobile charges which are free to move in the
𝑖 material.
Φ𝐸 =
𝜀  The resultant motion is zero and it implies that the
conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium.
=  Thus at electrostatic equilibrium, there is no net
𝜀
 Consider a charged particle of charge +q current in the conductor.
= 
𝝅𝜺  Draw a Gaussian spherical surface of radius r A conductor at electrostatic equilibrium has the
 In vector notation, around this charge. following properties.
⃗⃗⃗ =  Due to symmentry, the electric field ⃗⃗⃗ at all the Property - 1 : The electric field is zero everywhere
̂ inside the conductor. This is tre regardless of
𝝅𝜺 points on the spherical surface have same
 Here ̂ → unit vector acting radiallyh outward magnitude and radially outward in direction. whether the conductor is solid or hollow.
from the spherical surface.  If a test charge is placed on the Gaussian  The electric field is not zero inside the metal, then
2) At a point on the surface of the shell = : surface, by Coulomb law the force acting it is, there will be a force on the mobile charge carriers
due to this electric field.
 If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell, |⃗⃗⃗ | =
then = . Then the electric field, 𝜀  As a result, there will be a net motion of the
 By definition, the electric field, mobile charges, which contradicts the conductors
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ being in electrostatic equilibrium.
𝝅𝜺 |⃗⃗⃗ |
3) At a point inside the shell < |⃗⃗⃗ | = = −−−−  Thus the electric field is zero every where inside
𝜀 the conductor.
 Since the area element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is along the electric Property - 2 : Theer is no net charge inside the
field ⃗ , we have 𝜃 = . Hence the electric flux conductors. The charges must reside only on the
through the Gaussian surface is, surface of the conductors.
Φ𝐸 = ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ cos ° = ∮  Form Gauss s law, this implies that there is no net
charge inside the conductor. Even if some charge
 Here ∮ = → area of Gaussian sphere is introduced inside the conductor, it immediately
 Let P be the point inside the charged shell at a  Put in equation (1) reaches the surface of the conductor.
distance r from its centre. Φ𝐸 =
Property - 3 : The electric field outside the
 Consider the spherical Gaussian surface of radius 𝜀 conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
𝝈
r
𝚽 = conductor and has a magnitude of , where 𝝈 is
𝜺
 Since there is no charge inside the Gaussian 𝜺
the surface charge density at that point
surface, Q = 0  This is known as Gauss law.
 If the electric field has components parallel to the
 Then from Gauss law, Result :
surface of the conductor, then free electrons on
𝑖  The total electric flux through the closed surface
Φ𝐸 = ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = the surface of the conductor would experience
𝜀 depends only on the charges enclosed by the
acceleration. This means that the conductor is not
= surface and independent of charges outside the
in equilibrium.
= surface.
 Therefore at electrostactic equilibrium, the  When an external electric field is applied on a  The battery is then disconnected from the
electric field must be perpendicular to the surface conductor, the charges are aligned in such a way capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between
of the conductor. that an internal electric field is created which the plates. This decreases the electric field.
 For cylindrical Gaussian surface, the total electric cancels the external electric field.  Electric field without dielectric =
flux is 𝚽 = 𝑨 and the total charge inside the  But in dielectric, which has no free electrons, the Electric field with dielectric = E
surface is = 𝝈 𝑨 external electric field only realigns the charges so Relative permittivity or dielectric constant = 𝜀
 By Gauss law, that an internal electric field is produced.
=
 The magnitude of the internal electric field is 𝜀
Φ𝐸 =
𝜀 smaller than that of external electric field.  Since 𝜀 > , we have <
σA  Therefore the net electric field inside the dielectric  Hence electrostatic potential between the plates is
EA =
𝜀 field is not zero, but is parallel to an external reduced and at the same time the charge
𝛔 electric field with magnitude less than that of the remains constant.
or 𝐄 =
𝜺 external electric field.
= = =
 In vector notation,  For example, let a rectangular dielectric slab is 𝜀 𝜀
𝛔 placed between two oppositely charged plates. 
⃗⃗⃗𝐄 = ̂ Then the capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric,
𝜺  The uniform electric field between the plates acts
= = = 𝜀 = 𝜀
Property - 4 : The electrostatic potential has the as the external electric field ⃗ which polarizes
[ ]
same value on the surface and inside of the the dielectric slab. 𝜀
conductor.  Thus positive charges are induced on one side and  Since 𝜀 > , we have > .
 The conductor has no parallel electric component negative charges are induced on the other side of  Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the
on the surface which means that charges can be the slab. capacitance.
𝜺 𝑨
moved on the surface without doing any work.  So the dielectric in the external field is equivalent  We have, 𝑪 =
 This is possible only if the electrostatic potential is to two oppositely charged sheets with the surface 𝜺 𝜺 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨
constant at all points on the surface and there is charge densities . These charges are called bound 𝑪 = =
no potential difference between any two points on charges. Where, 𝜺 𝜺 = 𝜺 → permitivity of the dielectric medium
the surface.  They are not free to move like free electrons in  The energy stored in the capacitor without
 Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, conductor. dielectric,
the potential is the same as the surface of the 13. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a
conductor. parallel plate capacitor when the capacitor is =
 Thus at electro static equilibrium, the conductor is disconnected from the battery.
always at equipotential.  After the dielectric is inserted,
Effect of dielectrics when the capacitor is
12. Explain dielectrics in detail and how an electric disconnected from the battery : = = =
field is induced inside a dielectric. 𝑪 𝜺 𝑪 𝜺
Electric field induced inside a dielectric :  Since 𝜀 > , we have <
 There is a decrease in energy because, when the
dielectric is inserted, the capacitor spend some
energy to pulling the dielectric slab inside.
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
 Area of each plates =A
Distance between the plates =
Voltage of battery =
Total charge on the capacitor =
 So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
=
14. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a  Since 𝜀 > , we have > Capacitors in parallel :
parallel plate capacitor when the battery remains  So there is increase in energy when the dielectric
connected to the capacitor. is inserted
Effect of dielectrics when the battery remains 15. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance,
connected to the capacitor: when capacitors are connected in series and in
parallel.
Capacitors in series :
 Consider three capacitors of capacitance

, and connected in parallel with a battery
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor. of voltage V
 Area of each plates =A  In parallel connection,
Distance between the plates = 1) Each capacitor has same potential difference (V)
Voltage of battery = 2) But charges on each capacitor will be different
Total charge on the capacitor =  Let , , be the charge on , ,
 So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,  Consider three capacitors of capacitance respectively, then
, and connected in series with a battery of = + +
=
voltage V = + + [ = ]
 Dielectric is inserted between the plates and the  In series connection, = [ + + ] −−−−−
battery is remains in connected with the capacitor. 1) Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q)  Let be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor
 So the charges stored in the capacitor is increased. 2) But potential difference across each capacitor in parallel connection, then
 Total charge without dielectric = will be different. = −−−−−
Total charge with dielectric =  Let , , be the potential difference across  From (1) and (2),
Relative permittivity (dielectric constat) = 𝜀 , , respectively, then = [ + + ]
=𝜺 = + +
𝑪 = 𝑪 +𝑪 + 𝑪
 Since 𝜀 > , we have < = + + [ = ]  Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors
 Here the potential difference between the plates
connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the
remains constant. But the charges increases and = [ + + ] −−−−− individual capacitances.
the new capacitance will be
𝜀  The equivalent capacitance 𝑪 in a parallel
 Let 𝑆 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor
= = =𝜀 connection is always greater than the largest
in series connection, then
individual capacitance.
 Since 𝜀 > , we have > = −−−−−
 Hence capacitance increases with the insertion of 𝑆
dielectric slab.  From (1) and (2) , we have
𝜺 𝑨
 We know that, 𝑪 = = [ + + ]
𝜺 𝜺 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨 𝑆
𝑪 = =
= + +
Where, 𝜺 𝜺 = 𝜺 → permitivity of the dielectric medium 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪
 The energy stored in the capacitor without  Thus the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of
dielectric, capacitors connected in series is equal to the sum
of the inverses of each capacitance.
=  This equivalent capacitance 𝑪 is always less than
 After the dielectric is inserted, the smallest individual capacitance in the series
= 𝑪 = 𝜺 𝑪 = 𝜺
16. Explain in detail the construction and working of  The positive charges are pushed towards the belt
Van de Graff generator. and negative charges are attracted towards the
Van de Gralff generator : comb D
 The positive charges stick to the belt and move up.
 When the positive charges reach the comb E a
large amount of negative and positive charges are
induced on either side of comb E due to
electrostatic induction.
 As a result. the positive charges are pushed away
from the comb E and they reach the outer surface
of the sphere.
 These positive charges are distributed uniformly
on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
 At the same time, the negative charges neutralize
the positive charges in the belt due to corona
discharge before it passes over the pulley.
 When the belt descends, it has almost no net
charge.
 This process continues until the outer surface
produces the potential difference of the order of
7
which is the limiting value.
 It is designed by Robert Van de Graff.  Beyond this, the charges starts leaking to the
 It produce large electro static potential difference surroundings due to ionization of air.
7
of about  It is prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas
Principle : filled steel chamber at very high pressure.
 Electro static induction Applications :
 Action of points  The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff
Construction : generator is used to accelerate positive ions
 It consists of large hollow spherical conductor A (protons and deuterons) for nuclear
fixed on the insulating stand. disintegrations and other applications.
 Pulley B is mounted at the centre of the sphere
and another pulley C is fixed at the bottom.
 A belt made up of insulating material like silk or
rubber runs over the pulleys.
 The pulley C is driven continuously by the
electric motor.
 Two comb shaped metallic conductor D and E are
fixed near the pulleys.
 The comb D is maintained at a positive potential
of by a power supply.
 The upper comb E is connected to the inner side
of the hollow metal sphere.
Working :
 Due to the high electgric field near comb D , air
between the belt and comb D gets ionized.
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
CHAPTER-2
CURRENT
ELECTRICITY
CHAPTER -2-CURRENT ELECTRICITY(BOOK BACK SHORT ANSWERS)
1. Why current is a scalar?
Electric currents are added algebraically, it does not follow the rule of vector addition.so it
is a scalar quantity.In general, current I is defined as the scalar product of the current
density and area vector in which the charge cross. The current can be positive or negative
depending on the choice of the unit vector normal to the surface area A.
==========================================================================
2. Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility
Drift velocity Mobility

1. Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with 2. Mobility is defined as the drift velocity
which free electrons gets drifted towards the acquired per unit electric field.
positive terminal , when an electric field is
applied.
eE eτ
2. its expression is  v = τ = μE 2. its expression is μ =
d m m
3. Its unit is m/s 3. Its unit is m2V-1s-1.
============================================================================
3. State the microscopic form of ohm’s law
1.
This equation is called as microscopic form of ohm’s law
===========================================================================
4. State the macroscopic form of ohm’s law
============================================================================
5. What are ohmic and non-ohmic devices
Materials for which the current against voltage graph is a straight line through the origin, are
said to obey Ohm’s law and their behaviour is said to be ohmic(Ex. Good conductors like
copper etc.
Materials or devices that do not follow Ohm’s law are said to be nonohmic.
These materials have more complex relationships between voltage and current.
A plot of I against V for a non-ohmic material is non-linear and they do not have a constant
resistance. Ex. Diode
==========================================================================
6. Define electrical resistivity.
Electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to current flow by a
conductor of unit length having unit area of crosssection. The SI unit of ρ is ohm-metre.
==========================================================================
7.Define temperature coefficient of resistance
It is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise intemperature to its
resistivity at ToC. Its unit is per degree celcius.
=========================================================================
7. What is superconductivity?
The resistance of certain materials become zero below certain temperature T
This temperature is known as critical temperature or transition temperature.
The materials which exhibit this property are known as superconductors.
The phenomenon is called as superconductivity.
==========================================================================
8. What is electric power and electric energy
Electric power Electric energy
E1. Electric power is defined as the rate of doing 1. Electric energy is defined as the
electric work. capacity to do work.
2. Its unit is watt and kilowatt. 2. Its unit is watt hour and kilowatt
hour.
2
3.Its expression is voltage x current or I R 3. Its expression is power x time in
hours
9. Define current density
The current density (J) is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of the
conductor.
===========================================================================
10. Derive the expression for power P= VI in electrical circuit.
==========================================================================
11. Write the various forms of power in electrical circuit
==========================================================================
12. State Kirchhoff’s current rule
It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of a
circuit is zero. It is a statement of conservation of electric charge.
===========================================================================
13. State Kirchoff’s voltage rule.
It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current
and resistance of each part of the circuit is equalto the total emf included in the
circuit. Thisrule follows from the law of conservation ofenergy for an isolated
system
=========================================================================
14. State the principle of potentiometer
When I and r are constants, ξ ∝ l. The emf of the cell is directly proportional to the balancing
length.
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15. What do you mean by internal resistance of the cell
A real battery is made of electrodes and electrolyte, there is resistance to the flow of
charges within the battery. This resistance is called internal resistance r.
===========================================================================
16. State Joule’s law of heating
It states that the heat developed in an electrical circuit due to the flow of current
varies directly as (i) the square of the current (ii) the resistance of the circuit and
(iii) the time of flow.
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17. What is seeback effect?
Seebeck discovered that in a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when
the junctions are maintained at different temperatures an emf (potential difference)
is developed. The current that flows due to the emf developed is called thermoelectric
current. The two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is known as
thermocouple.
=========================================================================
18. What is Thomson’s effect?
Thomson showed that if two points in a conductor are at different temperatures,
the density of electrons at these points will differ and as a result the potential
difference is created between these points. Thomson effect is also reversible.
=========================================================================
19. What is Peltier effect
Peltier discovered that when an electric current is passed through a
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction andabsorbed at the other junction.
This is known as Peltier effect.
=============================================================================
20. State the applications of Seeback effect
1. Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeckgenerators).
These thermoelectricgenerators are used in power plants to convert waste heat into
electricity.
2. This effect is utilized in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators
for increasing fuel efficiency.
3.Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure the
temperature difference between the two objects.
2ND CHAPTER- CURRENT ELECTRICITY- EXTRA TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Define electric current. Give its unit.
The current, I flowing in a conductor dQ is the charge that flows through a cross-
section in a time interval dt.
S.I unit of current is ampere.

=========================================================================
2. Define drift velocity. Give its unit
The drift velocity is the average velocity acquired by the electrons inside the
conductor when it is subjected to an electric field. Its unit is m/s.
=============================================================================
3. Define mobility. Give its unit.
Mobility of the electron and it is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per
unit electric field. Its unit is m2V-1s-1.
============================================================
4. State ohm’s law
At constant temperature, Potential difference across the conductor is directly
proportional to the current passing through the conductor.
Practical form of Ohm’s law states that V ∝ I, or V = IR where I is the current.
=========================================================================
5. Define resistance. Give its unit.
The resistance is the ratio of potential difference across the given conductor to the
current passing through the conductor. The unit is ohm.
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6. Define conductivity. Give its unit.
Conductivity is defined as reciprocal of the resistivity. Its unit is mho m-1
===========================================================================
7. Repairing the electrical connection with the wet skin is always dangerous. Why?
The human body contains a large amount of water which has low resistance of around 200 Ω
and the dry skin has high resistance of around 500 k Ω. But when the skin is wet, the
resistance is reduced to around1000 Ω. This is the reason, repairing the electrical connection
with the wet skin is always dangerous.
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8. What is thermistor?
A semiconductor with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance is called a
thermistor.
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9. What are superconductors and what is meant by superconductivity?
The resistance of certain materials become zero below certain temperature Tc. This
temperature is known as critical temperature or transition temperature. The
materials which exhibit this property are known as superconductors.
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10.Define electromotive force (emf).
Electromotive force determines the amount of work a battery or cell does to move a
certain amount of charge around the circuit.
========================================================================
11.Write short notes on Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting and measuring even very small
electric currents. It is extensively useful to compare the potential difference between
various parts of the circuit.
==================================================================
12.What is meant by thermo electric effect.
Conversion of temperature differences into electrical voltage and vice versa
is known as thermoelectric effect
==========================================================================
13.What is a multimeter?
A multimeter is a very useful electronic instrument used to measure voltage, current,
resistance and capacitance. In fact, it can also measure AC voltage and AC current.
The circular slider has to be kept in appropriate position to measure each electrical
quantity.
14. Why current density is a vector but current is a scalar?
In general, the current I is defi ned as the scalar product of the current density and area vector
in which the charges cross
Th e current I can be positive or negative depending on the choice of the unit vector normal to
the surface area A.
15.What is meant by joule heating effect?
When current flows through a resistor, some of the electrical energy delivered to the resistor
is converted into heat energy and it is dissipated. This heating effect of current is known as
Joule’s heating effect.
16.How electric bulbs glow as soon as we switch on the battery?
When battery is switched on, the electrons begin to move away from the negative
terminal of the battery and this electron exerts force on the nearby electrons. This process
creates a propagating influence (electric field) that travels through the wire at the speed of
light. In other words, the energy is transported from the battery to light bulb at the speed
of light through propagating influence (electric field). Due to this reason, the light bulb
glows as soon as the battery is switched on.
=========================================================
36. Write a note on circuit breakers (trippers) 41. Define Thomson’s effect. 2. Derive the relation between the drift velocity and
 Now a days in housed, circuit breakers are used  If two points in a conductor are at different the current.
instead of fuses. temperatures, the density of electrons at these Drift velocity and current - Relation :
 Whenever there is an ecessive current produced points will differ and as a result the potential
due to faulty wire connection, the circuit breaker difference is created between these points.
switch opens.  Thomson effect is reversiable.
 After repairing the faulty connection, we can close
the circuit breaker switch. PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS  Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴
37. Write a note on electric bulb or lamp. 1.ANSWERS
Obtain an expression for drift velocity. How it is Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛
 It consists of a tungsten filament kept inside a related with the mobility? Applied electric field = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
glass bulb and heated to incandescence by Drift velocity (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒗𝒅 ) : Drift velocity of electrons = 𝒗𝒅
current.  If there is no electric field, all the free electrons in Charge of an electrons =𝑒
 Melting point of tungsten is 3380 ℃ a conductor are moves in random directions. As a  Let ‘𝑑𝑥’ be the distance travelled by the electron
 In incandescent electric lamps, only 5% of electric result no net flow of electrons in any direction and in time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then
energy is converted into light and the rest is hence there will not be any current. 𝑑𝑥
wasted as heat.  If the conductor is subjected toan electric field (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸) 𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
38. Define Seebeck effect. free electrons experinces a force given by,  The number of electrons available in the volume
 In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = −𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 − − − − − (1) of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛
metals, when the junctions are maintained at  So all the free electrons are accelerated in a  Then the total charge in this volume element is,
different temperature an emf is developed. This direction opposite to the field. By Newton’s 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
phenomenom is called Seebeck effect or second law  By definition, the current is given by
thermoelectric effect. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 −𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎= = − − − − − −(2) 𝐼= =
𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
called thermoelectric current. 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
 But the positive ions scatter the electrons and
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two change its direction of motion. So they move in 3. Write a note on carbon resistors.
junctions is known as thermocouple. zig-zag path. Carbon resistors :
39. What are the applications of Seebeck effect?  Carbon resistors consists of a ceramic core on
 In addition to the zig-zag motion due to collisions,
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric the electrons move slowly along the conductor in which a thin layer of crystalline carbon is
generators (Seebeck generators) which are used ⃗⃗⃗⃗ deposited.
a direction opposite to that of 𝐸
in power plants to convert waste heat into  They ar inexpensive, stable and compact in size.
electricity.  This average velocity acquired by the free electrons
inside the conductors, when it is subjected to the  Colour rings drawn over it are used to indicate the
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as value of the resistance according to the rules in
electric field is called drift velocity (⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗𝑑 )
automotive thermoelectric generators for the table.
increasing fuel efficiency  The average time between successive collision is
called the mean free time or relaxation time (𝜏). Colour Number Multiplier
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and Black 0 1
thermopiles to measure the temperature  Hence the drift velocity is given by, 1
Brown 1 10
difference between the two objects. −𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝝉= 𝝉 = −𝝁 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Red 2 102
40. Define Peltier effect. 𝒎 Orange 3 103
𝑒𝜏
 When an electric current is passed through a where , = 𝜇 → mobility of electrons
𝑚 Yellow 4 104
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one  The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the Green 5 105
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This free electron per unit electric field is called mobility. Blue 6 106
is known as Peltier effect. |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 |
𝝁= Violet 7 107
 Peltier effect is reversiable. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 Grey 8 108
𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏
 It unit is 𝒎 𝑽 𝒔 White 9 109
Coluur Tolerance  For conductors 𝜶 is positive (i.e) if the  Let ‘n’ cells each of emf 𝜉 and internal resistance
Gold 5% temperature of the conductor increases, its ‘r’ are connected in parallel with an external
Silver 10 % resistivity also increases. resistance ‘R’.
No ring (colourless) 20 %  Thus resistance at 𝑇 ℃  Total emf of the battery =𝑛𝜉
𝑟
 There is three coloured bands on its left and one 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝒐 [𝟏 + 𝜶 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 )] Total resistance of the circuit = +𝑅
𝑛
metallic coloured band on its right side.  For semiconductor, 𝜶 is negative. (i.e.) if  By Ohm’s law,
 The first and second rings are the significant temperature increases, resistance decreases. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜉 𝑛𝜉
figures of the resistance and the third ring indicate  A semiconductor with a negative temperature 𝐼= = 𝑟 = − −(1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 +𝑅 𝑛𝑟+𝑅
the decimal multiplier after them. The fourth coefficient of resistance is called a thermistor. 𝑛
metallic ring shows the tolerance of the resistor. 5. Write a note on electric cells in series.  If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
Example : Cells in series : 𝑛𝜉 𝜉
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 [∵ = 𝐼1 ]
𝑅 𝑅
(i.e.) if ‘r’ is negligible compared to ‘R’ the current
supplied by the battery is ‘n’ times the that
supplied by the single cell
 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛𝜉 𝜉

Let ‘n’ cells each of emf 𝜉 and internal resistance 𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1
𝑛𝑟 𝑟
‘r’ are connected in series with an external (i.e.) if ‘r’ is very very greater than ‘R’, current due
resistance ‘R’. to the whole battery is same as due to single cell.
 For the given carbon resistor,  Total emf of the battery =𝑛𝜉 7. Explain the principle of potentiometer.
First ring (Green) = 5 Total resistance of the circuit = 𝑛𝑟+𝑅 Principle of potentiometer:
Second ring (Blue) = 6  By Ohm’s law,
Third ring (Orange) = 103 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑛𝜉
Fourth metallic ring (Gold) = 5% 𝐼= = − − − (1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑟+𝑅
𝟑
 Value of the resistor = 𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 = 𝟓𝟔 𝐤 𝛀  If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
Tolerance =5% 𝑛𝜉 𝜉
4. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity. 𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 [∵ = 𝐼1 ]
𝑅 𝑅
Obtain an expression for it. (i.e.) if ‘r’ is negligible compared to ‘R’ the current  A battery (Bt), key (K) and potentiometer wire
Temperature coefficient of resistivity : supplied by the battery is ‘n’ times the that (CD) are connected in series forms the primary
 Resistivity of the substance depends on the supplied by the single cell circuit.
temperature. Let  𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,  The positive terminal of primary cell of emf ′𝜉 ′ is
 Resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 ℃ = 𝜌𝑜 𝑛𝜉 𝜉 connected to the point C and negative terminal is
𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1 connected to the point D through galvanometer
Resistivity at 𝑇℃ = 𝜌𝑇 𝑛𝑟 𝑟
∴ 𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 [1 + 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )] − − − −(1) (i.e.) if ‘r’ is very very greater than ‘R’, current due (G) and high resistance (HR). This forms the
Where, 𝛼 → Temperature coefficient of resistivity to the whole battery is same as due to single cell. secondary circuit.
 From equation (1) 6. Write a note on electric cells in parallel.  Let contact be made at ‘J’ on the wire by jockey.
𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 + 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 ) Cells in parallel :  If the potential difference across CJ is equal to the
𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 ) emf (𝜉) of the cell, then the galvanometer shows
𝝆𝑻 − 𝝆𝒐 ∆𝝆 zero deflection. Here ‘CJ’ is the balancing length 𝒍
∴ 𝜶= =
𝝆𝒐 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 ) 𝝆𝒐 ∆𝑻  If ‘r’ is the resistance per unit length of the wire,
Where, ∆𝝆 = 𝝆𝑻 − 𝝆𝒐 → change in resistivity then by Ohm’s law,
∆𝑻 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 → Change in temperature Potential difference across CJ = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙
 It is defined as the ratio of increase in Hence, 𝝃 = 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍
resistivity per degree rise in temperature to  Since I and r are constants, , 𝝃 ∝ 𝒍
its resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 . Its unit is 𝒑𝒆𝒓 ℃
8. Explain Seebeck effect. Give its applications.  Let a current flow through the thermocouple.
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Seebeck effect :  At junction ‘A’, where the current flows from Cu to
Fe, heat is absorbed and it becomes cold. 1.ANSWERS
Describe the microscopic model of current and
 At juction ‘B’, where the current flows from Fe to obtain general form of Ohm’s law.
Cu, heat is liberated and it becomes hot. Microscopic model of current and Ohm’ law :
 When the direction current is reversed, junction
‘A’ becomes hot and junction ‘B’ becomes cold.
Hence peltier effect is reversiable.
 Seebeck discoved that in a closed circuit 10. Distinguish between Peltier effect and Joule’s
consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the  Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴
effect.
juctions are maintained at different temperatures Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛
Peltier effect Joule’s effect
an emf (potential difference) is developed. This is Applied electric field along leftwads = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
1) Both heat liberated 1) Heat liberated only
called Seebeck effect. Drift velocity of the electrons = 𝒗𝒅
and absorbed occur occur
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is Charge of the electron = 𝒆
2) Occurs at junctions 2) Occurs all along the
called thermoelectric current.  If ‘𝑑𝑥 ′ be the distance travelled by the electron in
conductor
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then
3) Reversiable effect 3) Irreversiable effect 𝑑𝑥
junctions is known as thermocouple. 11. Explain Thomson effect. 𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
 If hot and cold juntions are interchanged, the 𝑑𝑡
Thomson effect :
direction of current also reversed. Hence Seebeck  The number of electrons available in the volume
effect is reversiable. of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛
 The magnitude of emf developed in thermocouple  Then the total charge in this volume element is,
depends on, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
(i) Nature of the metals forming thermocouple  By definition, the current is given by
(ii) Temperature difference between the junctions 𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
𝐼= =
Applications : 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric  𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
 Thomson showed that, if two points in a Current density (𝑱⃗) :
generators (Seebeck generators).
conductor are at different temperatures, the  Current density (J) is defined as the current per
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as density of electrons at these points will differ and
automotive thermoelectric generators. unit area of cross section of the conductor.
as a result the potential difference is created 𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and between these points. This is known as Thomson 𝐽= =
thermopiles. 𝐴 𝐴
effect. 𝑱 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝒗𝒅
9. Explain Peltier effect.  Thomson effect is reversiable.
Peltier effect :  Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟐
 If current passed through copper bar AB which is  In vector notation,
 When an electric current is passed through a heated at its mid point C, the point C will be at
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅
higer potential. This indicates that the heat is
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This 𝒆𝝉 𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉
absorbed along AC and evolved along CB. Thus ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 [− ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬] = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
is known as Peltier effect. heat is transferred in the direction of the current. 𝒎 𝒎
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉
It is called positive Thomson effect.  where, = 𝝈 → conductivity
𝒎
(e.g) Ag, Zn. Cd
∴ ⃗𝑱⃗ = − 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬
 When the copper bar is replaced by an iron bar,
 But conventionally, we take the dirction of current
heat is evolved along CA and absorbed along BC.
density as the direction of electric field. So the
Thus heat is transferred in the direction opposite
above equation becomes,
to the current. It is called negative Thomson
 In Cu - Fe thermocouple, the junctions A and B are ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
effect.
maintained at the same temperature.  This is called microscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 (e.g.) Pt, Ni, Co, Hg
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its  Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to Resistors in parallel :
microscopic form and discuss its limitation. be non - ohmic. These materials have more
Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law : complex (non- linear) relationships between
voltage and current.
3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and
parallel resistor network.
Resistor in series :
 Consider a segment of wire of length ‘𝑙’ and area of
cross section ‘𝐴’.  When two or more resistors are connected across
 When a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across the same potential difference, they are said to be
the wire, a net electric field is created in the wire in parallel.
which constitutes the current.  Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors
 If we assume the electric field is uniform in the connected in parallel.
entire length, the potential difference is given by,  When two or more resistors are connected end to  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
𝑉 end, they are said to be in series. this combination.
𝑉=𝐸𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐸=
𝑙  Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors  In parallel connection,
 From the microscopic form of Ohm’s law, connected in series. (i) Potential difference across each resistance
𝑽 will be the same (V)
𝑱= 𝝈𝑬= 𝝈  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
𝒍 this combination. (ii) But current flows through different resistors
 By definition, the current density is  In Series connection, will be different.
𝐈  Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 be the currents flow through
𝑱= (i) Current through each resistor will be same (I)
𝑨 (ii) But potential difference across different 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law
 Hence, resistor will be different. 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I 𝑉 𝐼1 = ; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 =
= 𝜎  Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐴 𝑙 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law  Hence the total current will be,
𝑙
∴ 𝑉=I [ ] 𝑉1 = 𝐼 𝑅1 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝜎𝐴 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + +
𝑽 = 𝐈𝑹 𝑉2 = 𝐼 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝒍 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅3 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Where, = 𝑅 → Resistance of the conductor 𝑰= 𝑽 [ + + ] − − − − (𝟏)
𝝈𝑨  Total potential difference, 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
 This is called macroscopic form of Ohm’s law. 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝐼 𝑅3  Let 𝑹𝑷 be the equivalent resistance in parallel
𝑽 = 𝑰 [𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ] − − − − (𝟏) connection, then,
 Let 𝑹𝑺 be the equivalent resistance in series 𝑽
connection, then 𝑰= − − − − (2)
𝑹𝑷
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝑹𝑺 − − − − (2)  From equation (1) and (2),
 From equation(1) and (2), we have, 𝑉 1 1 1
𝐼 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ] =𝑉 [ + + ]
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
∴ 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Limittations:  When resistances are connected in series, the ∴ = + +
 From Ohm’s law, the graph between current versus 𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
voltage is straight line with a slope equal to the resistances.  When resistances are connected in parallel, the
inverse of resistance (R) of the conductor. reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the
 The equivalent resistance in series connection will
 Materials for which the current against voltage be greater than each individual resistance. sum of the reciprocal of the values of resistance of
graph is a straight line through the origin are said the individual resistor.
to obey Ohm’s law and their behavior is said to be  The equivalent resistance in parallel connection
Ohmic. will be lesser than each individual resistance.
4. Explain the determination of the internal 5. Explain Kirchoff’s law. 6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in
resistance of a cell using voltmeter. Kirchoff first law (current law) : Wheatstone’s bridge.
Internal resistance of a cell :  It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any Wheatstone’s bridge :
junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0).  An important application
Explanation : of Kirchoff’s laws is the
 It is a statement of Wheatstone’s bridge.
conservation of  It is used to compare
electric charge. resistances and also helps
 Thus all charges in determining the
that enter a given unknown resistance in the
junction in a circuit electrical network
 A real battery is made of electrodes and must leave that  The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R, S
electrolyte. junction. connected as shown.
 There is resistance to the flow of charges within  Current entering the junction is taken as positive  A galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between B and D
the battery and this resistance is called internal and current leaving the junction is taken as  A battery ‘𝜉 ′ is connected between A and C
resistance (r) negative.  Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , 𝐼4 currents through various branches
 The emf of the cell is measured by connecting  Applying this law at junction ‘A’ and 𝐼𝐺 be the current through the galvanometer.
high resistance voltmeter across it without 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0  Applying Kirchoff’s current law at B and D,
connecting the external resistance R (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − − (1)
 This circuit may be considered as open, the Kirchoff second law (voltage law) : 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − − (2)
voltmeter reading gives the emf (𝜉) of the cell.  It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum  Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA,
 Then external resistance is included in the circuit of the products of the current and reistance of 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 − − − − (3)
and current ‘I’ is established in the circuit. each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼4 𝑆 = 0 − − − − (4)
 This circuit is then considered as close, the included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝝃)  At balanced condition, the potential at B and D are
voltmeter reading gives the potential difference Explanation : same, and hence the galvanometer shows zero
(V) across ‘R’ deflection. So 𝑰𝑮 = 𝟎
𝑉
 By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 (or) 𝐼 =  Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3)
𝑅
 Due to internal resistance of the cell, the 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − − − − (5)
voltmeter reads the value “V” which is less than 𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼2 = 𝐼 4 − − − − (6)
the emf 𝜉 𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 − − − − (7)
 It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir) has  Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)
dropped across the internal resistance ‘r’. Hence 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0
𝑉 = 𝜉−𝐼𝑟 − − − − (2) 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) − 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) = 0
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐼𝑟= 𝜉−𝑉 ∴ 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) − − − − (8)
 It is a statement of conservation of energy for an
𝝃−𝑽 𝝃−𝑽 isolated system.  Divide equation (8) by (7)
∴ 𝒓= = [ ]𝑹 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝑰 𝑽  The product ‘IR’ is taken as positive when we =
 Since 𝜉 , V and R are known, internal resistance proceed along the direction of current and taken 𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅
‘r’ and total current ‘I’ can be determined. as negative when we proceed opposite to the 𝑃 + 𝑄 𝑅 + 𝑆
=
 The power delivered to the circuit is, direction of current. 𝑃 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝜉 = 𝐼 ( 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑟) = 𝐼 (𝐼 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑟) 𝑄 𝑆
 Simillarly, the emf is considered as positive, when 1+ =1+
𝟐 𝟐 𝑃 𝑅
𝑷= 𝑰 𝑹+ 𝑰 𝒓 we proceed from negative to positive terminal of
where , 𝐼 2 𝑅 → power deliverd to R 𝑄 𝑆
the cell and as negative, when we proceed from =
𝐼 2 𝑟 → power deliverd to 𝑟 positive to negative terminal of the cell. 𝑃 𝑅
𝑷 𝑹
(𝑜𝑟) = − − − − (𝟗)
𝑸 𝑺
7. Explain the determination of unknown resistance 8. How the emf of two cells are compared using
using meterbridge. potentiometer?
Meterbridge: Comparision of emf of two cells :
 Metrebridge is another form of Wheatstone’s  With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found out
 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery and balancing length CJ = 𝑙1 is measured.
bridge (Bt) and a key (K) in series. This is the primary
 It consists of uniform manganin wire AB of 1m  By the principle,
circuit. 𝜉 ∝ 𝑙1 − − − −(1)
length.  The end C is connected to central terminal M of
 This wire is stretched along a metre scale between  A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is
DPDT switch and another central terminal N is closed.
two copper strips C and D connected to jockey through a galvanometer G
 E is another copper strip mounted with two gaps  The current flows through R and cell is,
and high reistance HR. This is the secondary 𝜉
G1 and G2 circuit. 𝐼=
 An unknown resistance P is connected in G1 and 𝑅+𝑟
 The cell whose emf 𝜉1 and 𝜉2 to be compared are  Hence potential difference across R
standard resistance connected in G2 connected to 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 of DPDT switch. 𝜉
 A jockey J is connected from E through a  Initially the cell of emf 𝜉1 is included in the 𝑉 =𝐼𝑅= 𝑅
galvanometer G and high resistance HR. 𝑅+𝑟
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙1 is  For this potential difference, again the balancing
 A Lechlanche cell 𝜉 and key K is connected across found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection. point J is found out and the balancing length
the bridge wire.  Simillarly the cell of emf 𝜉2 is included in the CJ = 𝑙2 is measured.
 The position of jockey is adjusted so that the secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙2 is  By the principle,
galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point found. 𝜉
be ‘J’  Let ‘r’ be the resistance per unit length and ‘I’ be 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙2 − − − −(2)
 The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance 𝑅+𝑟
the primary current, then by the principle  Divide equation (1) by (2)
R and S of the Wheatstone’s bridge. Then 𝜉1 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 − − − − (1) 𝜉 𝑙1
𝑃 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴𝐽 𝜉2 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 − − − − (2) =
= =  𝜉 𝑙2
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝐽𝐵  Divide equantion (1) by (2), ( 𝑅)
𝑅+𝑟
Where 𝑅 → resistance per unit length 𝜉1 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1
𝑷 𝑨𝑱 𝒍𝟏 = =
𝜉2 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 𝑅 𝑙2
= = − − − −(𝟏)
𝑸 𝑱𝑩 𝒍𝟐 𝝃𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝑟 𝑙1
𝒍𝟏 = − − − −(𝟑) 1+ =
(𝒐𝒓) 𝑷= 𝑸 − − − −(𝟐) 𝝃 𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝑅 𝑙2
𝒍𝟐 9. Explain the method of measurement of internal 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙2
 Due to imperfect contace of wire at its ends, some resistance of a cell using potentio meter. = −1=
𝑅 𝑙2 𝑙2
resistance might be introduced at the contact. Internal resistance by potentiometer : 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
These are called end resistances.  Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery 𝒓=𝑹 [ ] − − − (𝟑)
𝒍𝟐
 By interchange P and Q,tThis error can be (Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This is the primary  By substituting 𝑅, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 in equation (3) the
eliminated, and the average value of P is found. circuit. internal resistance of the cell can be measured.
 Let 𝑙 be the length and r be the radius of wire, its  The cell 𝜉 whose internal resistance ‘r’ to be  Here the internal reistance is not constant, and it
specific resistance (resistivity) is given be. measured is connected to the secondary circuit. increased with increase of external resistance R.
𝑷𝑨 𝑷 𝝅 𝒓𝟐  A resistance box R and a key K2 is connected
𝝆= = − − − −(𝟑)
𝒍 𝒍 across the cell 𝜉
CHAPTER-3- MAGNETISM AND EFFECTS OF MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
BOOK BACK SHORT ANSWERS AND EXTRA SHORT ANSWERS
=========================================================
1. What is meant by magnetic induction (OR) mangetic field.
Magnetic field is the region or space around every magnet within which its influence can be felt by
keeping another magnet in that region. The magnetic field at a point is defined as a force experienced
by the bar magnet of unit pole strength.
===================================================================================
2. Define magnetic flux.
The number of magnetic field lines crossing given area is called magnetic flux. Magnetic flux is a scalar
quantity. Its unit is weber.
=================================================================================
3. Define magnetic dipole moment.
The magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of its pole strength and magnetic length. It is a
vector quantity,
The SI unit of magnetic moment is A m2. Note that the direction of magnetic moment is from South pole
to North pole.
======================================================================================
4. State coulomb’s inverse square law.
The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product
of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
======================================================================================
5. What is magnetic susceptibility?
It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation induced in the material due to the
magnetising field. It has no unit.
=====================================================================================
6. State Biot-Savart law.
Magnetic field dB point P at a distance r from the small elemental length taken on a conductor carrying
current varies
=====================================================================================
7. What is magnetic permeability?
The magnetic permeability can be defined as the measure of ability of the material to allow the passage
of magnetic field lines through it or measure of the capacity of the substance to take magnetisation or
the degree of penetration of magnetic field through the substance.
===================================================================================
8. State Ampere’s circuital law.
Ampère’s law: The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is µo times net current enclosed by
the loop.
====================================================================================
9. Compare dia,para, and ferro magnetic magnetism. (very important
comparison)(may be asked in 3 mark or in 5 mark questions)
PROPERTIES DIA MAGNETIC PARA MAGNETIC FERRO MAGNETIC
SUBSTANCE SUBSTANCE SUBSTANCE
MAGNETIC NEGATIVE POSITIVE AND SMALL POSITIVE AND LARGE
SUSCEPTIBILITY
RELATIVE Slightly less than Is greater than unity Is large
PERMEABILITY unity
DEPENDENCE OF Susceptibility is nearly Susceptibility is Susceptibility is inversely
SUSCEPTIBILITY ON temperature inversely proportional proportional to temperature
TEMPERATURE independent to temperature.
IN THE PRESENCE OF The induced dipole The net mangetic There is a strong net
EXTERNAL MAGNTIC moment is in a moment dipole moment magnetisation of the material
FIELD. direction opposite to induced is n the in the direction of the applied
the external field. directional of external fied.
field.
Tendency of the Diamagnetic material Para magnetic material Ferro magnetic material has a
material in non uniform has a tendency to has a tendency to move tendency to move from
magnetic field. move from strong from weaker part of the weaker part of the field to
part of the field to field to strong part of strong part of the field.
weaker part of the the field.
field.
MAGNETIC MOMENT Zero magnetic Net magnetic moment Net magnetic moment in a
when H=0 moment but random alignment domain but random
alignment of domains
EXAMPLE. Bismuth, copper and Alumium, Platinum, and Iron, Nickel and Cobalt.
water Chromium.
10. What is meant by hysteresis?
The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic Induction behind the magnetising field is called hysteresis.
======================================================================================
Extra Short answer:
11. State the three magnetic elements of the earth’s magnetic field.
1. Magnetic declination
2. Magnetic dip or inclination
3. The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.
================================================================================
12. Define magnetic declination
The angle between magnetic meridian at a point and geographical meridian is called the
declination or magnetic declination.
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13. Define Dip or magnetic inclination at a point.
The angle substended by the Earth’s total magnetic field B with the horizontal direction in the
magnetic meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (i) at that point.
==================================================================================
14. Define Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.
The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian
is called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.
==================================================================================
15. Define magnetic flux density. Give its unit.
The magnetic flux density can also be defined as the number of magnetic field lines crossing unit
area kept normal to the direction of line of force. Its unit is Wb m-2or tesla.
====================================================================================
16. Define Uniform and non uniform magnetic field.
Magnetic field is said to be uniform if it has same magnitude and direction at all the points in a
given region. Example, locally Earth’s magnetic field is uniform. The magnetic field of Earth has
same.Example magnetic field of earth. Magnetic field is said to be non-uniform if the magnitude or
direction or both varies at all its points. Example: magnetic field of a bar magnet.
=====================================================================================
17.(a) Why a freely suspended bar magnet in your laboratory experiences only
torque (rotational motion) but not any translatory motion even though Earth has
non-uniform magnetic field?
It is because Earth’s magnetic field is locally(physics laboratory)uniform.
(b) Suppose we keep a freely suspended bar magnet in a non-uniform
magnetic field. What will happen?
It will undergo translatory motion (net force) and rotational
motion (torque).
=======================================================================================
18. State Tangent law.
When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.
======================================================================================
19. Define Magnetising field(H)
The magnetic field which is used to magnetize a sample or specimen is called
the magnetising field. Magnetising field is a vector quantity and it denoted by H and
its unit is A m-1
20.Define relative permeability.
The relative permeability µ is defined as the ratio between absolute permeability of the
medium to the permeability of free space.
Relative permeability is a dimensionless number and has no units.

======================================================================================
21.Define Intensity of magnetisation of the material.
The net magnetic moment per unit volume of the material is known as intensity of magnetisation
or magnetisation vector or magnetisation. It is
a vector quantity.
The SI unit of intensity of magnetisation is ampere metre-1

======================================================================================
22. Define : Intensity of magnetisation for a bar magnet.
For a bar magnet the intensity of magnetisation can be defined as the pole
strength per unit area (face area).
================================================================================
23. Derive
the relation between magnetic susceptibility and relative
permeability.
======================================================================================
24. State the properties of diamagnetic materials.
i) Magnetic susceptibility is negative.
ii) Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.
iii) The magnetic field lines are repelled or expelled by diamagnetic materials
when placed in a magnetic field.
iv) Susceptibility is nearly temperature independent.
==============================================================================
25. State the properties of paramagnetic materials.
i) Magnetic susceptibility is positive and small.
ii) Relative permeability is greater than unity.
iii) The magnetic field lines are attracted into the paramagnetic materials when
placed in a magnetic field.
iv) Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
===============================================================================
26. State the properties of ferromagnetic materials.
i) Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large.
ii) Relative permeability is large.
iii) The magnetic field lines are strongly attracted into the ferromagnetic materials when
placed in a magnetic field.
iv) Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
=============================================================================
27.State Meissner effect.
Superconductors are perfect diamagnetic materials. The expulsion of magnetic flux from a
superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state is known as Meissner effect.
Meissner effect – superconductors behaves like perfect diamagnetic materials below transition
temperature TC
======================================================================================
27. State Curie’s law
When temperature is increased, thermal vibration will upset the alignment of magnetic dipole
moments. Therefore, the magnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in temperature. In
many cases, The susceptibility of the materials is
============================================================================
28. State Curie-Weiss law.
As temperature increases, the ferromagnetism decreases due to the
increased thermal agitation of the atomic dipoles. At a particular temperature, ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic. This temperature is known as Curie temperature T. The
susceptibility of the material above the Curie temperature is given by
This relation is called Curie-Weiss law.

=================================================================================
29. Define remanence or retentivity or residual magnetism.
It is defined as the ability of the materials to retain the magnetism in them
even magnetising field vanishes.
===========================================================================
30.Define Coercivity.
The magnitude of the reverse magnetising field for which the residual magnetism of the material
vanishes is called its coercivity.
31. State the applications of hysteresis loop.
The study of hysteresis loop will help us in selecting proper and suitable material for a given
purpose. Some examples:
i) Permanent magnets: The materials with high retentivity, high coercivity and high permeability
are suitable for making permanent magnets.
Examples: Steel and Alnico
ii) Electromagnets: The materials with high initial permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity
and thin hysteresis loop with smaller area are preferred to make electromagnets.
==============================================================================
32. State righthand thumb rule for the direction of magnetic field in the
current carrying conductor.
If we hold the current carrying conductor in our right hand such that the
thumb points in the direction of current flow, then the fingers encircling the wire points in the
direction of the magnetic field lines produced.
==============================================================================
33. State the similarities between coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart law.
Electric and magnetic fields
• obey inverse square law, so they are long range fields.
• obey the principle of superposition and are linear with respect to source. In magnitude,
===================================================================================
34. State Maxwell’s right hand cork screw rule.
This rule is used to determine the direction of the magnetic field. If we rotate
a right-handed screw using a screw driver, then the direction of current is same as the direction in which
screw advances and the direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic field.
===================================================================================
35. State the differences between coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart’s law.
36. Define magnetic dipole moment of any current loop.
The magnetic dipole moment of any current loop is equal to the product of the current and area
of the loop.
The unit is Am2

=============================================================================
36.State Right hand thumb rule to find the direction of magnetic moment in
current carrying loop.
If we curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of current in the loop, then the
stretched thumb gives the direction of the magnetic moment associated with the loop.
============================================================================
37. Define Magnetic Lorentz force.
When an electric charge q is kept at rest in a magnetic field, no force acts on it. At the same time,
if the charge moves in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force is different from
Coulomb force. This force is known as magnetic force. It is given by the equation
In general, if the charge is moving in both the electric and magnetic fields, the total force
experienced by the charge is known as Lorentz force.
===========================================================================
38. Define one tesla
The strength of the magnetic field is one tesla if unit charge moving in it with unit velocity
experiences unit force.
==========================================================================
39. State principle of Cyclotron.
When a charged particle moves normal to the magnetic field, it experiences magnetic Lorentz
force.
=========================================================================
40. State the limitations of cyclotron.
Limitations of cyclotron
(a) the speed of the ion is limited
(b) electron cannot be accelerated
(c) uncharged particles cannot be accelerated
===============================================================================
40. Define one ampere in terms of force.
One ampère is defined as that current when it is passed through each of the
two infinitely long parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one meter
apart in vacuum causes each conductor to experience a force of 2 × 10-7newton
per meter length of conductor.
=================================================================================
41.State the principle of moving coil galvanometer
Principle When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field it
experiences a torque.
=================================================================================
42. Define Figure of merit of a galvanometer
It is defined as the current which produces a deflection of one scale division
in the galvanometer.
=================================================================================
43. Define current sensitivity of the galvanometer
Current sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current
flowing through it.
================================================================================
44. How will you increase the current sensitivity of the galvanometer?
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased
(a) by increasing
(1) the number of turns N
(2) the magnetic induction B
(3) the area of the coil A
(b) by decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire. Phosphor - bronze wire is
used as the suspension wire because the couple per unit twist is very small.
===============================================================================
45. Define Voltage sensitivity:
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage applied across it.
==============================================================================
46. State Fleming’s right hand rule.
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the direction
of the force experienced by it is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Stretch forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand such that they are in
mutually perpendicular directions. If forefinger points the direction of magnetic field, the middle
finger points the direction of the electric current, then thumb will point the direction of the force
experienced by the conductor.
===============================================================================
47. How will you convert a galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter?
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter of given range by connecting a suitable low
resistance S called shunt in parallel to the given galvanometer.
A galvanometer can be converted into suitable voltmeter of given range by connecting a suitable
resistance R in series with the given galvanometer.
===============================================================================
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 The tangent drawn at any point on the magnetic
PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS field lines gives the direction of magnetic field at
1.ANSWERS
What are the properties of bar magnet? that point.
Properties of magnet:  They never intersect each other.
(i) A freely suspended bar magnet wil always point  The degree of closeness of the field lines
along the north - south direction. determines the relative strength of the magnetic
(ii) The attractive property of the magnet is maximum field. The magnetic field is strong where magnetic
near its end or pole. This is called pole strength. field lines crowd and weak where magnetic field
(iii) Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to lines thin out.
one another. 4. Explain Coulomb’s inverse square law in
(iv) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece magnetism.  Force experienced by the North pole along the
behave like a magnet with poles at its ends. Coulomb’ inverse square law in magnetism : direction of the field ; ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 = ⃗
(v) The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical  Force experienced by the South pole opposite to the
length and length between two magnetic poles in a direction of the field ; ⃗⃗⃗ = − ⃗
bar magnet is called magnetic length. The magnetic  Hence total force ; ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗
length is always slightly smaller than geometrical  So that there is no translator motion.
length. (i.e.)  But these two forces constitute a couple, which
magnetic length : geometrical length =  Consider two bar magnets A and B as shown. tends to rotate the magnet along the direction of the
2. Write a note on pole strength.  Let , Pole strength of A = field ⃗⃗⃗ .
Pole strength : Pole strength of B =  Hence moment of force or torque about O is
 The attracting property of the magnet is =
Distance between A and B ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
concentrated at its poles only and this property is  Then by Coulomb s law, the force of attraction or
called pole strength ( ). ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗
repulsion between two mannetic poles is directly ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗|
 It is a scalar quantity with dimension [ ]. Its  Here, | | = | | = and | | = |−
proportional to the product of their pole strengths
S.I unit is −  Hence the magnitude of the torque,
and inversely proportional to the square of the
 North pole of the magnet experiences a force in the 𝜏= sin 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
distance between them. Hence
direction of the magnetic field and south pole 𝜏= sin 𝜃 [ = ]
experiences force opposite to the magnetic field. ⃗⃗⃗ ∝ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ 𝝉= 𝐢 𝜽
 Pole strength depends on the nature of materials of  In magnitude,  In vector notation, ⃗⃗𝝉 = ⃗ ⃗⃗
the magnet, area of cross-section and the state of 6. Obtain an expression for potential energy of a bar
magnetization. = magnet placed in an uniform magnetic field.
 If a magnet is cut in to two equal halves along the  where, → proportionality constant. Potential energy of a bar magnet :
length, then pole strength is reduced to half.  In S. I unit, the value of is
 If the magnet is cut into two equal halves 𝜇 −7 −
= ≅
perperdicular to the length, then pole strength 𝜋
remains same.  Then the force,
 If we cut the magnet in to two pieces, we will not 𝝁
=
separate north and south poles. Instead we get two 𝝅
magnets. (i.e) isolated mono pole does not exist in  where, 𝜇 → permiability of free space or vacuum  Let a bar magnet of dipole moment ⃗⃗⃗ is placed in
[𝜇 = 𝜋 −7 − ]
nature a uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ at an angle 𝜃
3. Give the properties of magnetic field lines. 5. Calculate the torque acting on a bar magnet in
 The magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole is
Properties of magnetic field lines: uniform magnetic field.
; 𝝉= 𝐢 𝜽
 They are continuous closed lines. Their direction is Torque acting on a bar magnet :
 So work done bt external torque (𝜏 𝑥 ) for a small
from North pole to South pole outside the magnet  Consider a mannet of length of pole strength
angular displacement against the torque (𝝉) is
and South pole to North pole inside the magnet. kept in uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ . = 𝜏𝑥 𝜃= 𝜏 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 𝜃

 Hence the total work done to rotate the bar magnet 9. What are called dia, para and ferro magnetic  But due to random orientation of these moments,
from 𝜃 to 𝜃 is , material? the net magnetic moment of the material is zero.
𝜃 𝜃  Materials which exhibit weak magnetim in the  In the presence of external magnetic field, the
= ∫ = ∫ sin 𝜃 𝜃 direction opposite to the applied field are known as torque acting on the atomic dipoles will align them
𝜽 𝜽
= [− cos 𝜃]𝜽𝜃 = − [cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 ] diamagnetic materials. They are repelled by the in the field direction.
magnet.  Thus a net magnetic dipole moment induced in the
 This workdone is stored as potential energy of the
bar magnet. Hence = − [𝐜 𝜽 − 𝐜 𝜽 ] (e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water direction of the applied field.
 Materials which exhibit weak magnetim in the  The induced dipole moment is present as long as
 If initial angle be  = 90 then, =− 𝜽
direction of the applied field are known as the external field exists.
 The potential energy stored in a bar magnet placed paramagnetic materials. They are feebly attracted  When placed in a non-magntic field, these materials
in a uniform magnetic field is, = − ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ by the magnets will have a tendency to move from weaker to
(i) If  = 0 then, =− = minimum (e.g.) Alluminium, Platinum, Chromium stronger part of the field.
(ii) If  = 180 then, = = maximum  Materials which exhibit strong magnetim in the  Materials which exhibit weak magnetim in the
 Thus the potential energy of a bar magnet is direction of the applied field are known as direction of the applied field are known as
minimum when it is align along the external field feromagnetic materials. They are strongly attracted paramagnetic materials.
and maximum when it align anti parallel with the by the magnets (e.g.) Aluminium, Platinum, Chromium
external field. (e.g.) Iron, Cobalt, Nickel 12. Explain ferro magnetism.
7. What are the precausions taken wile using tangent 10. Explain dia magnetism. Ferromangntic material:
galvanometer (TG) Diamagnetic material :
Precausions:  The orbital motion of electron produce a magnetic
 All the neaby magnets and magnetic materials are field perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
kept away from the instrument.  Thus each electron orbit has finite orbital magnetic
 Using sprit level, the levelling screws at the base are dipole moment. But the resultant magnetic moment
adjusted so that the small magnetic needle is for each atom is zero.
exactly horizontal and also the circular coil is  In the presence of an external magnetic moment,
some electrons are speeded up and some are  Ferro magnetic material also possesses net
exactly vertical.
slowed down. magnetic dipole moment as paramagnetic material.
 The plane of the coil is kept along the magnetic  A ferro magnetic material is made up of smaller
meridian.  According to Lenz s law, the electrons whose
moments were anti-parallel are speeded up which rigions called ferromagnetic domain.
 The pointer in the compass box should read ° − °  Within each domain, the magnetic moments are
produces induced magnetic moment in a direction
8. Using the relation ⃗⃗ = 𝝁 (⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ ) , show that aligned in same direction due to strong interaction
opposite to the field.
= 𝝁 −  The induced moment disappears as soon as the arising from electron spin. So each domain has net
Proof : The total magnetic induction, external field is removed. magnetization in a direction.
⃗ = 𝜇 ( ⃗ + ⃗⃗ ) −−−−−  When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it has  But the direction of magnetization is different for
 By definition, tendency to move the material from stronger to different domains. Hence the net magnetization of
⃗⃗ weaker part of the field. the specimen is zero.
= ⃗⃗ = ⃗  In the presence of external magnetic field, the
⃗  This action is called diamagnetic action and such
⃗ = 𝜇 ⃗ materials are known as diamagnetic materials. domain having magnetic moments parallel to the
&
(e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water field grow in size and the other domains are aligned
 Put this in equation (1),
11. Explain paramagnetism. with the field.
𝜇 ⃗ = 𝜇 (⃗ + ⃗)
 It results, a strong net magnetization of the material
Paramagnetic material :
𝜇 ⃗ = 𝜇 ⃗ +  In some magnetic material, each atom or molecule in the direction of the applied field is produced.
𝜇  Materials which exhibit strong magnetism in the
= + has net dipole magnetic moment which is vector
𝜇 sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of direction of the applied field is called ferro
𝜇 = + electrons. magnetic materials.
= 𝝁 − (e.g.) Iron, Nickel, Cobalt
13. List the properties of Diamagnetic materials.  The materials (Soft irom) with high initial  It may be either clockwise or anticlock wise
Properties of Diamagnetic materials : permeability, large mangnetic induction and thin depending on the direction of current in the
 Magnetic susceptibility is negative. hysteresis loop with smaller area are needed to conductor.
 Relative permeability is slightly less than one desigh transformer cores.  If strength of the current is increased, then the
 The magnetic field lines are excluded by 17. What are the differences between soft and hard density of the magnetic field will also increases.
diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic ferromagnetic materials?  The strength of the magnetic field decreases at the
fields. Soft ferromagnetic materials : distance from the conductor increases.
 Susceptibility is nearly temperature independent.  When external field is removes, its magnetization 19. Explain the magnetic field around the current
14. List the properties of Paramagnetic materials. will disappears. carrying circular loop.
Properties of Paramagnetic materials :  Area of the loop is small Circular coil carrying current :
 Magnetic susceptibility is small positive value.  Low retentivity
 Relative permeability is greater than one  Low coercivity
 The magnetic field lines are attracted in to  High susceptibility and magnetic permeability
paramagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic  Less hysteresis loss
field.  Used as solenoid core, transformer core and
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to electromagnets
temperature. (e.g.) Soft iron, Mumetal, Stalloy
15. List the properties of Ferromagnetic materials. Hard ferromagnetic materials :
Properties of Ferromangnetic materials :  When external field is removes, its magnetization
 Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large will persists.
 Relative permeability is very very greater than one  Area of the loop is large
 The magnetic fleld lines are stronglyattracted in to  High retentivity  If we keep a magnetic compass near a current
the ferromagnetic materials when placed in a  High coercivity carrying circular conductor, then the magnetic
magnetic field.  Low susceptibility and magnetic permeability needle deflects which indicates the existence of
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to  More hysteresis loss magnetic field.
temperature.  Used as permanent magnets  Tracing the direction of the deflection, it shows the
16. Explain the applications of hysteresis loop. (e.g.) Steel, Alnico, Lodestone magnetic lines are circular near A and B and nearly
Applications of hysteresis loop : 18. Explain the magnetic field around a straight current parallel to each other near the centre of the loop.
 The main significance of hysteresis loop is that it carrying conductor.  Thus the field present near the centre of the coil is
provides the following information. Current carrying straight conductor : almost uniform.
(i) Retentivity  The strength of the magnetic field is increased if
(ii) Coercivity either the current in the coil or the number of turns
(iii) Permiability or both are increased.
(iv) Susceptibility  The polarity (north pole or south pole) depends on
(v) Energy loss during on cycle of magnetization the direction of current in the loop.
 These information will help us in selecting proper 20. State and explain Biot-Savart law.
and suitable material for a given purpose. Biot - Savart law :
 For example, the materials (Steel and Alnico) with
high retentivity, high coercivity and high  When a magnetic compass is kept near a current
permeability are suitable for making permanent carrying straight conductor, the magnetic needle
magnets. deflects which indicates there exists a magnetic
 The materials (Soft iron and Mumetal) with high field.
initial permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity  If we trace the direction shown by the magnetic
and thin hysteresis loop with smaller area are needle, we can draw the magnetic field lines which
preferred to make electro mangnet. are concentric circles having their centre at the axis
of the conductor.
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnitude of Current loop as a magnetic dipole :  The direction of magnetic field is given by right
magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ at a point P at a distance r  The magnetic field from the centre of a currnt loop hand palm rule. (i.e.) if the current carrying
from the small elemental length dl of the current of radius R along the axis solenoid is held in right hand such that the fingers
I carrying conductor varies, 𝜇 curl in the direction of current, then extended
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
(i) ∝ thumb gives the direction of magnetic field.
+ 𝑧  Hence magnetic field of a solenoid looks like the
(ii) ∝
 At larger distance, 𝑧 ≫ and hence + 𝑧 ≈ 𝑧
(iii) ∝ sin 𝜃 magnetic field of a bar magnet.
𝜇 𝜇 𝜋
(iv) ∝ ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ = ̂ Uses :
𝑧 𝜋𝑧  Solenoid can be used as electromagnets which
 Hence, Here, 𝜋 → area of the loop produces strong magnetic field that can be turned
sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝜇
∝ ⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ = ̂ −−−− ON or OFF.
𝜋𝑧 𝜋 𝑧  The strength of the magnetic field can be increased
sin 𝜃  We know that, magnetic field at a distance 𝑧 along
= −−−− by keeping iron bar inside the solenoid.
the axial line is  They are useful in designing variety of electrical
 where, → constant 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜇𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗ = −−−−−− appliences.
 In S. I. units, = 𝜋 𝑧 24. Write a note in MRI.
𝜋
 Hence,  Compare equation (1) and (2) MRI :
𝝁 𝐢 𝜽 ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗  MRI is Magnetic Resonance Imaging which helps the
= −−−− =
𝝅 physicians to diagonise or monitor treatment for a
 In vector notation,  This implies that a current carrying circular loop variety of abnormal conditions happening within
𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ behaves as a magnetic dipole of dipole moment the head, chest, abdomen and pelvis.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −−−−  So the magnetic dipole moment of any current  It is a non invasive medical test.
𝝅 loop is equal to the product of the current and
 Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ̂  The patient is placed in a circular opening and large
area of the loop. current is sent through the superconduction wire
 From superposition principole the total magnetic 23. Explain current carrying solenoid behaves like a
field due to entire conductor is, to produce a strong magnetic field.
bar magnet.  This magnetic field produces radio frequency
𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ Current carrying conductor:
⃗⃗ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ pulses which are fed to a computer which produce
𝝅 pictures of organs which helps the physicians to
21. Give the difference between Coulomb’s law and examine various parts of the body
Biot-Savart’s law. 25. Define Lorentz force. Give the properties of Lorentz
Coulomb’s law Biot-Savart’s law magnetic force.
1) Electric field is 1) Magnetic field is Lorentz force :
calculated calculated  When an electric charge ′ ′ moves in the magnetic
2) Produced by a scalar 2) Produced be vector  A solenoid is a long coil of wire closely wound in the field ⃗ , it experience a force called Lorentz
source i.e charge q source (i.e.) current form of helix. magnetic force.
element ⃗⃗⃗  When current flows through the solenoid, magnetic = 𝐢 𝜽
3) It is directed along the 3) It is directed field is produced.  In vector notation,
position vector joining perpendicular to the  It is due to the superposition of magnetic fields of ⃗⃗⃗ = (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
the source and the position vector and the each turn of the solenoid. Properties of Lorentz magnetic force :
point at which the field current element  Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is nearly
(i) ⃗⃗⃗ is directly proportional to the magnetic field ( ⃗⃗ )
is calculated. uniform and parallel to its axis.
 But outside the solenoid, the field is negligibly (ii) ⃗⃗⃗ is directlty proportional to the velocity (⃗⃗ )
4) Does not depends on 4) Depends on the angle
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗ is directly proportional to sine of the angle
angle between ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ̂ small.
22. Explain the current loop acts as a magnetic dipole  Depending on the direction of current, one end of between the velocity and magnetic field.
the solenoid behaves like North pole and the other (iv) ⃗⃗⃗ is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
and calculate its dipole moment.
end behaves like South pole. charge
(v) The direction of ⃗⃗⃗ is always perpendicular to (i) If 𝑣 > 𝑣 , then charged particle deflects in the  Let be the resistance of ammeter, then
⃗⃗⃗𝑣 and ⃗ direction of Lorentz force.
= +
(ii) If 𝑣 < 𝑣 , then charged particle deflects in the
(vi) The direction of ⃗⃗⃗ on negative chanrge is
direction of Coulomb force.
opposite to the direction of ⃗⃗⃗ on positive charge ⟹ =
(vii) If the of the charge is along the manetic field, then
(iii) If , then no deflection and the charged particle +
⃗⃗⃗ is zero.
moves in straight line.  Here, > >
 Thus by proper choice of electric and magnetic  Thus an ammeter is a low resistance instrument,
26. Write a note on velocity selector. fields, the particle with particular speed can be and it always connected in series to the circuit.
Velocity selector: selected. Such an arrangement of fields is called a  An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
velocity selector. 28. How Galvanometer can be converted in to
 This principle is used in Bainbridge mass voltmeter?
spectrograph to separate the isotopes. Galvanometer to a voltmeter :
27. How Galvanometer can be converted in to Ammeter.
Galvanometer to an Ammeter :
 Let an electric charge q of mass m enters in to a

region of uniform magnetic field ⃗ with velocity ⃗⃗⃗𝑣  A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure
 Dut to Lorentz force, the charged particle moves in potential difference across any two points.
helical path.  A galvanometer is converted in to voltmeter by
 By applying proper electric field ⃗ , the Lorentz connecting high resistance in series with the
force can be balanced by Coulomb force  Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current. galvanometer.
 Here Coulomb force acts along the direction of  A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by  The scale is calibrated in volts.
electric field, whereas the Lorentz force is connecting a low resistance called shunt in parallel  Galvanometer resistance =
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field. with the galvanometer. High resistanc = ℎ
 Therefore in order to balance these forces, both  The scale is calibrated in amperes. Current flows through galvanometer =
electric and magnetic fields must be perpendicular to  Galvanometer resistance = Voltage to be measured =
each other. Shunt resistance = Total resistance of this circuit = + ℎ
 Such an arrangement of perpendicular electric and Current flows through galvanometer =  Here the current in the electrical circuit is same as
magnetic fields are known as cross fields. Current flows through shunt resistance = the current passing through the galvanometer. (i.e.)
 The force on electric charge due to these fields is, Current to be measured = =
⃗⃗⃗ = [ ⃗ + (𝑣 ⃗ )] The potential difference across galvanometer is
=
same as the potential difference shunt resistance. +
 For a positive charge, the electric force on the (i.e.) = ℎ
charge acts in downward direction whereas the = + ℎ =
Lorentz force acts upwards.
= − −−−−
When these two forces balance one another, the net = −
force ⃗⃗⃗ = . Hence = 𝑣 =
−  Let be the resistance of voltmeter, then
=  From equation (1), = +
= −  Here, < ℎ<
 This means for a given magnitude of electric field
+ =  Thus an voltmeter is a highresistance instrument,
⃗ and magnetic field ⃗ , the forces act only for the
= and it always connected in parallel to the circuit
particle moving with particular speed . + element.
 This speed is independent of mass and charge,
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
29. Differentiate Scalar, Vector and Tensor.  The angle between magnetic meridian at a point
Scalar : PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS and geographical meridian is called the magnetic
 It has only one component. Discuss Earth’s magnetic field in detail.
1.ANSWERS declination (D).
 It has no direction (i.e) no unit vector Earth’s magnetic field :  The angle subtended by the Earth s total magnetic
 Since it has no direction, its rank is zero. field wih the horizontal direction in the magnetic
Vector : meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)
 It haIs resolved in to components. at that point.
 It has only one direction. (i.e.) has one unit vector  The component of Earth s magnetic field along the
 Since each component have one direction, its rank horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is
is one called horizontal component of Earth s magnetic
Tensor : field (BH)
 It has resolved into components.  Let BH be the net Earth s magnetic field at a point
 It has more than one direction (i.e) has more than on the surface of the Earth, then
one unit vector Horizontal component ; = 𝐸 cos − − −
 If each component associated with two direction, Vertical component : 𝑉 = 𝐸 s𝑖 −−−
then its rank is two and if each component  A freely suspended magnet comes to rest 𝑉
approximately along the geographical north - south ⟹ tan =
associated with three direction, then its rank is
three. direction. (i) At magnetic equator :
 In general, if each component associated with n  To explain this, William Gilbert proposed that,  At magnetic equator, = °, then
direction, then it is called tensor of rank n Earth itself like a gigantic powerful magnet, but this = 𝐸
theory was not accepted.
𝑉 =
 Gover suggested that the Earth s magnetic field is (ii) At magnetic poles :
due to hot rays coming out from the Sun.  At magnetic poles, = ° , then
 So many theories have been proposed, but none of =
the theory completely explains the cause for the
𝑉 = 𝐸
Earth s magnetism. 2. Calculate the magnetic induction at a point on the
 The north pole of magnetic compass needle is axial line of a bar magnet.
attracted towards the magnetic south pole of the
Magnetic field at axial line ( ⃗ 𝑥𝑖 ) :
Earth which is near the geographic north pole.
 Simillarly the south pole of magnetic compass
needle is attracted towards the magnetic north
pole of the Earth which is near the the geographic
south pole.
 The branch of physics which deals with the Earth s
magnetic field is called Geomagnetism (or)
Terrestrial magnetism.
 The Earth spins about an axis called geographic
axis and vertical line passing through the  Consider a bar magnet NS of moment =
geographic axis is called geographic meridian,  Let C be the point on its axis at a distance r from
and a great circle perpendicular to Earth s centre O
geographic axis is called geographic equator.  Let unit north pole ( = is placed at C
 The straight line which connects magnetic poles of
 The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole
Earthis known as magnetic axis and the vertical lise
(i.e.) magnetic field at C due to north pole
passing throuth magnetic axis is called magnetic
⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇
meridian and a great circle perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 = 𝑁 = ̂ −−−−
Earth s magnetic axis is called magnetic equator. 𝜋 −
 The attractive force experienced by unit north pole  Let unit north pole ( = is placed at C 4. What is tangent law? Discuss in detail. Explain the
i.e. magnetic field at C due to south pole  The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole principle, construction and working of tangent
⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇 i.e. magnetic field at C due to north pole galvanometer.
⃗⃗⃗ = = − ̂ −−−− 𝜇 Tangent Galvanometer :
𝜋 + 𝑁
𝑁 = = −−−−  It is a device used to measure very small currents.
 Then total magnetic field at C is 𝜋 !
  It is a moving magnet type galvanometer.
⃗ 𝑥𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗ The attractive force experienced by unit north pole
i.e. magnetic field at C due to south pole  Its working is based on tangent law.
𝜇 𝜇
= ̂ + [− ̂ ] 𝜇 Tangent law :
𝜋 − 𝜋 + = = −−−−  When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely
𝜇 𝜋 !
= [ − ] ̂ suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
𝜋 − +  Here, =
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction
 Resolve these two magnetic fields into their
𝜇 + − − of the resultant of the two fields.
= [ ] ̂ components. Hence
 Let B be the magnetic field produced by passing
𝜋 − + ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 = − 𝑁 cos 𝜃 ̂ + 𝑁 sin 𝜃 ̂
𝜇 + + − − + current through the coil of tangent galvanometer
= [ ] ̂ ⃗ = − cos 𝜃 ̂ − sin 𝜃 ̂ and BH be the horizontal component of Earth s
𝜋 { − + }  Then the total magnetic field at C is magnetic field.
𝜇 ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁 + ⃗
= ̂  Under the action of two magnetic fields, the needle
𝜋 − = − 𝑁 cos 𝜃 ̂ + 𝑁 sin 𝜃 ̂ comes to rest at an angle  with , such that
𝜇 − cos 𝜃 ̂ − sin 𝜃 ̂ = 𝜽
= ̂
𝜋 − ⃗ = − 𝑁 cos 𝜃 ̂ − cos 𝜃 ̂ Construction :
𝜇  It consists of copper coil wound on a non-magnetic
⃗ 𝑥𝑖 = ̂ −−−− ⃗ = − 𝑁 cos 𝜃 ̂ [ 𝑁 = ]
𝜋 − 𝜇 circular frame.
 where = → magnetic dipole moment = − cos 𝜃 ̂  It is fixed vertically on a horizontal turn table
 If ≫ , then − ≈ . So 𝜋 !
𝜇 providing with three levelling screws.
𝜇 ⃗ = − cos 𝜃 ̂ − − −  At centre, a compass box is placed which consists
⃗ 𝑥𝑖 = ̂ 𝜋 +
𝜋 of a small magnetic needle which is pivoted at its
𝜇  But in ∆ ,
⃗ 𝑥𝑖 = ̂ [ ̂= ] centre.
𝜋 cos 𝜃 = = =  A thin aluminium pointer is attached to the
𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ !
⃗⃗ 𝒙 = −−−− + magnetic needle normally and moves over circular
𝝅  Then equation (3) becomes, scale.
3. Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the 𝜇  The circular scale is divided in to four quadrants
equatorial line of a bar magnet. ⃗ = − ̂
𝜋 + and graduated in degrees.
Magnetic field at equatorial line ( ⃗⃗ ): +  In order to avoid parallax error in measurement, a
𝜇
⃗ = − ̂ mirror is placed below the aluminium pointer.
𝜋  Here the centre of magnetic needle will exactly
+
𝜇 coincide with the centre of the circular coil.
⃗ = − ̂
𝜋  The coil has three sections of 2, 5 and 50 turns
+
which are different thickness and are used to
 where = → magnetic dipole moment
measuring currents of different strengths.
 If ≫ , then + ≈ . So Theory :
𝜇  When no current is passed through the coil, the
⃗ = − ̂ [ ̂= ]
𝜋 small magnetic needle lies along horizontal
𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ component of Earth s magnetic field
⃗⃗ = − −−−−
 Consider a bar magnet NS of moment = 𝝅  When current pass through the coil, it produces
 Let C be the point on its equatorial line at a distance magnetic field in direction perpendicular to the
r from centre O plane of the coil.
 Now there are two fields, which are acting mutually  Let a ferro magnetic material (iron) is magnetized 6. Deduce the relation for magnetic induction at a
perpendicular to each other. slowly by a magnetizing field ⃗ point due to an infinitely long straight conductor
They are  The magnetic induction ⃗ is increases from point A carrying current.
(i) The magnetic field B and attains saturated level at C. This is shown by Magnetic field due to long straight current carrying
due to current in the coil the path AC conductor :
(ii) Horizontal component of  The maximum point up to which the material cn be
Earth s magnetic field magnetized by applying the magnetizing field is
BH called Saturation magnetization.
 Thus the magnetic needle deflects through an angle  If magnetizing field is now reduced, the magnetic
 . By tangent law, induction also decreases but in different path CA.
B = Bh tan θ −−−−−−−−  When magnetizing field is zero, the magnetic
 When current I passing through a circular coil of induction is not zero and it has positive value. (i.e.)
radius R having N turns, the magnitude of some magnetism is left in the material even when
magnetic field at the centre is, H=0.
μo N I  The ability of the material to retain the magnetism
B = −−−−−−−−
R in them even magnetizing field vanishes is called
 Put equation (2) in (1) remanence or retentivity.
μo N I
= BH tan θ  To remove the remance, the magnetizing field is
R gradually increased in the reverse direction, so that
μo N
𝐁 = ( ) −−− the magnetic induction decreases along DE and  Consider a long straight wire NM carrying a current I
R tan 𝜃 becomes zero at E
 Also the current is ,  Let P be a point at a distance a from O
𝐑𝐁  The magnitude of the reverse magnetizing field for  Consider an element of length of the wire at a
= 𝐚 𝛉 = 𝐊 𝐚 𝛉 −− which the residual magnetism of the material distance from point O
𝛍 𝐍 vanishes is called its coercivity.
 where,  Let ⃗⃗ be the vector joining the element with
𝐑𝐁  Further increase of ⃗ in the reverse direction, the the point P and 𝜃 be the angle between ⃗⃗ and
K= 𝛍 𝐍
−→ Reduction factor of TG mangetic indiuction increases along EF until it ⃗⃗⃗
5. Define Hysterisis. Explain it with help of diagram. reaches saturation at F in the reverese direction.  Then the magnetic field at P due to the element is,
Hysterisis :  If magnetizing field is decreased and then 𝝁 𝐢 𝜽
increased with direction reversed, the magnetic ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ −−−−
 Hysterisis means lagging behind 𝝅
 The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction induction traces the path FGKC.  where, ̂ → unit vector normal to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ̂
( ⃗ ), behind the magnetizing field ( ⃗ ) is called  This closed curve ACDEFGKC is called hysteresis
 In ∆ ,
hysteresis. loop and it represents a cycle of magnetization.
 In the entire cycle, the magnetic induction B lags tan 𝜋 − 𝜃 =
Hysterisis loop :
behind the magnetizing field H .
− tan 𝜃 =
 This phenomenon is called hysteresis
Hysterisis Loss : = − = − cot 𝜃
 Due to hysterisis there is a loss of energy in the tan 𝜃
form of heat and It is found that the energy lost per  Differentiate,
unit volume of the material when it is carried = − − 𝜃 𝜃= 𝜃 𝜃
through one cycle of magnetization is equal to the  Also from ∆ ,
area of the hysteresis loop. sin 𝜋 − 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 =
 Thus the loss of energy for a complete cycle is,
or = = 𝜃
∆ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ sin 𝜃
 put and in equation (1)  From Pythogorous theorem,
𝜇 𝜃 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = = = √ + 𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
𝜋 𝜃 𝜃 and ∠ = ∠ = 𝜃
𝜇  According to Biot - Savart law, the magnetic field at
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = sin 𝜃 𝜃 ̂
𝜋 P due to the current element ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is,
 Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is expressed in terms of angular 𝜇
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ [ 𝜃 = °]
coordinate  . Hence the net magnetic field at P 𝜋
𝜑 𝜑
𝜇  where, ̂ → unit vector normal to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗ & ⃗⃗  The magnetic dipole moment due to current
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ sin 𝜃 𝜃̂
𝜋  Here, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be resolved in to two componenets. carrying circular loop is, ⃗⃗⃗𝝁 = ⃗⃗
𝜑 𝜑 (i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ sin 𝜃 − horizontal component (Y - axis)  In magnitude, 𝝁 = −−−−−−
𝜇 𝜑
⃗⃗⃗ = [− cos 𝜃]𝜑 ̂ (ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ cos 𝜃 − vertical component (Z - axis)  If T is thetime period of an electron, the current due
𝜋
𝝁  Here horizontal components of each element to revolving electron is,
⃗⃗⃗ = [𝐜 −𝐜 ]̂ −−− cancel each other.
𝝅 = −
 For an infinitely long straight wire, = and  But vertical components alone contribute to total
magnetic field at the point P where - e  charge of an electron.
=𝜋 ° . Then the magnetic field is
 If R be the radius and 𝑣 be the velocity of electron
𝜇 𝜇 ⃗ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫
B cos 𝜃 ̂
⃗⃗⃗ = [ − − ] ̂ = ⃗⃗⃗ = [ ]̂ in the circular orbit, then
𝜋 𝜋 𝜇 𝜋 𝜋
𝝁 ⃗ =
B ∫ cos 𝜃 ̂ −−−−− = =
⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ − −−−− 𝜋 𝜔 𝑣
𝝅  Then equation (1) becomes,
7. Obtain a relation for the magnetic induction at a  Also from ∆ ,
point along the axis of a circular coil carrying 𝝁 =− =− 𝜋
𝜃= = 𝜋
[ ]
current. + 𝑧 𝑣
Magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil :  But from equation (1) where, = 𝜋 → area of the circular orbit
𝜇
⃗ =
B ∫ ̂ 𝝁 = − −−−−
𝜋 + 𝑧
+ 𝑧  By definition, angular momentum of the electron
𝜇
⃗ =
B ∫ ̂ about O is ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝜋 + 𝑧  In magnitude, angular momentum is given by,
 where, ∫ = 𝜋 → total length of the coil. = = 𝑣 −−−−
𝜇  Dividing equation (2) by (3),
⃗ =
B [ 𝜋 ]̂ 𝜇𝐿 𝑣
𝜋 + 𝑧 = − =−
𝑣
𝝁  In vector notation,
⃗ =
𝐁 ̂
+ 𝒛 ⃗⃗⃗𝝁 = − ⃗ −−−−
Here B
 ⃗ points along the direction from O to P  Here negative sign indicates that the magnetic

If the current flows in clockwise direction, then dipole moment and angular momentum are in
 Consider a circular coil of radius R carrying a ⃗B points along the direction from P to O opposite direction. In magnitude,
current I in anticlock wise direction. 8. Compute the magnetic dipole moment of revolving 𝜇𝐿 −
 Let P be the point on the axis at a distance z from = = . =
electron. And hence define bohr magneton.
centre O Magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron :  This constant is called gyro-magnetic ratio.
 Consider two diametrically opposite line elements  Let an electron moves in circular motion around  According to Bohr quantization rule, angular
of the coil of each of length ⃗⃗⃗ at C and D. the nucleus. momentum of an electron is,
 Let ⃗⃗ be the vector joining the current element  The circulating electron in a loop is like current in ℎ
= ℏ=
( ⃗⃗⃗ at C to the point P a circular loop. 𝜋
−
 where, ℎ → Plank s constant (ℎ = . 𝜋 = 𝜇  Let I be the current passing through the solenoid
→ Positive integer ( = , , , … . ..) 𝝁 of N turns, then
=
ℎ 𝝅 I = NI −−−−−−−−
𝜇𝐿 = =  In vector notation,  Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
𝜋
𝝁 B = μ NI
⃗⃗ = ̂
𝝁 = −−−− 𝝅 N
𝝅 B = μ I − −−−
 The minimum magnetic moment can be obtained 10. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to long
by substituting = current carrying solenoid.  Let n be the number of turns per unit length, then
Mangnetic field due to current carrying solenoid : 𝐍
− = . Hence,
𝝁 =𝝁 = = .
𝝅 𝛍 𝐍
 The minimum value of magnetic moment of 𝐁 = = 𝛍 −−−−
revolving electron is called Bohr magneton (𝝁 )  Since n and μ are constants, for fixed current I
9. Using Ampere’s law, obtain an expression for the magnetic field B inside the solenoid is also
magnetic field due to the current carrying wire of constant.
infinite length. 11. Obtain the magnetic fields at various points on the
Magnetic field due to current carrying straight wire toroid.
using Ampere’s law : Toroid :
 A solenoid is bent in such a way
its ends are joined together to
 Consider a solenoid of length L having N turns.
form a closed ring shape is
 To calculate the magnetic field at any point inside
called toroid.
the solenoid, consider an Amperian loop abcd
 From Ampere circuital law,
∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇 −−−−−
 The LHS of equation (1) can be written as
∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗

 Consider a straight conductor of infinite length
carrying current I  Here,
 Imagine an Amperian circular loop at a distance r
from the centre of the conductor. ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∫ B d = ∫ cos ° = B ∫ = B
 From Ampere s circuital law,
∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∫B d =∫ cos °= Open space interior to the toroid (P) :
 To calculate the magnetic field at P , consider
 Here ⃗⃗⃗ is the line element along the tangent to the
an Amperian loop (1) of radius
Amperian loop. So the angle between ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗ is ∫ B ⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ .d [ B= ]  Then Amperian circuital law for loop 1 is
zero (𝜃 = °). Thus,
∮⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇
∮ = 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫
∫ ⃗B. d cos °=  Since the loop 1 encloses no current, = , then
 Due to symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic
field is uniform over the Amperian loop and hence,  Here ab = h . If we take large loop such that it is ∮⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ =
equal to length of the solenoid, we have ⃗⃗ =
∮ = 𝜇
∮B ⃗⃗⃗ = B
⃗ . dl −−−−−−− Open space exterior to the toroid (Q):
 For circular loop, ∮ = 𝜋
 To calculate magnetic field at Q construct  Since Lorentz force alone acts on the particle, the 13. Describe the principle, construction and working of
Amperian loop (3) of radius magnitude of this force is Cylotron.
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 3 is = 𝑣 [𝜃 = °] Cylotron :
 Hence charged particle moves in a circular orbit  It is a device used to accelerate the charged
∮⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇
and the necessary centripetal force is provided by particles to gain large kinetic energy. It is also
 Since in each turn of the toroid loop, current Lorentz force. (i.e.) called as high energy accelerator.
coming out of the plane of paper is cancelled by the 𝑣  It is invented by Lawrence and Livingston.
current going into plane of the paper. Thus = 𝑣= Principle :
 The radius of the circular path is,  When a charged particle moves normal to the
∮⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣
= = −−−− magnetic field, it experience magnetic Lorentz
⃗⃗ = force.
Inside the toroid (S) : where, 𝑣 = → linear momentum Construction :
 To calculate magnetic field at S construct  Let T be the time period, then  It consists two semi circular metal containers
Amperian loop (2) of radius 𝜋 𝜋 𝑣 called Dees.
= =
 The length of the loop 2 ; = 𝜋 𝑣 𝑣  The Dees are enclosed in an evacuated chamber
and the loop encloses the current ; = 𝝅 and it is kept in a region of uniform magnetic field
= −−−− acts normal to the plane of the Dees.
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 2 is
It is called cyclotron time period.  The two Dees are kept separated with a gap and the
∮⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇  Let f be the frequency, then source S of charged particles to be accelerated is
placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees.
∮ = 𝜇 = = −−−−  Dees are connected to high frequency alternating
𝝅
𝜋 = 𝜇  In terms of angular frequency, potential difference.
𝝁 Working :
= 𝝎= 𝝅 = −−−−  Let the positive ions are ejected from source S
𝝅
 Let n be the number of turns per unit length, then It is called cyclotron frequency or gyro-frequency.  It is accelerated towards a Dee-1 which has
𝐍  From equantion (2), (3) and (4), we infer that time negative potential at that instant.
= . Hence
𝝅 period (T), frequency (f) and angular frequency  Since the magnetic field is normal to the plane of
= 𝛍 ( 𝝎 ) depends only on specific charge, but not the Dees, the ion undergoes circular path.
12. Obtain the expression for force on a moving charge velocity or the radius of the circular path.  After one semi-circular path in Dee-1, the ion
in a magnetic field. Special cases : reaches the gap between Dees.
Force on moving charge in a magnetic field :  If a charged particle moves in uniform magnetic  At this time the polarities of the Dees are reversed,
field, such that its velocity is not perpendicular to so that the ion is now accelerated towards Dee-2
the magnetic field, then its velocity is resolved into with a greater velocity.
two components.  For this circular motion, the centripetal force of the
 One component is parallel to the fjeld and the other charged particle is provided by Lorentz force, then
component is perpendicular to the field. 𝑣
 Here parallel component remains unchanged and = 𝑣
the perpendicular component keeps on changing 𝑣
=
due to Lorentz force.
 Hence the path of the paricle is not circle, it is helix ∝
 Consider a charged particle of charge q having around the field.  Thus the increase in velocity increases the radius of
mass m enters perpendicular to uniform magnetic the circular path. Hence the particle undergoes
field B with velocity 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ spiral path of increasing radius.
 So this charged particle experience Lorentz force  Once it reaches near the edge, it is taken out with help
which acts perpendicular to both ⃗ and 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ and it is of deflector plate and allowed to hit the target T
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗
 The important condition in cyclotron is the Let n be the number of free electrons per unit
  Then Lorentz force acts on the length element in
resonance condition. i.e. the frequency of the volume, then the total number of electrons in the conductor B carrying current I due to this
charged particle must be equal to the frequency of small element of volume ( = ) is = magnetic field ⃗
the electrical oscillator . Hence  Hence Lorentz force on the small element, 𝜇
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = − ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − (𝑣 ⃗ ) −−− 𝜋
=
𝝅  Here length 𝜇
is along the length of the wire and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − (̂ )̂
 The time period of oscillation is , hence the current element is 𝜋
𝝅 𝜇
= I ⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ̂
 Put this in equation (1), 𝜋
 The kinetic energy of the charged particle is,  By Flemming s left hand rule, this force acts left
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ −−− wards. The force per unit length of the conductor B
= =  Therefore, the force in a straight current carrying ⃗⃗⃗ 𝝁
conductor of length placed in a uniform magnetic = − 𝒋̂ −−−−−
Limitations of cyclotron : 𝝅
field
(i) the speed of the ion is limited  Simillarly, net magnetic field due to at a distance
⃗ = ⃗⃗ −−−
(ii) electron cannot be accelerated r is
(iii) uncharged paricles cannot be accelerated.  In magnitude, 𝜇
= 𝐢 𝜽 −−− ⃗ = ̂
14. Obtain an expression for the force on a current 𝜋
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. Special cases :  Here ⃗ acts perpendicular to plane of paper and
Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic (i) If the current carrying conductor placed along the outwards.
field : direction of magnetic field, then  = °  Then Lorentz force acts on the length element in
= conductor A carrying current I due to this
(ii) If the current carrying conductor is placed
magnetic field ⃗
perpendicular to the magnetic field, then  = °
𝜇
= = 𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = ̂ ̂
15. Obtain a force between two long parallel current 𝜋
𝜇
carrying conductors. Hence define ampere. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (̂ ̂)
Force between two parallel conductors carrying 𝜋
𝜇
current : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂
𝜋
 By Flemming s left hand rule, this force acts right
wards. The force per unit length of the conductor A
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a ⃗⃗⃗ 𝝁
magnetic field, the force experienced by the wire is = 𝒋̂ −−−−−
equal to the sum of Lorentz forces on the individual 𝝅
 Thus the force experienced by two parallel current
chage carriers in the wire.
carrying conductors is attractive if they carry
 Let a current I flows through a conductor of lengh
current in same direction.
L and area of cross-section A
 On the other hand, the force experienced by two
 Consider a small segment of wire of length  Consider two straight parallel current carrying parallel current carrying conductors is repulsive if
 The free electorns drift opposite to the direction of conductors A and B separated by a distance r they carry current in opposite direction.
current with drift velocity 𝑣 kept in air. Definition of ampere :
 The relation between current and drift velocity is,  Let I and I be the currents passing through the  One ampere is defined as that current when it is
= 𝑣 −−−−− A and B in same direction (z-direction) passed through each of two infinitely long parallel
 If the wire is kept in a magnetic field, then average  The net magnetic field due to I at a distance r conductors kept a a distance of one metre apart in
force experienced by the electron in the wire is 𝜇 𝜇
⃗ = − ̂ =− ̂ vacuum causes each conductor experience a force
= − (𝑣 ⃗) 𝜋 𝜋 −7
of newton per meter length of conductor.
 Here ⃗ acts perpendicular to plane of paper and
inwards.
16. Deduce an expression for torque on a current loop  The net force on the rectangular loop is,  Force on section QR,
placed in magneitic field when unit vector ̂ is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Here, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = cos ° − 𝜃 ̂ + sin ° − 𝜃 −̂
perpendicular to ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂+ ⃗ − ̂+ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = sin θ ̂ − 𝜃̂
Torque on a current loop : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
 Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS kept in  Hence the net force on the rectangular loop in this ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [ sin θ ̂ − 𝜃 ̂] ̂
uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ with its plane parallel to configuration is zero. ̂
=− cos 𝜃 ( )̂
the field  But the net torque due to these forces about an axis
 Let = = → Length of the loop ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝐜 𝜽 𝒋̂ −−−−
passing through the centre,
= = → Breadth of the loop ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 Let ̂ be the unit vector normal to the plane of the  Force on section RS,
current loop. ⃗⃗𝜏 = −̂ ̂ +⃗ + ̂ −̂ + ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ ̂
⃗⃗𝜏 =− (̂ ̂) − (̂ ̂)
= ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ̂ −−−−
⃗⃗𝜏 =− −̂ − −̂
 Force on section SP,
⃗⃗𝜏 = ̂+ ̂ Here, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = cos ° + 𝜃 − ̂ + sin °+ 𝜃 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − sin θ ̂ + 𝜃̂
⃗⃗𝜏 = ̂ = 𝒋̂ − − − − −
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
where, = → area of the rectangular loop
 Let the loop is divided in to four sections PQ, QR, RS 17. Deduce an expression for torque on a current ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [− sin θ ̂ + 𝜃 ̂] ̂
and SP. The Lorentz force on each loop can be loop placed in magneitic field when unit vector = cos 𝜃 ( ̂ ̂)
calculated as follows. ̂ is at an angle  with ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐜 𝜽 𝒋̂ −−−−
 Force on section Torque on a current loop :  The net force on the rectangular loop is,
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗  Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS kept in ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ̂ ̂ uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ with its plane inclined to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂− cos 𝜃 ̂
=− ̂ ̂ the field − ̂+ cos 𝜃 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ −−−−  Let = = → Length of the loop ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗
 = = → Breadth of the loop
Force on section  Since the forces on sections QR and SP are equal in
 Let ̂ be the unit vector normal to the plane of the
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ magnitude, opposite in direction and in same line,
current loop.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ ̂ no torque produce by these two sections.
= ̂ ̂  On the other hand forces on sections PQ and RS are
equal and opposite but in different lines and hence
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ −−−−
these two forces constitute a couple.
 Force on section
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ ̂
= ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ̂ −−−−  Let  be the angle between normal vector ̂ and
 Force on section magnetic field ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗  Force on section PQ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
=− ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗ −−−− =− ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ −−−−
 Hence the net torque produced by these two forces  In order to pass electric current through the
about the axis of the rectangular loop is galvanometer, the suspension strip W and the
⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ spring S are connectee to terminals.
Working :
⃗⃗𝜏 = [cos °−𝜃 − ̂ + sin °−𝜃 ̂] ̂
+ [cos ° − 𝜃 ̂ + sin °−𝜃 −̂ ] − ̂
⃗⃗𝜏 = [− sin 𝜃 ̂ + cos 𝜃 ̂ ] ̂
− [sin 𝜃 ̂ − cos 𝜃 ̂ ] ̂
⃗⃗𝜏 =− sin 𝜃 − ̂ + − sin 𝜃 −̂

 Consider a single turn of rectangular coil PQRS of
⃗⃗𝜏 = sin 𝜃 ̂+ sin 𝜃 ̂ length and breadth , such that
= = ; = =
⃗⃗𝜏
= sin 𝜃 ̂
 Let I be the electric current flowing through the
=
⃗⃗𝝉 𝐢 𝜽 𝒋̂ −−−−− rectangular coil
 But magnetic dipole moment ; = , then  The horse-shoe type magnet has hemi-spherical
⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝐢 𝜽 𝒋̂ = ⃗ ⃗⃗ magnetic poles which produces a radial magnetic
Special cases : field.
(i) If 𝜃 = °, then ⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝒋̂ = 𝒋̂ = 𝒙  Due to this radial field, the sides QR and SP are
(ii) If 𝜃 = °, then ⃗⃗𝝉 = always parallel to the magnetic field B and
(iii) If 𝜃 = °, then ⃗⃗𝝉 = experience no force.
18. Describe the principle, construction and working of  But the sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular
moving coil galvanometer. to the magnetic field B and experience force and
Moving coil galvanometer : due to ths torque is produced.
 It is a device which is used to indicate the flow of  For single turn, the deflecting couple is,
current. 𝜏 = = =
Principle :  For coil with N turns, we get
 When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform 𝝉 = −−−−
magnetic field it experiences a torque.  Due to this deflecting torque, the coil get twisted
Construction : and restoring torque is developed.
 It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated  The magnitude of restoring torque is proportional
thin copper wire. to amount of twist and it is given by
 A cylindrical soft-iron core is placed 𝝉 = 𝜽 −−−−
symmentrically inside the coil. where → restoring couple per unit twist (or)
 This rectangular coil is suspended freely between torsional constant
two pole pieces of a horse-shoe magnet by means of  At equilibrium, 𝝉 = 𝝉
phosphor - bronze wire. = 𝜃
 Lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring
which is also made up of phosphor bronze. = 𝜽= 𝜽 −−−
 A small plane mirror is attached on the suspension
where, = → galvanometer constant (or)
wire to measure the deflection of the coil with help
of lamp and scale arrangement. current reduction factor
CHAPTER-4- ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
(Book back- short answers)
================================================================
1. What is meant by electromagnetic induction?
whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed coil changes, an emf (electromotive force) is
induced and hence an electric current flows in the circuit. This current is called an induced
current and the emf giving rise to such current is called an induced
emf. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
First law: Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is
induced in the circuit.
Second law: The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal to the time rate
of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
================================================================================
3. State Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that it always
opposes the cause responsible for its production.
==========================================================================
4. State Fleming’s right hand rule.
The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched out in
mutually perpendicular directions If the index finger points the direction of the magnetic field
and the thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will
indicate the direction of the induced current.
==========================================================================
5. How is Eddy current (or) Foucault current produced? How do they flow in a conductor?
For a conductor in the form of a sheet or plate, an emf is induced when magnetic flux linked
with it changes. But the difference is that there is no definite loop or path for induced current to
flow away. As a result, the induced currents flow in concentric circular paths. As these electric
currents resemble eddies of water, these are known as Eddy currents. They are also called
Foucault currents.
==========================================================================
6. Mention the ways of producing induced emf.
induced emf can be produced by changing magnetic flux in any of the following ways.
(i) By changing the magnetic field B
(ii) By changing the area A of the coil and
(iii) By changing the relative orientation θ of the coil with magnetic field
==========================================================================
7. What for an inductor is used? Give some examples.
Inductor is a device used to store energy in a magnetic field when an electric current
flows through it. The typical examples are coils, solenoids and toroids.
================================================================================
8. What do you mean by self-induction?
An electric current flowing through a coil will set up a magnetic field around it.
Therefore, the magnetic flux of the magnetic field is linked with that coil itself. If this flux
is changed by changing the current, an emf is induced in that same coil. This
phenomenon is known as self-induction.
==========================================================================
9. What is meant by mutual induction?
When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an emf is induced
in the neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction and the emf is
called mutually induced emf.
=========================================================================
10. Give the principle of AC generator.
Alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field changes the magnetic flux linked with
the conductor which in turn, induces an emf. The magnitude of the induced emf is
given by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and its direction by Fleming’s
right hand rule.
==========================================================================
11. List out the advantages of stationary armature-rotating field system of AC generator.
The stationary armature-rotating field construction has many advantages. A few of them
include:
1) The current is drawn directly from fixed terminals on the stator without the use
of brush contacts.
2) The insulation of stationary armature winding is easier.
3) The number of sliding contacts (slip rings) is reduced. Moreover, the sliding contacts
are used for low-voltage DC Source.
4) Armature windings can be constructed more rigidly to prevent deformation due
to any mechanical stress.
=============================================================================== .
12. What are step-up and step-down transformers?
If the transformer converts an alternating current with low voltage into an alternating
current with high voltage, it is called step-up transformer. On the contrary, if the transformer
converts alternating current with high voltage into an alternating current with low voltage, then
it is called step-down transformer.
=========================================================================
13. Define average value of an alternating current.
The average value of alternating current is defined as the average of all values of current over a
positive half-cycle or negative half-cycle.
===============================================================================
14. How will you define RMS value of an alternating current?
The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the square root of the mean
of the squares of all currents over one cycle. It is denoted by

====================================================================================
15. What are phasors?
A sinusoidal alternating voltage (or current) can be represented by a vector which
rotates about the origin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant angular velocity ω.
Such a rotating vector is called a phasor.
16. Define electric resonance.
When the frequency of the applied alternating source is equal to thenatural frequency
of the RLC circuit, the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value. Then the circuit is said to
be in electrical resonance. The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant
frequency.
=======================================================================================
17. What do you mean by resonant frequency?
When the frequency of the applied alternating source is equal to the natural frequency
of the RLC circuit, the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value. Then the circuit is said to
be in electrical resonance. The frequency at which resonance takes place is called
resonant frequency.
=================================================================================
17. How will you define Q-factor?
The current in the series RLC circuit becomes maximum at resonance. Due to the increase in
current, the voltage across L and C are also increased. This magnification of voltages at series
resonance is termed as Q–factor. It is defined as the ratio of voltage across L or C to the applied
voltage.
Q-factor = Voltage across L or C
===============
Applied voltage
======================================================================================
18. What is meant by wattles current?
The other component which has a phase angle of π/2 with the voltage is called
reactive component. The power consumed is zero. So that it is also known as ‘Wattless’ current.
The current in an AC circuit is said to be wattless current if the power consumed by it is zero. This
wattless current happens in a purely inductive or capacitive circuit.
===============================================================================
19. Give any one definition of power factor.
=================================================================================
20. What are LC oscillations?
Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor
of capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth between the magnetic field of the inductor
and the electric field of the capacitor. Thus the electrical oscillations of definite frequency
are generated. These oscillations are called LC oscillations.
Extra short answers
21. Define magnetic flux. Give its unit
The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field is defined as the number
of magnetic field lines passing through that area normally and is given by the equation
==========================================================================
22. Define self inductance. Give its unit
Selfinductance or simply Inductance of a coil is defined as the flux linkage of the coil
when 1A current flows through it.
Inductance of a coil is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the coil when the
rate of change of current through the coil is 1 A s -1
========================================================================================
23. Define the unit of self inducatance.(or) Define one henry in self incutaion.
The inductance of the coil is said to be one henry if a current of 1 A
produces unit flux linkage in the coil.
The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current changing at the rate
-1
of 1 A s induces an opposing emf of 1 V in it.
================================================================
24. Define mutual inductance of pair of coils. Give its unit.
The mutual inductance M21 is defined as the flux linkage of the coil 2 when 1A
current flows through coil 1.
Mutual inductance M21 is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the coil 2
when the rate of change of current through the coil 1 is 1As-1
================================================================================================
25. Define the unit of mutual inductance (or) Define one henry in mutual induction.
The mutual inductance between two coils is said to be one henry if
a current of 1A in coil 1 produces unit flux linkage in coil 2.
The mutual inductance between two coils is one henry if a current
changing at the rate of 1As-1 in coil 1 induces an opposing emf of 1V in coil 2.
===============================================================
26. What is meant by a.c generator? Mention its parts
AC generator or alternator is an energy conversion device. It converts mechanical
energy used to rotate the coil or field magnet into electrical energy. Alternator produces
a large scale electrical power for use in homes and industries
The parts of the AC generators are
1. Stator 2.Rotor(magnetic field) 3. Slip rings 4. Carbon brushes.
=============================================================================
27. What are the advantages of three phase alternator.
1) For a given dimension of the generator, three-phase machine produces higher
power output than a single-phase machine.
2) For the same capacity, three-phase alternator is smaller in size when compared to single
phase alternator.
3) Three-phase transmission system is cheaper. A relatively thinner wire is sufficient for
transmission of three phase power.
28. State the principle of transformer
The principle of transformer is the mutual induction between two coils. That
is, when an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an emf is induced
in the neighbouring coil.
==============================================================================
29. Define voltage transformation ratio
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

The ratio of number of turns in the secondary coil to the primary coil is called as transformation
ratio.
=============================================================================
30. Define efficiency of the transformer.
The efficiency η of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the useful output
power to the input power. Thus

========================================================================
31. Define alternating voltage and alternating current.
An alternating voltage is the voltage which changes polarity at regular intervals of
time and the direction of the resulting alternating current also changes accordingly.
If the waveform of alternating voltage is a sine wave, then it is known as sinusoidal
alternating voltage which is given by the relation. .The expression of alternating
current is
===============================================================================
32. Define phasor diagram.
The diagram which shows various phasors and their phase relations is called phasor diagram.
=================================================================================
33. Define inductive reactance. Give its unit.
The resistance offered by the inductor, called inductive reactance (X L). It is measured in ohm.
=============================================================================
34. An inductor blocks AC but it allows DC. Why? and How?
An inductor L is a closely wound helical coil. The steady DC current flowing through L produces
uniform magnetic field around it and the magnetic flux linked remains constant. Therefore
there is no self-induction and selfi nduced emf (back emf). Since inductor behaves
like a resistor, DC flows through an inductor.
The AC flowing through L produces time-varying magnetic field which in turn induces self-
induced emf (back emf). This back emf, according to Lenz’s law, opposes any change in the
current. Since AC varies both in magnitude and direction, its flow is opposed in L. For an
ideal inductor of zero ohmic resistance, the back emf is equal and opposite to the
applied emf. Therefore L blocks AC.
================================================================================
35. Define capacitive inductance. Give its unit.
The resistance offered by the capacitor is called as capacitive reactance (XC).
It measured in ohm.
=============================================================================
36. Define impedance. Give its unit.
Z is called impedance of the circuit which refers to the effective opposition

to the circuit current by the series RLC circuit. Its unit is ohm.
================================================================================
37. In RL and RC circuits, Resonance will not occur. Why?e phenomenon of
Resonance is possible when the circuit contains both L and C. Only then the voltage
across L and C cancel one another when VL and Vc are 180° out of phase and the circuit
becomes purely resistive. This implies that resonance will not occur in a RL and RC
circuits.c
===============================================================================
38. =State the applications of series RLC resonant circuit.
RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators, voltage multipliers
etc. An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is in the tuning circuits of radio
and TV systems. The signals from many broadcasting stations at different frequencies
are available in the air. To receive the signal of a particular station, tuning is done.
===============================================================================
39. Define power of a circuit.
Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption of electric energy in that
circuit. It is given by the product of the voltage and current.
==============================================================================
40. Define wattful current
The component of current IRMS cos θ which is in phase with the voltage is called active
component. The power consumed by this current So that it is also known as
‘Wattful’ current. = VRMSIRM cos θ
===============================================================================
41. State the advantages and disadvantages of AC over DC.
Advantages:
(i) The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC.
(ii) When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the transmission losses are small compared to
DC transmission.
(iii) AC can easily be converted into DC with the help of rectifiers.
Disadvantages:
(i) Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain applications e.g. charging of batteries,
electroplating, electrictraction etc.
(ii) At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.
42. Define RMS value of AC.MS value is also defined as that value
RMS Value of AC is defined is the value of the steady current which when
flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same amount
of heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the
same circuit for the same time. The effective value of an alternating voltage
is represented by V eff
43. State the analogies between LC oscillator(electrical system) and spring mass
system(mechanical system)
L.C OSCILLATOR SPRING MASS SYSTEM
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM MECHANICAL SYSTEM
44. What is meant by three phase a.c. generator.

In some AC generators, there are three separate coils, which would give three separate emfs.
Hence they are called three-phase AC generators. The angle between the planes of the
successive coils is 120° and the phase difference between the emfs’ induced in the successive
coils will also be 120°
======================================================================
Chapter -4 - IV Conceptual Questions
1. A graph between the magnitude of the magnetic flux linked with a closed loop and time is given
in the figure. Arrange the regions of the graph in ascending order of the magnitude of induced emf in
the loop.
Emf induced in region a = change in flux is more (increases)/1 unit time

Emf induced in the region b = no change in flux with respect to time = no emf is induced
Emf induced in the region c = change in flux is less (decreases)/1 unit of time = less emf is
induced compared to region a
Emf induced in the region d = change in flux is less (decreases )/3 units time = very less emf is
induced.
emf comparison in ascending order:
emf b ˃ emf d ˃ emf c ˃ emf a
2. Using Lenz’s law, predict the direction of induced current in conducting rings 1 and 2 when
current in the wire is steadily decreasing.
In the upper ring 1:

The magnetic field B due to current carrying wire at a point above it is perpendicular to the
plane of the paper and is directed inwards. As the current in the wire decreases, B also
decreases. To oppose this decrease in B, (i.e to support B) the induced current in the loop
should produce a magnetic field in the same direction as B, i.e inwards (Lenz’s law).
Obviously, the induced current in the loop flows in the clockwise direction.
In the lower ring 2:
The magnetic field B due to current carrying at a point below, it is perpendicular to the plane
of the paper and is directed outwards. As the current in the wire decreases, B also decreases.
To oppose this decrease in B, ( i.e to support B) the induced current in the loop should
produce a magnetic field in the same direction as B, i.e outwards.(Lenz’s law) Obviously the
induced current in the loop flows in anticlockwise direction.
=====================================================================
3.A flexible metallic loop abcd in the shape of a square is kept in a magnetic field with its plane
perpendicular to the field. The magnetic field is directed into the paper normally. Find the direction
of the induced current when the square loop is crushed into an irregular shape as shown in the
figure.
The square loop abcd is crushed into irregular shape, it means force acts inwards on each part
of the wire. The magnetic field also acts inwards. Due to decrease in area, magnetic flux
decreases. To oppose this decrease in B, (i.e to support B) the induced current in the loop
should produce a magnetic field in the same direction as B, i.e inwards (Lenz’s law).
Obviously, the induced current in the loop flows in the clockwise direction. i.e. current flows
in the direction a’b’c’d’a’
4. Predict the polarity of the capacitor in a closed circular loop when two bar magnets are moved as
shown in the figure.
According to the figure, As north pole of the bar magnet moves towards the coil, the magnetic flux
through the coil increases. Hence, current is induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes the
increase that it opposes the increase in flux. This possible only if the current in the coil is in a
anticlockwise direction. With respect to the observer situated on the side of the magnet.
Plate A is at high potential and B is at low potential, therefore the polarity of the plate A will
be positive with respect to the plate B in the capacitor.
=========================================================================
5. In series LC circuit, the voltages across L and C are 180° out of phase. Is it
correct? Explain.
Since this is a series circuit, the current is the same throughout the
circuit. With no circuit resistance, there is no resistive voltage, so we
simply show the current vector in red, at the reference phase angle of
0°.
We know that voltage leads current in an inductance, so we show
vL at a phase angle of +90°. We also know that voltage lags current in
a capacitance, so we show vC at -90°. Therefore the voltage across L
and C are 180° out of phase in opposite directions
=================================================================
6. When does power factor of a series RLC circuit become maximum?
7.
Draw graphs showing the distribution of charge in a capacitor and current
through an inductor during LC oscillations with respect to time. Assume that the
charge in the capacitor is maximum initially.
When the switch is closed, the capacitor begins to discharge, producing a current
in the circuit. The current, in turn, creates a magnetic field in the inductor. The
net effect of this process is a transfer of energy from the capacitor, with its
diminishing electric field, to the inductor, with its increasing magnetic field.
The graphs show the distribution of charge and current between the capacitor
and inductor.
====================================================================================
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
38. What are the applications of series RLC resonant 45. Define Flux linkage.
circuit?  The product of magnetic flux (Φ linked with PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 RLC circuits have many applications like filter ANSWERS
each turn of the coil and the total number of turns 1. Establish the fact that the relative motin between
circuits, oscillators, voltage multipliers etc., (N) in the coil is called flux linkage (NΦ ) the coil and the magnet induces an emf in the coil of
 An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is 46. Define impedeance of RLC circuit. a closed circuit.
in the tuning circuits of radio and TV systems. To  The effective opposion by resistor, inductor and Faraday s experiment - 1 :
receive the signal of a particular station among capacitor to the circuit current in the series RLC
various broadcasting stations at different circuit is called impedance (Z)
frequencies, tuning is done. =√ + −
39. Resonance will occur only in LC circuits. Why?
 When the circuits contains both L and C, then
voltage across L and C cancel one another when
and are 180 out of phase and the circuit
becomes purely resistive.  Consider a closed circuit consisting of a coil C and
 This implies that resonance will not occur in a a galvanometer G . Initially the galvanometer
RL and RC circuits. shows no deflection.
40. Define Q - factor or quality factor.  When a bar magnet move towards the stationary
 Q - factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across coil with its north pole (N) facing the coil, there is a
L or C to the applied voltage at resonance. momentary deflection in the galvanometer. This
41. Define power in an AC circuits. indicates that an electric current is set up in the coil
 Power of a circuits is defined as the rate of  If the magnet is kept stationary inside the coil, the
consumption of electric energy in that circuit. galvanometer does not indicate deflection.
 It is the product of the voltage and current.  The bar magnet is now withdrawn from the coil, the
42. Define power factor. galvanometer again gives a momentary deflection
 Power factor cos 𝜙 of a circuit is defined as the but is opposite direction. This indicates current
cosine of the angle of lead or lag flows in opposite direction.
 Power factor is also defined as the ratio of true  Now if the magnet is moved faster, it gives a larger
power to the apparent power. deflection due to a greater current in the circuit.
43. Define wattles current.  The bar magnet is reversed (i.e.) the south pole now
 If the power consumed by an AC circuit is zero, faces the coil and the experiment is repeated, same
then the current in that circuit is said to be results are obtained but the directions of deflection
wattless current. get reversed.
 This wattles current happens in a purely inductive  Simillarly if the magnet is kept stationary and the
or capacitive circuit. coil moved towards or away from the coil, similar
44. What are called LC oscillations? results are obtained.
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a  Thus the above experiments concluded that,
pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of whenever there is a relative motion between the
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth coil and the magnet, ther is a deflection in the
between the magnetic field of the inductor and the galvanometer, indicating the electric current set up
electric field of the capacitor. in the coil.
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite
frequency are generated. These oscillations are
called LC oscillations.
2. Prove that experimentaly if the current in a one 
At the same time, when they recede away from  The negative sign in the above equation gives the
closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in one another, the magnetic flux linked with the coil direction of the induced current
another circuit. decreases. The decrease in magnetic flux again  If a coil consisting of N turns, then
Faraday s experiment - 2 : induces an emf in opposite direction and hence an 𝚽 𝚽
electric current flows in opposite direction. 𝝐= − = −
 So there is deflection in the galvanometer, when  Here N Φ is called flux linkage.
there is a relative motion between the coil and the 5. Give an illustration of determining direction of
magnet. induced current by using Lenz s law.
Experiment - 2 : Explanation of Lenz s law :
 In the second experiment, when the primary coil
P carries an electric current, a magnetic field is
established around it. The magnetic lines of this
field pass through itself and the neighbouring
secondary coil S
 Consider a closed circuit called primary consisting
 When the primary circuit is open, no current flows
of coil P , a battery B and a key K
in it and hence the magnetic flux linked with
 Consider an another closed circuit called secondary
secondary coil is zero
consisting of coil S and a galvanometer G
 When the primary circuit is closed, the increasing  Let a bar magnet move towards the solenoid with
 Here the two coils P and S are kept at rest in
current increases the magnetic flux linked with its north pole pointing the solenoid.
close proximity with respect to one another.
primary as well as secondary coil. This increasing  This motion increases the magnetic flux linked
 When the primary circuit is closed, current starts
flux induces a current in the secondary coil. with the solenoid and hence an electric current is
flowing in this circuit. At this time, the
 When the current in the primary coil reaches a induced. Due to the flow of induced current, the
galvanometer gives a momentary deflection. After
steady value, the magnetic flux linked with the coil become a magnetic dipole whose two
that, when current reaches a steady value, no
secondary coil does not change and the current in magnetic poles are on either end of the coil.
deflection is observed in the galvanometer.
it will disappear.  Here the cause producing the induced current is
 Similarly, if the primary circuit is broken, current
 Similarly, when the primary circuit is broken, the the movement of the magnet.
starts decreasing and there is again a momentary
decreasing current induces an electric current in  According to Lenz s law, the induced current
deflection but in the opposite direction. When
the secondary coil, but in opposite direction. should flow in such a way that it opposed the
current becomes zero, the galvanometer shows no
 So there is a deflection in the galvanometer, movement of the north pole towards coil.
deflection.
whenever there is a change in the primary current.  It is possible if the end nearer to the magnet
 From the above observations, it is concluded that
4. State and explain Faraday s laws of becomes north pole. Then it repels the north pole
whenever the electric current in the primary
electromagnetic induction. of the bar magnet and opposed the movement of
changes, the galvanometer in secondary shows a
Faraday s first law : the magnet.
deflection.
 Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed  Once pole end are known, the direction of the
3. How we understood the conclusions obtained from
circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit. induced current could be found by using right
Faraday s experiment.
Faraday s experiment - Explanation :  The induced emf lasts so long as the change in hand thumb rule.
Experiment - 1 : magnetic flux continues.  Whwn the bar magnet is with drawn, the nearer
Faraday’s second law : end becomes south pole which attracts north pole
 In the first experiment, when a bar magnet is
placed close to a coil, then there is some magnetic  The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is of the bar magnet, opposing the receding of the
flux linked with the coil. equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux magnet.
 When the barmagneti and coil approach each
linked with the circuit.  Thus the direction of the induced current can be
other, the magnetic flux linked with the coil  If magnetic flux linked with the coil changes by found from Lenz s law.
Φ in time , then the induced emf is given by, 6. Show that Lenz s law is in accordance with the law of
increases and this increase in magnetic flux
Φ conservation of energy.
induces an emf and hence a transient current 𝜖= −
flows in one direction. Conservation of energy - Lenz s law :
 According to Lenz s law, when a magnet is moved  Due to this force, all the free electrons are  According to Faraday s law, current is induced in
either towards or away from a coil, the induced accumulate at the end A which produces the the loop which flows in a direction so as to oppose
current produced opposes its motion. potential difference across the rod which inturn the pul of the loop.
 As a result, there will always be a resisting force establishes an electric field ⃗⃗⃗ directed along BA  Let be the length of the loop which is still
on the moving magnet. So work has to be done by  Due to the electric field, the Coulomb force starts within the magnetic field, then its area =
some external agency to move the magnet against acting on the free electron along AB and it is given  Then the magnetic flux linked with the loop is,
this resistive force. by, Φ = ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ cos ° = =
 Here the mechanical energy of the moving magnet ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 = − ⃗⃗⃗ −−−−−
is converted into the electrical energy which  At equilibrium, |⃗⃗⃗ | = |⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 |  As this magnetic flux decreases, the magnitude of
inturn gets converted in to Joule heat in the coil. the induced emf is given by,
(i.e) energy is conserved from one form to another |− (⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ )| = |− ⃗⃗⃗ | Φ
sin ° = ∈= = =
 On the contrary to Lenz s law, let us assume that
the induced current helps the cause responsible = − − − − ∈= −−−−−
for its production.  The potential difference between two ends of the  This emf is known as motional emf, since it is
 If we push the magnet little bit towards the coil, rod is , produced due to the movement of the loop in the
the induced current helps the movement of the = = magnetic field.
magnet towards the coil.  Thus the Lorentz force on the free electrons is  From Lenz s law, it is found that the induced
 Then the magnet starts moving towards the coil responsible to maintain this potential difference current flows in clockwise direction.
without any expense of energy, which is and hence produces an emf 9. Explain energy conservation.
impossible in practice. 𝝐= −−−− Energy conservation :
 Therefore the assumption that the induced current  Since this emf is produced due to the movement of
helps the cause is wrong. the rod, it is often called as motional emf.
7. Obtain an expression for motional emf from 8. Obtain an expression for motional emf from
Lorentz force. Faraday s law.
Motional emf from Lorentz force: Motional emf from Faraday s law :
 Let a loop placed in a magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ is pulled

with a constant velocity ⃗⃗⃗ towards right side.
 Due to this movement, the loop experiences
 Consider a straight conductor rod AB of length magnetic forces.
in a uniform magnetic field ⃗ which is directed  Let ⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗ forces acting on the three segments
perpendicularly in to plane of the paper.  Consider a rectangular loop of width in a
of the loop
 Let the rod move with a constant velocity uniform magnetic field ⃗ which is directed
 Here ⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗ are equal in magnitude and
⃗⃗⃗ towards right side. perpendicularly in to plane of the paper.
opposite in direction and cancel each other.
 When the rod moves, the free electrons present in  A part of the loop is in the magnetic field, while
Therefore the force ⃗⃗⃗ alone acts on the left
it also move with same velocity ⃗⃗⃗ in ⃗ the remaining part is outside the field.
segment towards left side which is given by,
 As a result, the Lorentz forec acts on free electron  If the loop is pulled with a constant velocity
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖 ⃗ ⃗
in the direction from B to A and it is given by, ⃗⃗⃗ towards right side, then the magnetic flux
=𝑖 sin ° = 𝑖 −−
⃗⃗⃗ = − (⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ) − − − − linked with the loop will decrease.
 In order to move the loop a constant force ⃗⃗⃗ is  When the electro magnet is switched on, and the 𝚽
=
applied which is equal to the magnetic force ⃗⃗⃗ . pendulum is made to oscillate, it comes to rest 𝒊
within a few oscillations. Because eddy currents  Where, L  constant called coefficient of self
So ⃗⃗⃗ = − ⃗⃗⃗
are produced in it and it will oppose the induction (or) self inductance
 In magnitude,
∈ oscillations Lenz s law  When the current (𝑖) changes with time, an emf is
= =𝑖 = =  However some slots are cut in the disc, the eddy induced in the coil and it is given by,
currents are reduced and now the pendulum NΦ 𝑖 𝒊
∈= − = − = −
𝑭= −−−− executes several oscillations before coming to rest.
 This clearly demonstrates the production of eddy ∈
Where, R  resistance of the loop = − −−−−
current in the disc of the pendulum. 𝒊
∈  emf
 The rate at which the mechanical work is done to 11. What are the drawbacks of Eddy currents. How it Coefficient of self induction - Definition :
is minimized?
pull the loop (i.e.) the power is
Drawbacks of Eddy currents :  Self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux
= ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = cos ° = linkage of the coil, when 1 A current flows through
 When eddy currents flow in the conductor, a large
it.
= [ ] amout of energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
 Self inductance of a coil is also defined as the
 The energy loss due to flow of eddy current is
opposing emf induced in the coil, when the rate of
= −−−− inevitable but it can be reduced.
change of current through the coil is 1 A s-1
 To reduce eddy current losses, the core of the
 When the induced current flows in the loop, Joule 13. How will you define the unit of inductance?
transformer is made up of thin laminas insulated
heating takes place. The rate at which thermal Unit of inductance :
from one another. In case of electric motor the −
energy (i.e.) power dissipated in the loop is,  Inductance is a scalar and its unit is (or)
winding is made up of a group of wire insulated =
∈ from one another. (or) henry (H)
= 𝑖 = [ ] = [ ]  It dimension is [ − −
]
 The insulation used does not allow huge eddy
currents to flow and hence losses are minimized. Definition - 1 :
= −−−−− 𝚽
12. Explain self induction and define coefficient of self  The self inductance is given by, =
𝒊
 Thus equation (3) and (4) are same. (i.e.) the induction on the basis of (1) magnetic flux and  The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current
mechanical work done in moving the loop appears (2) induced emf of 1 A produces unit fux linkage in the coil.
as thermal energy in the loop. Self induction : Definition - 2 :
∈
10. Define eddy currents. Demonstrate the production  The self inductance is given by, = − 𝒊
of eddy currents.
Eddy currents:  The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current
−
 When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the changing at the rate of induces an
form of a sheet or a plate changes, an emf is opposing emf of 1 V in it.
induced. 14. Discuss the physical significance of inductance.
 As a result, the induced current flow in concentric Physical inductance of inductance :
circular paths which resembles eddies of water.
Hence these are known as Eddy currents or  When an electric current flowing through a coil
Foucault currents. changes, an emf is induced in the same coil. This
Demonstration : phemomenon is known as self induction. The emf
 Let a pendulum that can be freely suspended induced is called self-induced emf.
between the poles of a powerful electromagnet.  Let Φ be the magnetic flux linked with each turn
 Keeping the magnetic field switched off, If the of the coil of turn N , then total flux linkage ( Φ
pendulum is made to oscillate, it executes a large is directly proportional to the current 𝑖
number of oscillations before stops. Here air NΦ ∝ 𝑖 NΦ = 𝑖  Generally inertia means opposition to change the
friction is a only damping force. state of the body.
 In translational motion, mass is a measure of  Let L be the self inductance of the solenoid, then 17. Explain mutual induction. Define coefficient of
inertia, whereas in rotational motion, moment of Φ 𝜇 𝑖 mutual induction on the basis of (1) magnetic flux
inertia is a measure of rotational inertia. = = and (2) induced emf
𝑖 𝑖
 Simillarly inductance plays the same role in a = 𝝁 Mutual induction :
circuit as the mass and moment of inertia play in  If the solenoid is filled with a dielectric medium of
mechanical motion. relative permeability 𝜇 , then
 When a ciruit is switched on, the increasing = 𝝁 𝝁 = 𝝁
current induces an emf which opposes the growth  Thus, the inductance depens on
of current in a circuit. (i) geomentry of the solenoid
 Similllarly, when a circuit is broken, the decreaing (ii) medium present inside the solenoid
current induces an emf in the reverese direction 16. An inductor of inductance L carries an electric  When an electric current passing through a coil
which opposed the decay of the current. current 𝒊 . How much energy is stored while changes with time, an emf is induced in the
 Thus inductance on the coil opposes any change in establishing the current in it? neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as
current and tries to maintain the original state. Energy stored in an solenoid : mutual induction and the emf is called mutually
15. Assuming that the length of the solenoid is large  Whenever a current is established in the circuit, induced emf.
when compared to its diameter, find the equation the inductance opposes the growth of the current.  Consider two coils 1 and 2 which are placed close
for its inductance.  To establish the current, work has to done against to each other. If an electric current 𝑖 is sent
Self inductance of a long solenoid (L) : this opposition. This work done is stored as through coil -1, the magnetic field produced by it
magnetic potential energy. also linked with the coil -2
 Consider an inductor of negligible resistance, the  Let Φ be the magnetic flux linked with each
induced emf ∈ at any instant t is turn of the coil-2 of turns due to coil -1, then
𝑖 the total flux linked with coil -2 is proportional to
∈ = −
the current 𝑖 in the coil -`1 (i.e.)
 Let dW be the workdone in moving a charge dq Φ ∝ 𝑖 Φ = 𝑖
in a time dt against the opposition, then 𝚽
= −∈ = −∈𝑖 = −−−−
𝑖 𝒊
 Consider a long solenoid of length , area of cross = − [− ]𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑖  Here → constant called coefficient of mutual
section A having N number of turns  Total wor done in establishing the current 𝑖 is induction or mutual inductance coil -2
 Let be number of turns per unit length (i.e.) 𝑖 with respect to coil -1
𝑖  When the current 𝑖 changes with time, an emf
turn density = ∫ = ∫ 𝑖 𝑖 = [ ] = 𝑖
 When an electric current 𝑖 is passed through the ∈ is induced in coil -2 and it is given by,
coil, a magnetic field at any point inside the  This work done is stored as magnetic potential Φ 𝑖 𝑖
∈ = − = − = −
solenoid is, energy. (i.e)
∈
= 𝜇 𝑖 = 𝒊 = − −−−−
𝒊
 Due to this field, the magnetic flux linked with the
solenoid is,  The energy stored per unit volume of the space is
called energy density ( ) and it is given by,  Simillarly,
Φ = ∮ . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ cos ° = 𝚽
𝑖 𝜇 𝑖 = −−−−
= = = 𝒊
Φ = [𝜇 𝑖] ∈
 Hence the total magnetic flux linked (i.e.) flux & = − −−−−
𝝁 𝒊 𝒊
linkage =
Φ = 𝜇 𝑖 = 𝜇 𝑖  Here → constant called coefficient of mutual
𝚽 = 𝝁 𝒊 = [ = 𝜇 𝑖] induction or mutual inductance coil -2
𝝁
with respect to coil -1
Coefficient of mutual induction - Definition :  Simillarly, Let 𝑖 be the current flowing through  As the rod moves from AB to DC in a time dt , the
 The mutual inductance is defined as the flux solenoid -2, then the magnetic field produced area enclosed by the loop and hence the magnetic
linkage of the one coil, when 1 A current flow inside it is, flux through the loop decreases.
through other coil. = 𝜇 𝑖  The change in magnetic flux in time dt is
 Mutual inductance is also the opposing emf  Hence the magnetic flux linked with each turn of Φ = =
induced in one coil, when the rate of change of solenoid -1 due to solenoid -2 is Φ
current through other coil is − =
Φ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ cos ° =
18. Show that the mutual inductance between a pair of  This change in magnetic flux results and induced
coils is same ( = ) Φ = 𝜇 𝑖 emf and it is given by,
Mutual inductance between a pair of coils :  Then total flux linkage of solenoid -1 of turns is Φ
Φ = 𝜇 𝑖 ∈=
Φ = 𝜇 𝑖 −−−− ∈=
 So the mutual inductance of solenoid -1 with  This emf is called motional emf. The direction of
respect to solenoid -2 is given by, induced current is found to be clock wise from
Φ 𝜇 𝑖 Fleming s right hand rule.
= =
𝑖 𝑖 20. What are the advantages of stationary armature -
= 𝝁 −−−− rotating field alternator?
 From equation (2) and (4), = Advantages of stationary armature - rotating field
 In general, the mutual inductance between two alternator :
long co-axial solenoids is given by  The current is drawn directly from fixed terminals
= 𝝁 on the stator without the use of brush contacts.
 Consider two long co-axial solenoids of same  If the solenoid is filled with a dielectric medium of  The insulation of stationary armature winding is
length relative permeability 𝜇 , then easier.
 Let and be the area of cross section of the = 𝝁 𝝁 = 𝝁  The number of slip rings is reduced. Moreover the
solenoids. Here >  Thus, the inductance depens on sliding contacts are used for low-voltage DC
 Let the turn density of these solenoids are (i) geomentry of the solenoids source.
and resectively. (ii) medium present inside the solenoids  Armature windings can be constructed more
 Let 𝑖 be the current flowing through solenoid -1, (iii) proximity of the two soienoids rigidly to prevent deformation due to any
then the magnetic field produced inside it is, 19. How will you induce an emf by changing the area mechanical stress.
= 𝜇 𝑖 enclosed by the coil. 21. Explain various energy losses in a transformer.
 Hence the magnetic flux linked with each turn of EMF induced by changing area enclosed by the coil Energy losses in a transformer :
solenoid -2 due to solenoid -1 is (i) Core loss or Iron loss :
Φ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ cos ° =  Hysterisis loss and eddy current loss are
known as core loss or Iron loss.
Φ = 𝜇 𝑖  When transformer core is magnetized or
 Then total flux linkage of solenoid -2 of turns is demangnetized repeatedly by the alternating
Φ = 𝜇 𝑖 voltage applied across primary coil, hyterisis
Φ = 𝜇 𝑖 −−−− takes place and some energy lost in the form
 So the mutual inductance of solenoid -2 with of heat. It is minimized by using silicone steel
respect to solenoid -1 is given by,  Consider a conducting rod of length moving in making transformer core.
Φ 𝜇 𝑖 
= = with a velocity towards left on a rectangular Alternating magnetic flux in the core induces
𝑖 𝑖 metallic frame work. eddy currents in it. Therefore there is energy
= 𝝁 −−−−  The whole arangemetn is placed in a uniform loss due to the flow of eddy current called
magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ acting perpendicular to the eddy current loss. It is minimized by using
plane of the coil inwards. very thin laminations of transformer core.
(ii) Copper loss : (ii) = , = Ω, = , then  Then Average value of AC,
 The primary and secondary coils in 6 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ −
𝐼 = = = 𝐼 =
transformer have electrical resistance. ℎ ℎ −
 When an electric current flows through them, Power loss = 𝐼 = = . 6
𝐈 = = .
some amount of energy is dissipated due to . 6 𝝅
Joule s heating and it is known as copper loss. % = 6
= . = . %  For negative half-cycle ; 𝐈 = − .
It is minimized by using wires of larger 24. Obtain an expression for RMS value of alternating
diameter (thicki wire)  Thus it is clear that, when an electric power is
current.
(iii) Flux leakage : transmitted at high voltage, the power loss is
RMS value of AC (𝐼 ):
 The magnetic flux linked with primary coil is reduced to a large extent.
 The root mean squae value of an alternating
not completely linked with secondary.  So at transmitting point the voltage is increased
current is defined as the square root of the mean
Energy loss due to this flux leakage is and the corresponding current is decreased by
of the squares of all currents over one cycle.
minimize by winding coils one over the using step-up transformer. At receiving point, the
Expression :
other. voltage is decreased and the current is increased
22. Discuss the advantages of AC in long distance by using step-down transformer
power transmission. 23. Obtain the expression for average value of
Long distance power transmission : alternating current.
 The electric power is generated in power stations Average or Mean value of AC :
using AC generators are transmitted over long  The average value of AC is defined as the average
distances through transmission lines to reach of all values of current over a positive half-cycle or
towns or cities. This process is called power negative half-cycle.
Expression :  The alternating current at any instant is
transmission. 𝑖 = 𝐼 sin 𝜔 = 𝐼 sin
 But during power transmission, due to Joules s  The sum of the squares of all currents over one
heating ((𝐼 ) in the transmission lines, sizable cycle is given by the area of one cycle of squared
fraction of electric power is lost. wave.
 This power loss can be reduced either by reducing  Consider an elementary area of thickness in
current (I) or by reducing resistance (R) the first half-cycle of the squared current wave.
 Here the resistance R can be reduced with thick Area of the element = 𝑖
wires of copper or aluminium. But this increases  Area of one cycle of squared wave,
the cost of production of transmission lines and  The average or mean value of AC over one 𝜋
𝜋
hence this method is not economically viable. complete cycle is zero. Thus the average or mean
= ∫𝑖 = ∫ 𝐼 sin
 Thus by using transformer, the current is value is measured over one half of a cycle.
 The alternating current at any instant is 𝜋
reduced by stepped up the alternating voltage − cos
and thereby reducing power losses to a 𝑖 = 𝐼 sin 𝜔 = 𝐼 sin = 𝐼 ∫ [ ]
greater extent.  The sum of all currents over a half-cycle is given
by area of positive half-cycle (or) negative half- [ cos = − sin ]
Illustration : 𝜋 𝜋
cycle. 𝐼
 Let an electric power of 2 MW is transmitted = [∫ − ∫ cos ]
through the transmission lines of resistance  Consider an elementary strip of thickness in
𝜋
Ω at and positive half-cycle, 𝐼 sin
Area of the elementary strip = 𝑖 = [ − ]
(i) = , = Ω, = , then
6  Then area of positive half-cycle, 𝐼 sin 𝜋 sin
𝐼= = = 𝜋
𝜋 = [ 𝜋− − + ]
Power loss = 𝐼 = = . 6 = ∫𝑖 = ∫ 𝐼 sin = 𝐼 [− cos ]𝜋 [ sin = sin 𝜋 = ]
6
. 𝐼
% of Power loss = 6
= . = % = − 𝐼 [cos 𝜋 − cos ] = − 𝐼 [− − ] = 𝐼 = [ 𝜋] = 𝐼 𝜋
 Hence,  Let a pure resistor of resistance R connected  The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage
across an alternating voltage source is given by,
𝐼 = √  The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage = sin 𝜔 −−−−
ℎ is given by,  Let 𝑖 be the alternating current flowing in the
= sin 𝜔 −−−− circuit due to this voltage, which induces a self
𝐼 𝜋 𝐼
I M = √ = √  Let 𝑖 be the alternating current flowing in the induced emf (back emf across L and it is given by
𝜋 circuit due to this voltage, then the potential drop 𝑖
∈= − −−−−
across R is
𝐈 = = .
√ =𝑖 −−−−  From Kirchoff s loop rule, − −∈ =
 Simillarly for alternating voltage, it can be shown  From Kirchoff s loop rule, − = = −∈
that, = 𝑖
sin 𝜔 = − (− )
sin 𝜔 = 𝑖
𝐕 = = . 𝑖
√ 𝑖= sin 𝜔 sin 𝜔 =
 RMS value of AC is also called effective value (𝐼 )
𝒊 = 𝐢 𝝎 −−−−
25. Draw the phasor diagram and wave diagram for 𝑉𝑚 𝑖= sin 𝜔
that current 𝒊 leads the voltage V by phase angle Here, = 𝐼 → Peak value of AC
 Integrate on both sides,
of 𝝓  From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that, the
Phasor and wave diagram of 𝒊 leads V by 𝝓 applied voltage and the current are in phase with 𝑖= ∫ sin 𝜔
 Let the alternating current and voltage at any each other. This is indicated in the phasor and − cos 𝜔 𝜋
instant is, wave diagram. 𝑖= ( )= [− sin − 𝜔 ]
= sin 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼 sin 𝜔 + 𝜙 𝑖= sin 𝜔 −
𝜔
𝝅
𝒊= 𝐢 𝝎 − −−−−
𝑉𝑚
Where, = 𝐼 → peak value of AC
𝜔
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current
𝝅
lags behind the applied voltage by . This is
indicated in the phasor and wave diagram.
27. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage

and current in a pure inductive circuit.
26. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage AC circuit containing pure inductor:
and current in a pure resistive circuit.
AC circuit containing pure resistor :
Inductive reactance ( ) :
 In pure inductive circuit, 𝜔 is the resistance
 Let a pure inductor of inductance L connected offered by the inductor and it is called inductive
across an alternating voltage source reactance ( ). Its unit is ohm (𝜴)
= 𝝎 = 𝝅
28. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage Capacitive reactance ( ) : resistance, smaller the current with flat curve is
and current in a pure capacitive circuit.  In pure capacitive circuit, ⁄𝜔 is the resistance obtained.
AC circuit containing pure capacitor : offered by the capacitor and it is called capacitive
reactance ( ). Its unit is ohm (𝜴)
= =
𝝎 𝝅
29. Explain resonance in series RLC circiuit.
Resonance on series in RLC circuit :
 When the frequency of applied alternating source
 Let a pure capacitor of capacitance C connected is increases, the inductive reactance ( )
across an alternating voltage source increases, where as capacitive reactance ( )
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage decreases. 30. Define quality factor. Obtain an expression for it.
is given by, Definition :
= sin 𝜔 −−−−  At particular frequency (𝜔 ), =
 Q - factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across
 Let be the instantaneous charge on the  At this stage, the frequency of applied source (𝜔 ) L (or) C to the applied voltage at resonance.
capacitor. The emf across the capacitor at that is equal to the natural frequency of the RLC circuit, Expression :
instant is, the current in the circuit reaches its maximum  The current in the series RLc circuit becomes
∈= −−−− value. maximum at resonance.
 Then the circuit is said to be in electrical  Due to the increase in current, the voltage across
 From Kirchoff s loop rule, − ∈= L and C are also increased,
resonance. The frequency at which resonance
= ∈
takes place is called resonant frequency.  This magnification of voltages at series resonance is
sin 𝜔 =  Thus at resonance, termed as Q - factor.
= sin 𝜔 =  By definition,
 By the definition of current, 𝜔 = − =
sin 𝜔 𝜔 𝑖
𝑖= = = cos 𝜔 𝜔 𝐼 𝜔
𝜔 = − = = =
𝜋 𝜋 𝐼
𝑖= 𝜔 sin + 𝜔 = sin + 𝜔  Hence the resonant angular frequency,
( ⁄𝜔 ) − =
𝝅 𝜔 = √
𝒊= 𝐢 𝝎 +− −−−− √
where,
𝑉𝑚
= 𝐼 → Peak value of AC  And resonant frequency, − = √
( ⁄𝜔 )
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current =
𝝅 𝜋√  The physical meaning is that Q - factor indicates
leads the applied voltage by . This is indicated in Effects of series resonance : the number of times the voltage across L (or) C is
the phasor and wave diagram.  When series resonance occurs, the impedance of greaterthan the applied voltage at resonance.
the circuit is minimum and is equal to the 31. Obtain an expression for average power of AC over
resistance of the circuit. So the current in the a cycle. Discuss its special cases.
circuit becomes maximum. Average power of AC :
𝑉
 (i.e.) At resonance, Z = R & 𝐼 = 𝑚  Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of
 The maximum current at resonance depends on consumption. It is given by the product of the
the value of resistance (R) voltage and current.
 For smaller resistance, larger the current with  The alternating voltage and alternating current in
sharper curve is obtained. But for larger the series RLC circuit at an instance are given by,
= sin 𝜔
𝑖 = 𝐼 sin 𝜔 + 𝜙
 Then the instantaneous power is given by, 33. Define power factor in various ways. Give some Case (ii) :
= 𝑖= sin 𝜔 𝐼 sin 𝜔 + 𝜙 examples for power factor.  When charge = ; Current « 𝑖 = 𝐼 , the total
= 𝐼 sin 𝜔 sin 𝜔 cos 𝜙 − cos 𝜔 sin 𝜙 Power factor - Definitions : energy,
= 𝐼 𝑖 𝜔 cos 𝜙 − sin 𝜔 cos 𝜔 sin 𝜙 (i) The cosine of the angle lead or lag is called power
factor (power factor = = cos 𝜙 = + 𝐼 = 𝐼
 Here the average of 𝑖 𝜔 over a cycle is and
𝑖
that of sin 𝜔 cos 𝜔 is zero. (ii) Power factor = = [ 𝑖=− =− cos 𝜔 = 𝜔 sin 𝜔 = 𝐼 sin 𝜔 ]
𝐼
 Thus average power over a cycle is, 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙
= 𝑚
𝐼
(iii) Power factor =
𝑉𝐼  Hence, 𝐼 = 𝜔=
√
= 𝐼 ( cos 𝜙) = cos 𝜙 Examples :
√ √ = [ ] = −−−−
= 𝐜 𝝓  For purely resistive circuit, 𝜙 = and cos 𝜙 =
Where, 𝐼 → apparent power  For purely inductive or capacitive circuit,  Here the total energy is wholly magnetic
𝜋
cos 𝜙 → power factor 𝜙=± and cos 𝜙 = Case (iii) :
Special cases :  For RLC circuit, power factor lies between 0 and 1  When charge = , Current = 𝑖, then the total
(i) For purely resistive circuit, 𝜙 = and cos 𝜙 = 34. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC energy,
= over DC?
(ii) For purely inductive or capacitive circuit, Advantages of AC over DC : = + 𝑖
𝜋
𝜙=± and cos 𝜙 = . =  The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC  Here, = cos 𝜔 & 𝑖= 𝜔 sin 𝜔 . So
− 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶  When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the 𝜔
(iii) For series RLC circuit, 𝜙 = tan [ ] = + 𝜔 sin 𝜔
transmission losses are small compared to DC
= 𝐜 𝝓 transmission.  Since, 𝜔 =
(iv) For series RLC circuit at resonance, 𝜙 = and  AC can easily be converted into DC with the help
𝜔 sin 𝜔
cos 𝜙 = . = of rectifier. = +
32. Write a note on wattful current and wattles current. Disadvantages of AC over DC :
Wattful current and Wattless current :  Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain = 𝜔 + sin 𝜔 = −−−
application. (e.g) charging of batteries,
 From equation (1), (2) and (3) it is clear that the
electroplating, electric traction etc.,
total energy of the system remains constant
 At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work
with AC than DC.
35. Show that the total energy is conserved during LC
 Consider an AC circuit in which the voltage oscillations.
( ) leads the current ( by phase angle 𝜙 Conservation of energy LC oscillations :
 Resolve the current in to two perpendicular  During LC oscillations, the energy of the system
components, oscillates between the electric field of the
(i) 𝝓 - Component along capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor.
(ii) 𝒊 - Component perpendicular to  Although these two energies vary with time, the
 Here the component of current ( 𝝓) which total energy remains constant. (i.e)
is inphase with the voltage is called ative = 𝐸 + = + 𝑖 =
component. The power consumed by this
component = 𝝓 . It is known as Case (i) :
wattfull current  When the charge of in the ccapacitor ; =
 The other component of current which has a phase and the current through the inducor ; 𝑖 =
angle of with the voltage is called reactive = + = −−−−
component. The power consumed by this current is
zero. It is known as wattles current.  The total energy is wholly electrical.
Electro magnetic damping :
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ∈= − Φ = − Φ cos 𝜔
 The armature of the galvanometer coil is wound
1.ANSWERS
Explain the applications of eddy currents (or) on a soft irom cylinder. = − Φ − sin 𝜔 𝜔
Focault currents.  Once the armature is deflected, the relative motion ∈ = 𝚽 𝝎 𝐢 𝝎 −−−−−
Induction stove : between the soft irom cylinder and the radial  When = °, then the induced emf becomes
 It is used to cook food quickly and safely with less magnetic field induces eddy current in the maximum and it is given by,
consumption. Below the cooking zone, there is a cylinder. ∈ = 𝚽 𝝎= 𝝎 −−−−−
tightly woind coil of insulated wire.  The damping force due to the flow of eddy current  Therefore the value of induced emf at that instant
 A suitable cooking pan is placing over the cooking brings the armature to rest immediately and the is then given by,
zone. galvanometer shows a steady deflection. ∈ = ∈ 𝐢 𝝎 −−−−−
 When the stove is switched on, an AC flowing in  This is called electromagnetic damping.  Thus the induced emf varies as sine function of the
the coil produces high frequency alternating 2. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a time angle and this is called sinusoidal emf or
magnetic field which induces very strong eddy magnetic field over one rotation induces an alternating emf.
currents in the cooking pan. alternating emf of one cycle.  If this alternating voltage is given to a closed
 The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of Induction of emf by changing relative orientation circuit, a sinusoidally varying current flows in it.
heat due to Joule heating which is used to cook the of the coil with the magnetic field : This current is called alternating current an is
food. given by,
Eddy current brake : 𝒊= 𝐢 𝝎 −−−−−
 This types of brakes are generally used in high  where, → peak value of induced current
speed trains and roller coasters. 3. Elaborate the standard construction details of AC
 Strong electromagnets are fixed just above the generator.
rails.To stop the train, electromagnets are swiched AC generator - construction :
on. The magnetic field of these magnets induces  AC generator (alternator) is an energy conversion
eddy currents in the rails which oppose the device. It converts mechanical energy used to
movement of the train. This is eddy current linear rotate the coil or field magnet in to electrical
brake. energy.
 In some cases, the circular disc connected in train  It works on the principle of electromagnetic
is made to rotate in between the pole of a induction.
electromagnet. When there is a relative motion  It consists of two major parts stator and rotor.
between the disc and the magnet, eddy currents  In commercial alternators, the armature winding
are induced in the disc which stop the train. Ths is is mounted on stator and the field magnet on rotor
eddy current circular brake. Stator : It has three components
Eddy current testing : (i) Stator frame :
 It is one of the non - destructive testing methods to  Consider a rectangular coil of N turns kept in a  It is used for holding stator core and armature
find defects like surface craks, air bubbles present uniform magnetic field B windings in proper position.
in a specimen.  The coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction with an  It provides best ventilation with the help of
 A coil of insulated wire is given an alternating angular velocity 𝜔 about an axis. holes provided in the frame itself.
electric current, so that it produces an alternating  Initially let the plane of the coil be perpendicular (ii) Stator core (Armature) :
magnetic field. to the field = and the flux linked with the  It is made up of iron or steel alloy.
 When this coil is brought near the test surface, coil has its maximum value. (i.e.) Φ =  It is a hollo cylinder and is laminated to
eddy current is induced in it, and the presence of  In time t , let the coil be rotated through an angle minimize eddy current loss.
defects caused the change in phase and amplitude = 𝜔 , then the total flux linked is  The slots are cut on inner surface of the core
of the eddy current. Φ = cos 𝜔 = Φ cos 𝜔 to accommodate armature windings.
 Thus the defects present in the specimen are  According to Faraday s law, the emf induced at (iii) Armature windings :
identified. that instant is,
 It the coil wound on slots provided in the  When the field magnet rotates through 90, the
armature core. magnetic field becomes parallel to PQRS. The
 One or more than one coil may be employed, induced emf s across PQ and RS would become
depending on the type of alternator. maximum. According to Flemming s right hand
 Two types of windings are commonly used rule, the direction of induced emf for PQ is
and they are single-layer winding and downwards and for RS is upwards. Therefore the
double-layer winding. current flows along PQRS. The point A in the graph
Rotar : represents this maximum emf.
 It consists magnetic field windings  When field magnet rotates 180, the field is again
 The magnetic poles are magnetized bhy DC source perpendicular to PQRS and the induced emf
 The ends of field windings are connected to a pair becomes zero. This is represented by point B
of slip rings, attached to a common shaft about  When field magnet rotates 270, the field is again
which rotor rotates. Slip rings rotate along with Principle : parallel to PQRS, the induced emf is maximum but
rotor.  Electro magnetic induction the direction is reversed. Thus the current flows
 To maintain connection between the DC source Construction : along SRQP. This is represented by point C.
and field windings, two brushed are used which  Consider a stator core consisting of 2 slots in  On completion of 360, the induced emf becomes
continuously slide over the slip rings which 2 armature conductor PQ and RS are zero and it is represented by the point D.
 There are two types, namely mounted to form single - turn rectangular loop  From the graph, it is clear that, when field magnet
(i) Salient pole rotor : PQRS completes one rotation, the emf induced in PQRS is
 The word salient means projecting.  Rotor has 2 salient poles with field windings which
alternating in nature.
 This rotor has a number of projecting can be magnetized by means of DC source. 5. How are the three different emfs generated in a
poles having their bases riveted to the Working : three-phase AC generator? Show the graphical
rotor. representation of these three emfs.
 It is mainly used in low-speed alternators Three phase AC generator :
(ii) Cylindrical pole rotor :
 This rotor consists of a smooth solid
cylinder. The slots are cut on the outer
surface of the cylinder along its length.
 It is suitable for very high speed
alternators.
 The frequency of alternating emf induced
is directly proportional to the rotor speed.
In order to maintain the frequency
constant, the rotor run at a constant
speed.  If the AC generator consists three separate coils,
4. Explain the working of a single - phase AC which would give three separate emfs, then it is
generator with necessary diagram.  The loop PQRS is stationary and is perpendicular called three-phase generators.
Single phase AC generator : to the plane of the paper. Construction :
 In a single phase AC generator, the armature  Assume the initial position of the field magnet is  It has 6 slots, cut in its inner rim. Each slot is 60
conductors are connected in series so as to form a horizontal. At that instant, the direction of away from one another. six armature conductors
single circuit which generates a single-phase magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the are mounted in these slots.
alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase loop PQRS. The induced emf is zero. It is  The conductors 1 - 4, 2 - 5 and 3 - 6 are joined in
alternator. represented by origin O in the graph series to form coils 1, 2 and 3
 Let the magnetic field rotate in clock-wise  So these coils are rectangular in shape and are
direction. 120 apart from one another.
Working :  If the transformer converts an alternating current  Dividing equation (1) by (2),
with high voltage in to an alternating current with
= −−−−
low voltage, it is called step-down transformer.
Principle : Where, K  transformation ratio
 Mutual induction between two coils.  For an ideal transformer,
Construction : input power = output power
𝑖 = 𝑖
𝒊
= −−−−
𝒊
 From equation (3) and (4), we have
𝒊
= = = −−−−
𝒊
(i) If K > 1 (or) > , then > and 𝒊 < 𝒊
This is step up transformer in which voltage
increased and the corresponding current is
decreased.
 It consists of two coils of high mutual inductance (ii) If K < 1 (or) < , then < and 𝒊 > 𝒊
wound over the same transformer core made up of This is step down transformer in which voltage
silicone steel. decreased and the corresponding current is
 To avoid eddy current loss, the core is generally increased.
 The initial position of the field magnet is Efficiency of a transformer :
laminated
horizontal and field direction is perpendicular to  The efficiency ( ) of a transformer is defined as
the plane of the coil - 1.  The alternating voltage is applied across primary
coil (P), and the output is taken across secondary the ratio of the useful output power to the input
 When it rotated from that position in clock-wise power.
coil (S)
direction, alternating emf ∈ in coil - 1 begins a
cycle from origin O  The assemnbled core and coils are kept in a = %
container which is filled with suitable medium for 𝑖
 When it rotated through 120, alternating emf ∈ 7. Derive an expression for phase angle between the
better insulation and cooling purpose.
in coil - statrs at point A applied voltage and current in a series RLC circuit.
Working :
 When it rotated through 240, alternating emf ∈ Series RLC circuit :
 The alternating voltage given to the primary coil,
in coil - statrs at point B
set up an alternating magnetic flux in the
 Thus these emfs produced in the three phase AC
laminated core.
generator have 120 phase difference between one
 As the result of flux change, emf is induced in both
another.
primary and secondary coils.
6. Explain the principle , construction and working of
 The emf induced in the primary coil ∈ is almost
transformer.
equal and opposite to the applied voltage and
Transformer :
is given by,
 It is a stationary device used to transform Φ
electrical power from one circuit to another =∈ = − −−−−
without changing its frequency.
 The frequency of alternating magnetic flux is same  Consider a circuit containing a resistor of
 It is done with either increasing or decreasing the
applied alternationg voltage with corresponding
as the frequency of applied voltage. Therefore resistance R , a inductor of inductance L and a
decrease or increase of current in the circuit.
induced in secondary will also have same capacitor of capacitance C connected across an
frequency as that of applied voltage, alternating voltage source.
 If the transformer converts an alternating current
 The emf induced in the secondary coil ∈ is,  The applied alternating voltage is given by,
with low voltage in to an alternating current with Φ
high voltage, it is called step-up transformer. =∈ = − −−−− = sin 𝜔 −−−−−
 Let 𝑖 be the current in the circuit at that instant. Special cases : Stage -1 :
 Hence the voltage developed across R, L and C (i) When > , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 .  Consider the capacitor is fully charged with
=𝑖 ( 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖) It means that leads 𝒊 by 𝜙. maximum charge . So that the energy stored in
𝜋 𝒊. . = 𝐢 𝝎 & 𝒊= 𝐢 𝝎 − 𝝓 2
=𝑖 ( 𝑖 ) the capacitor is maximum (i.e.) 𝐸 = 𝑚
𝜋 This circuit is inductive.
=𝑖 ( 𝑖 )  As there is no current in the inductor, =
(ii) When < , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊 𝒊 .
 The phasor diagram is drawn by representing It means that lags behind 𝒊 by 𝜙.  Therefore the total energy is wholly electrical.
current along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒊. . = 𝐢 𝝎 & 𝒊= 𝐢 𝝎 + 𝝓 Stage - 2 :
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ This circuit is capacitive  The capacitor now begins to discharge through the
(iii) When = , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊 𝒛 . It inductor that establishes current 𝑖 clockwise
means that inphase with 𝒊 direction.
𝒊. . = 𝐢 𝝎 & 𝒊= 𝐢 𝝎  This current produces a magnetic field around the
This circuit is resistive inductor and energy stored in the inductor which
8. What are called LC oscillations? Explain the 𝑖2
is given by =
generation of LC oscilations.
LC oscillations :  As the charge in the capacitor decreases, the
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a energy stored in it also decreases and is given by
2
pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of 𝐸 =
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth
 Thus the total energy is the sum of electrical and
between the magnetic field of the inductor and the
magnetic energies.
electric field of the capacitor.
Stage - 3 :
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite
 If > , then the net voltage drop across LC  When the charge in the capacitor becomes zero, its
frequency are generated. These oscillations are
combination is − which is represented by energy becomes zero (i.e.) 𝐸 =
called LC oscillations.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗  In this stage maximum current (𝐼 ) flows through
Generation of LC oscillations :
inductor and its energy becomes maximum. (i.e.)
 By parallogram law, the diagonal ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ gives the  Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a 𝐼2
resultant voltage pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of = 𝑚
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth  Thus the total energy is wholly magnetic.
= √ + − between the magnetic field of the inductor and the Stage - 4 :
electric field of the capacitor.
= √𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑖  Eventhough the charge in the capacitor is zero, the
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite current will continue to flow in the same direction.
= 𝑖√ + − frequency are generated. These oscillations are
 Since the current flow is in decreasing magnitude,
𝑖= −−− called LC oscillations. the capacitor begins to charge in the opposite
√ + − Generation of LC - oscillations : direction.
𝒊= −−−  Thus a part of the energy is transferred from the
 Where, =√ + − is called inductor back to the capacitor. The total energy is
impedance of the circuit, which refers to the the sum of the electrical and magnetic energies.
effective opposition to the circuit current by the Stage - 5 :
series RLC circuit.  When the current in the circuit reduces to zero,
 From the phasor diagram, the phase angle the capacitor becomes fully charged in the
between and 𝑖 is found out by opposite direction.
− −  Thus the energy stored in the capacitor becomes
𝐚 𝝓= = −−− maximum and the energy stored in the inductor is
zero.
 So the total energy is wholly electrical.
Stage - 6 : Angular frequency of LC oscillations :
 This state of the circuit is similar to the initial state  The elecro magnetic energy is
but the difference is that the capacitor is charged
U= [ ] + 𝑖 =
in opposite direction. So it will starts discharge
through inductor in anti-clockwise direction.  Differentiate,
 The total energy is the sum of the the electrical 𝑖
= ( )+ ( 𝑖 )=
and magnetic energies.
Stage - 7 :
= + L [ ( )] = [ 𝑖= ]
 The processes are repeated in opposite direction
and finally the circuit returns to the initial state.
+ = −−−−−−−
 Thus when the circuit goes through these stages,
an alternating current flows in the circuit.  Its solution is, = cos 𝜔 + 𝜙
 As this process is repeated again and again, the  Differentiate with respect to t
electrical oscillations of definte frequency are 𝑖 = = [ cos 𝜔 + 𝜙 ]
generated. These are known as LC oscillations.
9. Compare the electromagnetic oscillations of LC 𝑖 =− 𝜔 sin 𝜔 + 𝜙 = − 𝐼 sin 𝜔 + 𝜙
circuit with the mechanical oscillations of block-  Again differentiate with respect ot t ,
spring system to find the expression for angular
=− 𝜔 cos 𝜔 + 𝜙 = − 𝐼 𝜔 cos 𝜔 + 𝜙
frequency of LC oscillatiors mathematically.
Analogies between LC oscillations and simple  Put this in equation (1), the angular frequency of
harmonic oscillations : LC oscillations is,
Electromagnetic
Mechanical oscilations 𝝎=
oscilations √
This circuit consists This circuit consists
inductor and capacitor spring and block
Charge q Displacement
Current 𝑖 = Velocity =
Inductance L Mass m
Reciprocal if capacitance Force constant
Electrical energy = [ ] Potential energy =
Magnetic energy = 𝑖 Kinetic energy =
Electro magnetic energy Mechanical energy
= [ ] + 𝑖 = +
CHAPTER-5-ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (BOOK BACK QUESTIONS)
1. What is Displacement current?
Displacement current can be defined as the current which comes into play in
the region in which the electric field and the electric flux are changing with time.
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2. What are electromagnetic waves?
An electromagnetic wave is radiated by an accelerated charge which propagates through
space as coupled electric and magnetic fields, oscillating perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of propagation of the wave. Electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave.
They are non-mechanical wave and do not require any medium for propagation.
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3. Write down the integral form of modified Ampere’s circuital law.
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4. Explain the concept of intensity of electromagnetic waves
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5. What is meant by Fraunhofer lines?

When the spectrum obtained from the Sun is examined, it consists of large number of
dark lines (line absorption spectrum). These dark lines in the solar spectrum are known
as Fraunhofer lines . The absorption spectra for various materials are
compared with the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, which helps in identifying
elements present in the Sun’s atmosphere.
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Extra additional 2 mark questions and answers
6. State Maxwell’s equations in integral form
1. First equation
2. Second equation
3. Third equation
4. Fouth equationDef
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7. What is emission spectra? Give their types
When the spectrum of self luminous source is taken, we get emission spectrum. Each
source has its own characteristic emission spectrum. The emission spectrum can be
divided into three types:
(i) Continuous emission spectra (or continuous spectra)
(ii) Line emission spectrum (or line spectrum):
(iii) Band emission spectrum (or band spectrum
=========================================================
8. What is absorption spectra? Give their types
When light is allowed to pass through a medium or an absorbing substance
then the spectrum obtained is known as absorption spectrum. It is the characteristic
of absorbing substance. Absorption spectrum is classified into three types:
(i) Continuous absorption spectrum
(ii) Line absorption spectrum
(iii) Band absorption spectrum
=========================================================
9. Define dispersion of light and spectrum.
we allow a beam of white light to pass through the prism, it is split into its seven
constituent colours which can be viewed on the screen as continuous spectrum. This
phenomenon is known as dispersion of light and the definite pattern of colours obtained
on the screen after dispersion is called as spectrum.
==========================================================================
PHYSICS - VOL 1 UNIT - 5
NAME :
STANDARD : 12 SECTION :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
9. Define emission spectra.
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
 The spectrum obtained from a self luminous
1. Define displacement current. source of light is called emission spectrum. 1. Discuss briefly the experiment conducted by Hertz
 The displacement current can be defined as the  Each sourch has its own characteristic emission to produce and detect electromagnetic spectrum.
current which comes into play in the region in spectrum. Hertz experiment :
which the electric field and the electric flux are 10. Define absorbtion spectra.  The theoritical prediction of existence of
changing with time  When light is allowed to pass through an electromagnetic wave by Maxwell was
 That is when ever the change in electric field takes absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained experimentally confirmed by Henrich Hertz.
place, displacement current is produced. is known as absorbtion spectrum.  His experimental set up consists of two metal
2. Define electro magnetic waves.  It is the characteristic of absorbing substance. electrodes which are made of small spherical
 Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves 11. Define Fraunhofer lines. metals.
which move with speed equals to the speed of light  When the spectrum obtained from the Sun is  These are connected to larger spheres and the
(in vacuum) examined, it consists of large number of dark lines ends of them are connected to induction coil which
3. Define intensity of electromagnetic wave. (line absorbtion spectrum). produce very high emf.
 The energy crossing per unit area per unit time  These dark lines in the solar spectrum are known  Due to this high voltage, the air between the
and perpendicular to the direction of propagation as Fraunhofer lines. electrodes gets ionized and spark is produced.
of electromagnetic wave is called the intensity 12. What are the uses of Fraunhofer lines?  A receiver (ring electrode) kept at a distance also
4. Define radiation pressure.  The absorption spectra for various materials are gets spark which implies that the energy is
 The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on compared with the Fraunhofer lines in the solar transmitted from electrode to the receiver as a
unit area of a surface is called radiation pressure. spectrum, which helps to identifying elements wave known as electromagnetic waves.
5. What is called pointing vector? Give its unit. present in the Sun s atmosphere.  If the receiver is rotated by 90, then no spark is
 The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is observed by the receiver.
known as pointing vector for electromagnetic  This confirms that electromagnetic waves are
waves. The pointing vector at any point gives the transverse waves as predicted by Maxwell.
direction of energy transport from that point.  Hertz detected radio waves and also computed the
−
 The unit for pointing vector is speed of radio waves which is equal to the speed
6. Give the modified form of Ampere’s circuital law. of light ( 𝑋 −
).
 If and are the conduction and displacement 2. Obtain an expression for energy density associated
current, then the modified Ampere s circuital law with an electromagnetic wave propagating in
is givent by, vacuum or free space.
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 = 𝜇𝑜 + Energy density of electromagnetic wave :
 The energy per unit volume (i.e.) the energy
𝑑
𝑜 ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 = 𝜇𝑜 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 density of electromagnetic wave is,
𝑑 = +
 This is also known as Ampere - Maxwell s law.
7. Define electromagnetic spectrum. = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 + −−−
𝜇𝑜
 The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves
where, = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸  energy density in
in terms of wavelength or frequency is called
electromagnetic spectrum. electric field
8. Define dispersion. and 𝑚 =  energy density in
𝜇𝑜
 When white light is made to pass through the magnetic field
prism, it is split in to its seven xonstituent colours.  The velocity of electromagnetic waves,
This phenomenon is known as dispersion of light.
 The patern of colours obtanined on the screen = 𝑜 =
√𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜
after dispersion is called spectrum.
 If 𝐸 = then, = 𝑚 4. Write a note on Radio waves.  Frequency range : 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧
 Hence equation (1) becomes, Radio waves :  It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction,
 It is produced by oscillators in electric circuits. interference, diffraction, polarization,
= 𝜺 𝑬 =
𝝁  Wavelength range : 𝑋 − − 𝑋 photo -electric effect and photographic action.
 The average energy density for electromagnetic  Frequency range ∶ 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧  It can be used to,
waves,  They obey reflection and diffraction (i) study the structure of molecules
 It is used in, (ii) arrangement of electrons in eternal shells of
= 𝜺 𝑬 = (i) radio and television communication systems atoms and
𝝁
(ii) cellular phones to transmit voice (iii) sensation of our eyes
3. Explain the sources of electromagnetic waves.
Sources of electromagnetic waves : communication in the ultra high frequency 8. Write a note on ultra violet rays.
band Ultra violet rays :
 Any stationary source charge produces only
5. Write a note on infra microwaves.  It is produced by Sun, arc and ionized gases.
electric field. When the charge moves with
Microwaves :  Wavelength range : 𝑋 − − 𝑋 −
uniform velocity, it produces steady current which
gives rise magnetic field around the conductor in  It is produced by electromagnetic oscillators in  Frequency range : 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧
which charge flows. electrical circuits  It has less penetrating power
 If the charged particle accelerates, in addition to  Wavelength range: 𝑋 − − 𝑋 −  It can be absorbed by atmospheric ozone and
electric field, it also produces magnetic field. Here  Frequency range : 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧 harmful to human body.
both electric and magnetic fields are time varying  They obey reflection and polarization  It is used to,
fields.  It is used in, (i) destroy bacteria
 The linked electric and magnetic fields have wave (i) radar system for aircraft navigation, (ii) sterilizing the surgical instruments,
property which propagate in the direction (ii) speed of the vehicle, (iii) burglar alarm
perpendicular to the plane containing electric and (iii) microwave oven for cooking (iv) detect the invisible writing, finger prints and
magnetic field vectors. (iv) very long distance wireless communication (v) study of molecular structure
 This is known as electromagnetic waves and it is through satellites 9. Write a note on X - rays.
transverse in nature. 6. Write a note on infra red rays. X - rays :
 Any oscillatory motion is also an accelerating Infra red rays :  It is produced when there is a sudden deceleration
motion, so when the charge oscillates about their  It is produced from hot bodies and also when the of high speed electrons at high atomic number
mean position, it produces electromagnetic waves. molecules undergo rotational and vibrational target.
 Let, electric and magnetic vectors are given by, transitions.  Also by electronic transitions among the
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝑧 −  Wavelength range : 𝑋 − − 𝑋 − innermost orbits of atoms.
 Frequency range : 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧  Wavelength range : 𝑋 − − 𝑋 −
= 𝑜 sin 𝑧 −
then the direction of propagation of  It provides electrical energy to satellites by means  Frequency range : 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧
electromagnetic waves are along Z -axis of solar cells  It has more penetrating power than UV - rays.
 Here the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is  It is used in,  It is used in,
equal to the frequency of the source (oscillation (i) producing dehydrated fruits (i) studying structures of inner atomic electron
charge) (ii) green housed to keep the plants warm, shell and crystal structures.
 In free space or vacuum, the ratio between 𝑬 and (iii) heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain (ii) detecting fracture, diseased organs, formation
is equal to the speed of electromagnetic wave (iv) TV remote as a signal carrier, to look through of bones and stones, observing the progress of
which is equal to speed of light (c) haze fof or mist healing bones
𝑬 (v) night vision or infrared photography (iii) detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes in a
= 7. Write a note visible light. finished metal product
Visible light : 10. Write a note on gamma rays.
 It is produced by incandescent bodies and also it is Gamma rays :
radiated by excited atoms in gases.  It is produced by transitionsof atomic nuclei and
 Wavelength range : 𝑋 − − 𝑋 − decay of certain elementary particles.
− −
 Wavelength range : 𝑋 − 𝑋  This law relates electric field with the changing
 Frequency range : 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑋 𝑧 PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS magnetic flux.
 They produce chemical reactions on photographic 1. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form.  This equation implies that, the line integral of the
plates, fluorescence, ionization, diffraction. Maxwel equations - Integral form : electric field around any closed path is equal to the
 Its penetrating power is higher than X-rays and  Electrodynamics can be summarized into four rate of change of magnetic flux through the closed
UV rays. basic equations, known as Maxwell s equations. path bounded by the surface.
 It has no charge but harmful to human body.  Maxwell s equations completely explain the  Mathematically it is expressed as,
 It is used in, behaviour of charges, currents and properties of 𝚽
∮𝑬 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − −−−−
(i) providing information about the structure of electric and magnetic fields.
atomic nuclei  This equation ensures the existence of Here, ⃗𝑬 → electric field
(ii) radio therapy for the treatment of cancer and electromagnetic waves.  The electrical energy supplied to our houses from
tumour Eqution - 1 : electricity board by using Faraday s law of
(iii) food industry to kill pathogenic micro  It is nothing but Gauss s law induction.
organism  It relates the net electric flu to net electric charge Equation - 4 :
enclosed in a surface.  It is modified Ampere s circuital law and also
 Mathematically, Gauss law is expressed as, called as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.
𝑸  This law relates the magnetic field around any
∮𝑬 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −−−−
𝜺 closed path toe the conduction current and
 Here, ⃗𝑬 → electric field displacement current through that path.
𝑸 → charge enclosed  Mathematically,
 This equation is true for both discreate or ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 = 𝜇𝑜 +
continuous distribution of charges
 It also indicates that the electric field lines start 𝑑
𝑜 ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 = 𝜇𝑜 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑
from positive change and terminate at negative 𝑑
charge. Here, ⃗⃗ → magnetic field
 The electric field lines do not form a continuous  It implies that both conduction and displacement
closed path (i.e.) isolated positive or negative current produces magnetic field
charges can exist. 2. Explain the modification of Ampere’s circuital law.
Equation - 2 : Maxwell’s corrections to Ampere’s circuital law :
 It has no name. But this law os similar to Gauss law  According to Faraday s law of electromagnetic
in electrostatics. Hence this law can be called as induction, the change in magnetic field produces
Gauss s law in magnetism. an electric field. Mathematically
 According to this law, the surface integral of ⃗⃗⃗ = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑 Φ =− ∮ ⃗ .𝑑
magnetic field over a closed surface is zero.
 Mathematically, this law can be expressed as,  It implies that the electric field 𝐸⃗ is induced along
a closed loop by the changing magnetic flux Φ in
∮ ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −−−−
the region encircled by the loop.
Here, ⃗⃗ → magnetic field  The converse of this statement, that is change in
 This equation implies that the magnetic field lines electric flux produces magnetic field is explained
form a continuous closed path. (i.e.) no isolated by Maxwell.
magnetic monopole exists ⃗⃗⃗ = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗ .𝑑 Φ =− ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑
Equation - 3 :
 This is Faraday s laws of electromagnetic  This is known as Maxwell s law of induction.
induction.
 To understand how the changing electric field  The change in electric flux is,  The average energy density for electromagnetic
produces magnetic field, let us consider the 𝑑Φ 𝑑 wave is
= = 𝑑
situation of charging a parallel plate capacitor. 𝑑 𝜀𝑜 𝑑 𝜀𝑜 = 𝜺 𝑬 =
𝚽 𝝁
∴ 𝑰 = 𝜺
 The energy crossing per unit area per unit time
𝑑𝑞
Where, = 𝑰 → Displacement current and perpendicular to the direction of propagation
𝑑𝑡
 The displacement current can be defined as the of electromagnetic wave is called the intensity.
current which comes in to play in the region in  They carry energy and momentum. The force
which the electric field and the electric flux are exerted by an electromagnetic surface is called
 The electric current passing through the wire is radiation pressure.
the conduction current changing with time.
 So Maxwell modified Ampere s law as  If the electromagnetic wave incident on a material
 This current generates magnetic field around the surface is completely absorbed, then the energy
wire connected across the capacitor. ∮ ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝁 𝑰 = 𝝁 𝑰 + 𝑰 −−− delivered is U and the momentum imparted on
 To calculate the magnetic field at a point P near 𝑼
the suface is =
the wire, let us consider an amperian loop which  Where, = + 𝑑 → total current
encloses the surface 𝑆 . Thus from Ampere 3. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves.  If the incident electromangnetic wave of energy U
circuital law, is totally reflected from the surface, then the
Properties of electromagnetic waves :
momentum delivered to the surface is ,
∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 = 𝜇𝑜 −−−−  Electromagnetic waves are produced by any 𝑼 𝑼 𝑼
accelerated charge. ∆ = − (− ) =
𝑆
 They do not require any medium for propagation.
 Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon  The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is
So electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical
shaped surface 𝑆 , then the boundaries of two known as pointing vector for electromagnetic
wave.
surfaces are same but shape of the enclosing waves.
surfaces are different.  They are transverse in nature, (i.e) the oscillating
electric field vector, oscillation magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝑺 = ⃗
(𝑬 ⃗⃗ ) = 𝜺 (𝑬 ⃗ ⃗⃗ )
 Ampere s law does not depend on shape of the 𝝁
vector and direction of propagation are mutually
enclosing surface and hence the integrals will give 4. Explain in detail the emission spectra.
perpendicular to each other.
the same answer. Emission spectra :
 They travel with speed of light in vacuum or free
 But there is no current in between the plates of  The lighe from self luminous source gives
space and it is given by,
the capacitor, the magnetic field on the surface is emission spectrum.
𝟖 −
zero. So the magnetic field at P is zero. Hence = =  Each source has its own characteristic emission
√𝜺 𝝁 spectrum.
∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 = −−−−  In a medium with permittivity 𝜀 and permeability  The emission spectrum can be divided in to three
𝑆 𝜇 , the speed of electromagnetic wave is less than types ;
 Here there is an inconsistency between equation speed in free space or vacuum. (i.e.) < (i) Continuous emission spectra :
(1) and (2). Maxwell resolved this inconsistency Hence, refractive index of the medium is,  Incandescent solids, liquids gives
as follows.
𝝁 = = √𝜺 𝝁 continuous spectra.
 Due to external source, the capacitor gets charged  It consists of wavelengths containing all
up because of current flowing through the  They are not deflected by electric or magnetic
the visible colours ranging from violet to
capacitor. This produces an increasing electric field.
red.
field between the capacitor plates.  They show interference, diffraction and (e.g.) Spectrum obtained from carbon arc,
 This time varying electric field (or flux) existing polarization. incandescent filament lamp, etc
between the plates of the capacitor also produces  The energy density (energy per unit volume) (ii) Line emission spectra :
a current known as displacement current. associated wtth and elelctromagnetic wave  Light from excited atoms gives line
 From Gauss s law, propagating in free space is spectrum. They are also known as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸 =
Φ = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑 = 𝜺 𝑬 = discontinuous spectra.
𝜀𝑜 𝝁
 The line spectr are sharp lines of definite (iii) Band absorption spectrum :
wavelengths or frequencies.  When the white light is passed through
 It is different for different elements the iodine vapour, dark bands on
(e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, continuous bright background is
etc obtained. This is known as band
(iii) Band emission spectra : absorption spectra.
 The light from excited molecules gives  It is also obtained when white light is
band spectrum. passed through diluted solution of blood
 It consists of several number of very or chlorophyll or through certain
closely spaced spectral lines which solutions of organic and inorganic
overlapped together forming specific compounds.
coloured bands.
 This spectrum has a sharp edge at one
end and fades out at the other end.
 Band spectrum is the characteristic of the
molecule.
(e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia
gas in the discharge tube, etc
5. Explain in detail the absorption spectra.
Absorption spectra :
 When light is allowed to pass through an
absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained
is known as absorption spectrum.
 It is characteristic of the absorbing substance.
 Absorption spectrum is classified into three types;
(i) Continuous absorption spectrum :
 When the light is passed through a
medium, it is dispersed by the prism, we
get continuous absorption spectrum.
 For instance, when we pass white light
through a blue glass plate, it absorbs
every thing except blue. This is an
example for continuous absorption
spectrum.
(ii) Line absorption spectrum :
 When light from incandescent lamp is
passed through cold gas, the spectrum
obtained through the dispersion due to
the prism is line absorption spectrum.
 For example, when light from carbon arc
is made to pass through sodium vapour, a
continuous spectrum of carbon arc with
two dark lines in the yellow rigion of
sodium vapour is obtained.
CHAPTER-6- OPTICS
BOOK BACK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. State the laws of reflection.
According to law of reflection,
(a) The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface all are coplanar
(ie. lie in the same plane).
(b) The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r.
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2. What is angle of deviation due to reflection?
The angle between the incident and deviated light ray is called angle of deviation of the
light ray.
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3. Give the characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror.
(i) The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, and laterally inverted.
(ii) The size of the image is equal to the size of the object.
(iii) The image distance far behind the mirror is equal to the object distance in front of it.
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4 . What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a spherical mirror?
(i) The Incident light is taken from left to right (i.e. object on the left of mirror).
(ii) All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror (pole is taken as origin).
(iii) The distances measured to the right of pole along the principal axis are taken as positive.
(iv) The distances measured to the left of pole along the principal axis are taken as negative.
(v) Heights measured in the upward perpendicular direction to the principal axis are taken as
positive.
(vi) Heights measured in the downward perpendicular direction to the principal axis,
are taken as negative.
===============================================================================
5. What is optical path?
Optical path of a medium is defined as the distance d' light travels in vacuum in
the same time it travels a distance d in the medium
=============================================================================
6. State the laws of refraction.
Snell’s law states that,
a) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the refracting surface are all coplanar
(ie. lie in the same plane).
b) The ratio of angle of incident i in the first medium to the angle of reflection r in the second
medium is equal to the ratio of refractive index of the second medium n2 to that of the
refractive index of the first medium n1.
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7. What is principle of reversibility?
The principle of reversibility states that light will follow exactly the same path
if its direction of travel is reversed.
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8. What is relative refractive index?
The ratio of refractive index of the second medium n2 to that of the refractive index of the first medium
n1.is called as relative refractive of the second medium w.r.t. first medium.
===========================================================================
9. Why do stars twinkle?
The stars actually do not twinkle. They appear twinkling because of the movement of the
atmospheric layers with varying refractive indices which is clearly seen in the night sky.
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10. What is critical angle and total internal reflection?
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray graces the
boundary is called critical angle ic. If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is
increased beyond the critical angle, there is no refraction possible in to the rarer medium.
The entire light is reflected back into the denser medium itself. This phenomenon is called
total internal reflection.
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11. What is Snell’s window?
when light entering the water from outside is seen from inside the water, the view is
restricted to a particular angle equal to the critical angle ic. The restricted illuminated
circular area is called Snell’s window.
============================================================================
12. Explain the working of an endoscope.
An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors which has a bundle of optical
fibres that are used to see inside a patient’s body. Endoscopes work on the phenomenon of total
internal reflection. The optical fibres are inserted in to the body through mouth, nose or a special
hole made in the body. Even operations could be carried out with the endoscope cable
which has the necessary instruments attached at their ends.
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13. What are primary focus and secondary focus of concex lens?
The primary focus F1 is defined as a point where an object should be placed to give parallel
emergent rays to the principal axis
The secondary focus F2 is defined as a point where all the parallel rays travelling close to the
principal axis converge to form an image on the principal axis
============================================================================
14. What are the sign conventions followed for lenses?
(a) The sign of focal length is not decided on the direction of measurement of the
focal length from the pole of the lens as they have two focal lengths, one to the left and
another to the right (primary and secondary focal lengths on either side of the lens).
(b) The focal length of the thin lens is taken as positive for a converging lens and negative for a
diverging lens.
===============================================================================
15. Arrive at lens equation from lens maker’s formula.
Lens maker’s formula is
Compare the above equation with the following equation,
We can write
This equation is known as lens equation.
============================================================================
16. What is power of a lens?
Power of lens is the measurement of deviating strength of a lens
The power of a lens P is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length.
============================================================================
17. What is angle of minimum deviation?
The angle of deviation decreases with increase in angle of incidence and reaches a minimum
value and then continues to increase. The minimum value of angle of deviation
is called angle of minimum deviation D.
============================================================================
18. What is dispersion?
Dispersion is splitting of white light into its constituent colours. This band of colours of
light is called its spectrum.
19. How are rainbows formed?
When sunlight falls on the water drop suspended in air, it splits (or dispersed) into its
constituent seven colours. Thus, water drop suspended in air behaves as a glass prism. Rainbow
is an example of dispersion of sunlight through droplets of water during rainy days.
=============================================================================
20. What is Rayleigh’s scattering?
If the scattering of light is by atoms and molecules which have size a very less than
that of the wave length λ of light a<<λ, the scattering is called Rayleigh’s scattering.
============================================================================
21. Why does sky appear blue?
The intensity of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely proportional to fourth power of
wavelength. According to Rayleigh scattering law,, violet colour which has the shortest
wavelength gets much scattered during day time. The next scattered colour is blue. As our eyes
are more sensitive to blue colour than violet colour the sky appears blue during day time.
============================================================================
22. What is the reason for reddish appearance of sky during sunset and sunrise?
During sunrise and sunset, the light from sun travels a greater distance through the atmosphere.
Hence, the blue light which has shorter wavelength is scattered away and the less-scattered red
light of longer wavelength manages to reach our eye. This is the reason for the reddish
appearance of sky during sunrise and sunset.
=============================================================================
23. Why do clouds appear white?
If light is scattered by large particles like dust and water droplets present in the atmosphere
which have size a greater than the wavelength λ of light, a >> λ, the intensity of scattering is
equal for all the wavelengths. It is happening in clouds which contains large amount of dust and
water droplets. Thus, in clouds all the colours get equally scattered irrespective of wavelength.
This is the reason for the whitish appearance of cloud.
============================================================================
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 6 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2 & 3 mark questions and answers 5. Distinguish convex mirror and concanve mirror?
Convex mirror Concave mirror
1. Define reflection. It is a spherical mirror in It is a spherical mirror in
 The bouncing back of light in to the same medium which reflection takes which reflection takes
when it encounters a reflecting surface is called place at the convex place at the concave
reflection of light. surface and other surface surface and other surface
2. State the laws of reflection. is silvered is silvered
(1) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to 6. Define (1) centre of curvature, (2) Radius of
the surface all are coplanar. curvature (3) pole, (4) principal axis, (5) focus or 7. Define paraxial rays and marginal rays.
(2) The angle of incidence (𝑖) is equal to angle of focal point, (6) focal length, (7) focal plane Paraxial rays :
reflection (𝑟). That is 𝒊 = 𝒓 (1) Centre of curvature :  The rays travelling very close to the principal axis
3. What is the angle of deviation due to reflection?  The centre of the sphere of which the mirror and make small angle with it are called paraxial
 The angle between the incident and deviated ray is a part is called centre of curvature (C) rays.
is called angle of deviation (d) of the light ray. (2) Radius of curvature : Marginal rays :
 The radius of the sphere of which the  The rays travelling far away from the principal
spherical mirror is a part is called the radius axis and fall on the mirror far away from the pole
of curvature (R) of the mirror. are called as marginal rays.
(3) Pole (or) Optic centre :
 The middle point on the spherical surface of 8. Obtain the relation between focal length (f) and
the mirror (or) the geometrical centre of the radius of curvature (R) of the spherical mirror.
 From figure (a), mirror is called the pole (P) of the mirror. Relation between f and R :
𝑑 = 180° − (𝑖 + 𝑟) [𝑖 = 𝑟] (4) Principal axis :
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝟐 𝒊  The line joining the pole (P) and the centre of
 The angle between the incident ray and the curvature (C) is called the principal axis (or)
reflecting surface is called glancing angle (𝛼). optical axis of the mirror.
 From figure (b), (5) Focus or Focal point :
𝑑 = ∠𝐵𝑂𝑌 + ∠𝑌𝑂𝐶 = 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 𝟐 𝜶  Light rays travelling parallel and close to the
4. What are the characteristics of the image formed principal axis when incident on a spherical
by the plane mirror? mirror, converge at a point for concave mirror
Characteristics of the image of the plane mirror : or appears to diverge from a point for convex
 Virtual, erect and laterally inverted. mirror on the principal axis. This point is
 Size of image is equal to the size of the object. called the focus or focal point (F) of the mirror  Let ‘C’ be the centre of curvature of the mirror.
 The distance of the image behind the mirror is (6) Focal length :  Consider a light ray parallel to the principal axis
equal to the distance of object in front of it.  The distance between the pole (P) and the and incident at ‘M’ on the mirror.
 If an object placed between two plane mirrors Focus (F) is called the focal length (f) of the  After reflection, it will passes through principal
inclined at an angle 𝜃 , then the number (n) of mirror. focus ‘F’
images formed is, (7) Focal plane :  The line ‘CM’ is the normal to the mirror at ‘M’
360°
(1) If [ ] even, then ; 𝑛 = [
360°
− 1 ] for  The plane through the focus and  From the figure (a),
𝜃 𝜃 perpendicular to the principal axis is called angle of incidence ; 𝑖 = ∠𝐴𝑀𝐶
objects placed symmentrically or the focal plane of the mirror. angle of reflection ; 𝑟 = ∠𝐶𝑀𝐹
unsymmentrically.
360° 360°
 By the law of reflection. we have, 𝒊 = 𝒓
(2) If [ ] odd, then ; 𝑛 = [ − 1 ] for  Thus, , ∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝑖 & ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2 𝑖
𝜃 𝜃
objects placed symmentrically  From ∆𝑀𝐶𝑃 and ∆𝑀𝐹𝑃
360°
(3) If [ ] odd, then ; 𝑛 = [
360°
] for objects 𝑃𝑀
𝜃 𝜃 tan 𝑖 =
placed unsymmentrically 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝑀  The incident light is taken from left to right.  When light travels from denser to rarer medium it
tan 2 𝑖 =
𝑃𝐹  All the distances are measured from the pole. deviates away normal. Hence the angle of
 As the angles are small, we have tan 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 and  The distance measured to the right of pole along deviation ; 𝒅 = 𝒓 − 𝒊
tan 2 𝑖 ≈ 2 𝑖 . So the principal axis are taken as positive
𝑃𝑀  The distance measured to the left of pole along the
𝑖 = − − − − − (1)
𝑃𝐶 principal axis are taken as negative
𝑃𝑀  Heights measured in the upward perpendicular
2𝑖 = − − − − − (2) 16. Define simultaneous reflection or simultaneous
𝑃𝐹 direction to the principal axis are taken as positive
 Put eqn (1) in eqn (2)  Heights measured in the downward perpendicular refraction.
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀 direction tothe principal axis are taken as negative  The phenomenon in which a part of light from a
2 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹 11. Define refractive index. source undergoing reflection and other part of
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶  Refractive index (n) of a transparent medium is light from same source undergoing refraction at
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑓= 𝑅 defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum the same surface is called simultaneous
𝑹 reflection or simultaneous refraction.
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒇= − − − − − (3) (or air) to the speed of light on that medium.
𝟐 𝒄  Such surfaces are available as partially silvered
𝒏= glasses.
𝒗
9. How we locate the image formation in spherical 12. Define optical path. 17. What is the principle of reversiability?
mirrors?  Optical path of a medium is defined as the  The principle of reversibility states that, light will
Image formation in spherical mirrors: distance (d) light travels in vacuum in the same be follow exactly the same path if its direction of
time it travels a distance (d) in the medium. travel is reversed.
 If ‘n’ is the refractive index of the medium. then  This is true for both reflection and refraction.
optical path is ; d = n d 18. Define relative refractive index.
sin 𝑖 𝑛
13. What is called refraction?  From Snell’s law, = 2
sin 𝑟 𝑛1
 Refraction is passing through of light from one 𝑛2
a) A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection optical medium to another optical medium  Here the term [ ] is called relative refractive
𝑛1
will pass through or appear to pass through the through a boundary. index of second medium with respect to the first
principal focus. 𝒏
14. State the laws of refraction (Snell’s law). medium and it is denoted by 𝑛21 (i,e.) 𝒏𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐
𝒏𝟏
b) A ray passing through or appear to pass through  The incident ray, refracted ray and normal are all
the principal focus, after reflection will travel 19. Give the useful relations obtained from the
coplanar.
parallel to the principal axis, concept of relative refractive index.
 The ratio of angle of incident ‘i’ in the first medium
c) A ray passing through the centre of curvature (1) Inverse rule :
to the angle of reflection ‘r’ in the second medium 𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝟏
retraces its path after reflection as it is a case of is equal to the ratio of refractive index of the 𝒏𝟏𝟐 = (𝒐𝒓) = 𝒏
normal incidence. second medium ‘𝑛2 ’ to that of the refractive index 𝒏𝟐𝟏 𝒏𝟐 [ 𝟐]
𝒏𝟏
d) A ray falling on the pole will get reflected as per of the first medium ‘𝑛1 ’ (2) Chain rule :
law of reflection keeping principal axis as the sin 𝑖 𝑛2 𝒏𝟑 𝒏𝟑 𝒏𝟏
normal. = 𝒏𝟑𝟐 = 𝒏𝟑𝟏 𝑿 𝒏𝟏𝟐 (𝒐𝒓) = 𝑿
sin 𝑟 𝑛1 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
10. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a (𝒐𝒓) 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 20. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.
spherical mirrors? 15. What is the angle of deviation due to refraction? Apparent depth :
Cartesian sign convention : Angle of deviation due to refraction :
 The angle between the incident and deviated ray
is called angle of deviation.
 When light travels from rarer to denser medium it
deviates towards normal. Hence the angle of
deviation ; 𝒅 = 𝒊 − 𝒓
 We observe that the bottom of a tank filled with  The entire light is reflected back in to the denser 26. What are mirage and looming?
water with water appears raised as shown. medium itself, This phenomenon is called total Mirrage :
 Light OB from the object ’O’ passes through water internal reflection.  In hot places, air near the ground is hotter than air
get refracted in air 23. What are the conditions to achieve total internal at a height. Hot air less dense.
 The refracted ray BC appers to come from ‘I’ reflection?  The refractive index of air decreases with
which is just above ‘O’ (i.e) the object is appears to  Light must travel from denser to rarer medium decrease in density.
be at ‘I’  Angle of incidence must be greater than critical  Because of this, the air near hot ground acts as
 Refractive index of water = 𝒏𝟏 angle (𝑖 > 𝑖𝐶 ) rarer medium than the air at height.
Refractive index of air = 𝒏𝟐 24. Obtain an expression for critical angle.  When light from tall object like tree, passes
Angle of incidence in water = 𝒊 Critical angle: through a medium whose refractive index
Angle of refraction in air = 𝒓  When light ray passes from denser medium to decreases towards the ground, it successively
Original depth of tank = 𝑫𝑶 = 𝒅 rarer medium, it bends away from normal. So deviates away from the normal and undergoes
Apparent depth of tank = 𝑫𝑰 = 𝒅 𝑖<𝑟 total internal reflection when the angle of
 Here 𝒏𝟏 > 𝒏𝟐 . Hence , 𝒊 < 𝒓  As 𝑖 increases, 𝑟 also increases rapidly and at a incidence near the ground exceeds the critical
 By Snell’s law in product form, certain stage it just gracing the boundary angle.
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 (𝑟 = 90°). The corresponding anle of incidence is  This gives an illusion as if the light comes from
 As the angles aresmall, we can write called critical angle (𝑖𝐶 ) somewhere below the ground.
sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑖 & sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟  From Snell’s law of product form  For of the shaky nature of the layers of air,the
Hence, 𝑛1 ta𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑛2 tan 𝑟 − − − − (1) 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 observers feels as wet surface beneath the object.
 In ∆𝐷𝑂𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷𝐼𝐵,  When 𝑖 = 𝑖𝐶 , then 𝑟 = 90°  This phenomenon is called mirage.
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 90° Looming :
ta𝑛 𝑖 = = 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 = 𝒏𝟐  In cold places, the refractive index increases
𝐷𝑂 𝑑
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝒏𝟐 towards the ground, because the temperature of
ta𝑛 𝑟 = =  𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 =
𝐷𝐼 𝒅 𝒏𝟏 air close to the ground is less than the air at
 Put this in eqn (1)  If the rarer medium is air, then 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏 and let height.
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏 , then  So in cold regions like glaciers and frozen lakes
𝑛1 [ ] = 𝑛2 [  ] 𝟏
𝑑 𝒅 and seas, the reverse effect of mirage will happen.
1 1 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 =
𝒏  Hence an inverted image is formed little above the
𝑛1 = 𝑛2  𝟏
𝑑 𝒅 (or) 𝒊𝑪 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ( ) surface. This phenomenon called looming.
𝒏𝟐 𝒏 27. Write a note on the prisms making using of total
∴ 𝒅 = 𝒅
𝒏𝟏 25. Obtain the reason for glittering of diamond. internal reflection.
 For air ; 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏 and let 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 , then apparent Glittering of diamond : Prisms making using use of total internal reflection
depth  The glittering of diamond is due to the total
𝒅 internal reflection of light happens inside the
𝒅 =
𝒏 diamond.
 Thus the bottom appears to be elevated by (𝑑 − 𝑑  )  The refractive index of diamond is 2.417 and the
𝒅 𝟏 critical angle is 24.4
𝒅 − 𝒅 = 𝒅 − = 𝒅 (𝟏 − )
𝒏 𝒏  Diamond has large number of cut planed faces.
21. Define critical angle.  So light entering the diamond get total internally
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium for reflected from many cut faces before getting out.
which the refracted ray graces the boundary is  This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.  Prisms can be designed to reflect light by 90° or by
called critical angle 𝒊𝑪 180° by making use of total internal reflection.
22. Define total internal reflection.  In both cases, the critical angle of material of the
 If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is prism must be less than 45° .This is true for both
greater than the critical angle, there is no crown glass and flint glass
refraction possible in the rarer medium.
28. What is Snell’s window (or) Radius of illumination? 30. Write a note on an endoscope. 33. Define power of a lens.
Snell’s window : Endoscope :  The power ‘P’ of a lens is defined as the reciprocal
 When a light source like electric bulb is kept  An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors of its focal length (𝒇)
inside a water tank, the light from the source which has a bundle of optical fibres that are used 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷 = = (𝒏 − 𝟏) [ − ]
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
travels in all direction inside the water. to see inside a patient’s body.
 The light that incident on water surface at an  It works on the phenomenon of total internal  The unit of power is diopter (D)
angle less than the critical angle will undergo reflection.  Power is positive for converging lens and negative
refraction and emerge out from the water.  It is inserted in to the body through mouth or nose for diverging lens.
 The light incident at an angle greater than the or a special hole made in the body. 34. Define the power of a mirror.
critical angle will undergo total internal reflection.  The necessary instruments for operation is  The power of a mirror is negative of the reciprocal
𝟏
 But the light incident at critical angle graces the attached at their ends. of its focal length. (i. e.) 𝑷 =
−𝒇
surface and hence the entire surface of water 31. Define primary and secondary focal points.  This is because, a concave mirror which has
appears illuminated when seen from outside. Primary focal point (𝐅𝟏 ) : negative focal length is a converging mirror with
 On the otherhand, when light entering water from positive power.
outside is seen from inside the water, the view is 35. Define silvered lenses.
restricted to a particular angle equal to the critical  If one of the surfaces of a lens is silvered from
angle 𝑖𝐶 outside, then such a lens is said to be a silvered
 The restricted illuminated circular area is called lens. It is a combination of a lens and a mirror.
Snell’s window.  It is defined as a point, where an object should be
 A silvered lens is basically a modified mirror and
29. Write a note on optical fibres. placed to give paraller emergent ray to the
its power is given by
Optical fibre: principal axis
𝑷 = 𝟐 𝑷𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 + 𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
 For convergent lens such an object is real and for 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
divergent lens, the object is virtual. (𝒐𝒓) [ ] = [ ]+ [ ]
−𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 −𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
 Here, 𝑃𝐹1 = 𝑓1 → principal focal length 36. Write a note on prism.
Secondary focus point (𝐅𝟐 ) :  A prism is a triangular block of glass or plastic
which is bounded by the three plane faces not
parallel to each other.
 Its one face is grounded which is called base.
 The other two faces are polished which are called
 Transmitting signals from one end to another end refracing faces of the prism.
due to the phenomenon of total internal reflection  It is defined as a point, where all the parallal rays  The angle between the two refracting faces is
is called optical fibres. travelling close to the principal axis converge to called angle of prism (A)
 It consists of inner part called core and outer part form an image on the principal axis. 37. Define angle of minimum deviation.
called cladding or sleeving  For convergent lens such an image is real and for  The angle between incident ray and emergent ray
 The refractive index of the core must be higher divergent lens, the imagt is virtual. is called angle of deviation (d).
than that of the cladding.  Here, 𝑃𝐹2 = 𝑓2 → secondary focal length  When the angle of incidence increases, the angle
 Signal in the form of light is made to incident 32. What are the sign conventions for lens on focal of deviation decreases, reaches a minimum value
inside the core-cladding boundary at an angle length? and then continues to increase.
greater than the critical angle.  The sign of focal length is not decided on the  The minimum value of angle of deviation is called
 Hence it undergoes repeated total internal direction of measurement of the focal length from angle of minimum deviation (D).
reflections along the length of the fibre without the pole of the lens as they have two focal lengths 38. What is called dispersion of light?
undergoing any refraction. on either side of the lens.  The splitting of white light in to its constituent
 Even while bending the optic fibre, it is done in  The focal length of thin lens is taken as positive for colours is called dispersion of light.
such a way that the condition for total internal a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens  This band of colours of light is called its spectrum.
reflection is ensured at every reflection.  The spectrum consists seven colours in the order
VIBGYOR
39. Define dispersive power. 45. How are rainbows formed?
 Dispersive power (𝜔) is the ability of the material Formation of rainbows :
of the prism to cause prism.  Rainbows are formed due to dispersion of sunlight
 It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion through droplets of water during rainy days.
for the extreme colours to the deviation for any  Rainbow is observed during rainfall or after
mean colour. rainfall or looking water fountain provided the
40. What is Rayleigh’s scattering? Sun is at the back of the observer.
 The scattering of light by atoms and molecules  When sun light falls on the water drop suspended
which have size (𝒂) very less than that of the air, it splits in to its constituent seven colours.
wavelength ( 𝜆 ) of light is called Rayleigh’s Here waterdrops acts as a glass prism.
scattering.  Primary rainbow is formed when one total
(i.e) condition for Rayleigh’s scattering is 𝒂 <<  internal reflection takes place inside the drop.
41. State Rayleigh’s scattering law. The angle of view for violet to red in primary
 The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is rainbow is 40 to 42
inversely proportional to fourth power of  Secondary rainbow is formed when two total
wavelength (𝜆) internal reflection takes place inside the drop.
𝟏 The angle of view for violet to red in primary
𝑰 ∝ 𝟒
𝝀 rainbow is 52 to 54
42. Why does sky appears blue colour?
 According to Rayleigh’s scattering, shorter
wavelenths (violet) scattered much more than
longer wavelengths (Red)
 As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour than
violet, the sky appears blue during day time.
43. Why does sky and Sun looks reddish during sunset
and sunrise?
 During sunset or sunrise, the light from Sun
travels a greater distance through atmosphere.
 Hence the blue light which has shorter wavelength
is scattered away and less scattered red light of
longer wavelength reaches observer
 This is the reason for reddish appearance of sky
and Sun during sunrise and sunset.
44. Why does cloud appears as white colour?
 When size of particles or water drops are greater
than the wavelength of light (𝑎 ≫ 𝜆), the intensity
of scattering is equal for all the wavelength.
 Since clouds contains large amount of dust and
water droplets, all the colours get equally
scattered irrespective of wavelength. This is the
reason for the whitish appearance of cloud.
 But the rain clouds appear dark because of the
condensation of water droplets on dust paricles
that make the cloud become opque.
𝑣 𝑣  The light passing through one cut in the wheel get
5 - Mark Question & Answer (𝑜𝑟) = −1
𝑢 𝑓 reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance ‘d’
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for  Dividing both sides by 𝑣 (about 8 km) from the toothed wheel.
lateral magnification. 1 1 1  If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected
= −
Mirror equation : 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 light from the mirror would again pass through
 The equation which gives the relation between 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 the same cut and reach the observer through G.
+ = − − − − − (𝟒)
object distance (𝑢), image distance (𝑣) and focal 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇 Working :
length (𝑓) is of spherical mirror is called mirror  This is called mirror equation. It is also valid for  The angular speed of the rotation of the toothed
equation. convex mirror. wheel was increased until light passing through
Lateral magnification: one cut would completely be blocked by the
 It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image adjacent tooth. Let that angular speed be 𝜔
(ℎ1 ) to the height of the object (h)..  The total distance traveled by the light from the
 From eqn (1) toothed wheel to the mirror and back to the wheel
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 is ‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
=  Then the speed of light in air,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 2𝑑
− ℎ1 −𝑣 𝑣=
= 𝑡
ℎ −𝑢  But the angular speed is,
 Let an object AB is placed on the principle axis of a  Hence magnification, 𝜃
concave mirror beyond the centre of curvature ‘C’ 𝒉𝟏 𝒗 𝜔=
 The real and inverted image 𝐴1 𝐵1 is formed 𝒎= =− − − − − (𝟓) 𝑡
𝒉 𝒖  Here 𝜃 is the angle between the tooth and the slot
between C and F  Using eqn (4)
 By the laws of reflection, which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that
𝒉𝟏 𝒇−𝒗 𝒇 time ‘t’ . Then,
angle of incidence (𝑖) = angle of reflection (𝑟) 𝒎= = = − − (𝟔)
𝒉 𝒇 𝒇 − 𝒖 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
∠𝐵𝑃𝐴 = ∠𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 𝜃=
2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ + 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠
 From figure, ∆ 𝐵𝑃𝐴 and ∆ 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 are similar
of light. 2𝜋 𝜋
triangles. So 𝜃= =
Fizeau’s method : 2𝑁 𝑁
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1
= − − − − − (1)  Hence angular speed,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜋
 Also ∆ 𝐷𝑃𝐹 and ∆ 𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐹 are similar triangles. So ( ) 𝜋
𝜔= 𝑁 =
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑡 𝑁𝑡
= [𝑃𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵] 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑡 =
1 1 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐹 𝑁𝜔
= − − − − − (2)  Therefore the speed of light in air,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
 From eqn (1) and (2), 2𝑑 2𝑑
𝑣= = 𝜋
𝑃𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑡 ( )
= 𝑁𝜔
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹 𝟐𝒅𝑵𝝎
𝑃𝐴1 𝑃𝐴1 − 𝑃𝐹 𝒗=
= − − − − (3) 𝝅
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹  The speed of light in air was determined as,
 By applying sign conventions, 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝑃𝐴 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐴1 = −𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓  The light from the source S was first allowed to
−𝑣 − 𝑣 − ( −𝑓) fall on a partially silvered glass plate G kept at an
= angle of 45 to the vertical.
−𝑢 −𝑓
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓  The light then allowed to pass through a rotating
(𝑜𝑟) = toothed-wheel with N -teeth and N -cuts.
𝑢 𝑓  The speed of rotation of the wheel could be varied
through an external mechanism.
3. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or) 4. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and sin 𝑖𝑎 1
=
Snell’s window. numerical aperture of optical fibe. √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3
Radius of Snell’s window : Acceptance angle :
 Light is seem from a point ‘A’ at a depth ‘d’  To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core- √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝑖𝑎 = = √
 Applying Snell’s law in product form at point ‘B, cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the 𝑛3 𝑛32
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑛2 sin 90° light should be incident at a certain angle at the
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑛2 ene of the optical fibre while entering in to it. This 𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝑛2 𝒊𝒂 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 [√ ]
(𝑜𝑟) sin 𝑖𝐶 = − − − (1) angle is called acceptance angle. 𝒏𝟑𝟐
𝑛1
 If the outer medium is air, then 𝑛3 = 1 . The
acceptance angle becomes,
𝒊𝒂 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (√𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )
 Light can have any angle of incidence from zero to
𝒊𝒂 with the normal at the end of the optical fibre
forming a conical shape called acceptance cone.
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,  The term (𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 ) is called numerical aperture
𝐶𝐵 𝑅  Applying Snell’s law at point ‘A’, (NA) of optical fibre
sin 𝑖𝐶 = = − − − (2) sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1
𝐴𝐵 √𝑅 + 𝑑 2
2 = − − − − − (1) 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒂 = √𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
sin 𝑟𝑎 𝑛3
 Compare eqn (1) and (2)
𝑅 𝑛2  To have total internal reflection inside optical 5. Derive the equation for lateal displacement of light
= fibre, the anle of incidentce at the core-cladding passing through a glass slab.
√𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 interface at B should be atleast critical angle (𝑖𝐶 ) Refraction through a glass slab :
𝑅2 𝑛2 2  Appliying Snell’s law at point ‘B’
(𝑜𝑟) = ( )
𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 𝑛2
2
𝑅 + 𝑑 2
𝑛1 2 =
(𝑜𝑟) = ( ) sin 90° 𝑛1
𝑅 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
(𝑜𝑟) sin 𝑖𝐶 = − − − − − (2)
𝑑2 𝑛1 2 𝑛1
1+ 2 = ( )  From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 , 𝑖𝐶 = 90° − 𝑟𝑎
𝑅 𝑛2
𝑑2 𝑛1 2 𝑛12  Then eqn (2) becomes,
= ( ) − 1 = −1 𝑛2
𝑅2 𝑛2 𝑛22 sin(90° − 𝑟𝑎 ) =
𝑛1
𝑑2 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛2
= (𝑜𝑟) cos 𝑟𝑎 =
𝑅2 𝑛22 𝑛1
𝑅2 𝑛22
(𝑜𝑟) = 2 𝑛2 2  Thickness of glass slab = t
𝑑2 𝑛1 − 𝑛22 ∴ s𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎 = √1 − cos 2 𝑟𝑎 = √1 − ( ) Refractive index of glass = n
𝑛22 𝑛1
𝑅2 = 𝑑 2 [ 2 ]  The perpendicular distance ‘CE’between refracted
𝑛1 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ray and incident ray at C gives the lateral
s𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎 = √ = displacement (L).
𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝑛12 𝑛1
∴ 𝑹=𝒅√  𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐵𝐶𝐸 ,
𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐  Put this in eqn (1), 𝐿
sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) =
 If the rarer medium outsideis air, then 𝑛2 = 1 and = 𝐵𝐶
let 𝑛1 = 𝑛 , then √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3 𝐿
𝟏 ( ) 𝐵𝐶 =
𝑛1 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝑹=𝒅 [ ]
√𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐵𝐶𝐹,  Put the values of 𝑖 and 𝑟 in eqn (1)  Hence
𝑡 𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 − 𝛾) 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
cos 𝑟 = − = − − − (1)
𝐵𝐶 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛1 𝛽 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛2 𝛾 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑅1
𝑡 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛1 𝛽  For refracting surface ②, the light goes from
𝐵𝐶 =
cos 𝑟 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 𝛽 𝑛2 𝑡𝑜 1 . Hence
 Hence,  Put 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 , we have 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝐿 𝑡 − 1 = − − − (2)
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅2
= 𝑛1 [ ] + 𝑛2 [ ] = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ ]
sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) cos 𝑟 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶  Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒊 − 𝒓) 𝑛 1 𝑛 2 𝑛 2 − 𝑛1
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑳 =𝒕 [ ] (𝑜𝑟) + = − + − 1 = +
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Using Cartesian sign convension, we get 𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
 Therfore lateral displacement depends on, − = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ − ]
(1) thickness of the glass slab 𝑃𝑂 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐼 = +𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐶 = +𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 1 1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 1 1
(2) angle of incidence ∴ + = − = [ − ]
6. Derive equation for refraction at single spherical −𝑢 𝑣 𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
surface. (𝒐𝒓) − = − − − (2) 𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 − = ( − 𝟏) [ − ] − − − (𝟐)
Refraction at single spherical surface :  Here rarer medium is air and hence 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 and 𝒗 𝒖 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
let the refractive index of second medium be  If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at
𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 . Therefore the forcus of the lens. Thus, for 𝑢 = ∞ , 𝑣 = 𝑓
𝒏 𝟏 𝒏− 𝟏 Then equation becomes,
− = − − − (𝟑) 1 1 𝑛2 1 1
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 − = ( − 1) [ − ]
7. Obtain Lens maker formula and metion its 𝑓 ∞ 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
significance. 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
= ( − 𝟏) [ − ] − − − (𝟑)
Lens maker’s formula : 𝒇 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
 A thin lens of refractive index 𝑛2 is placed in a  Here first medium is air and hence 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 and
medium of refractive index 𝑛1 let the refractive index of second medium be
 Let 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 be radii of curvature of two 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 . Therefore
 Refractive index of rarer medium = 𝑛1 spherical surfaces ① and ② respectively 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Refractive index of spherical medium = 𝑛2 = (𝒏 − 𝟏) [ − ] − −(𝟒)
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Centre of curvature of spherical surface = 𝐶  The above equation is called lens maker’s
Point object in rarer medium = 𝑂 formula.
Point image formed in denser medium = 𝐼  By comparing eqn (2) and (3)
 Apply Snell’s law of product form at the point N 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 − = − − − − − − (𝟓)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
 Since the angles are small, we have,
 This equation is known as lens equation..
sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 k‰W« sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑟
8. Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its
∴ 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 − − − − (1)
magnification.
 𝐿𝑒𝑡, ∠𝑁𝑂𝑃 = 𝛼, ∠𝑁𝐶𝑃 = 𝛽, ∠𝑁𝐼𝑃 = 𝛾, then
 Let P be pole of the lens and O be the Point object. Magnification of thin lens :
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛼 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛼 =  Here 𝐼1 be the image to be formed due the
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 refracton at the surface ① and 𝐼 be the final image
tan 𝛽 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛽=
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 obtanined due the refracton at the surface ②
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁  We know that, equation for single spherical surface
tan 𝛾 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼 − =
 From figure , 𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾 (or) 𝑟 = 𝛽 − 𝛾  For refracting surface ①, the light goes from
𝑛1 𝑡𝑜 𝑛2 .
1
 Let an object 𝑂𝑂 is placed on the principal axis  Let us consider two lenses ① and ② of focal  The angle between two refraction faces is called
with its height perpendicular to the principal axis. lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed co-axially in contact with angle of the prism ‘A’
 The ray 𝑂1 𝑃 passing through the pole of the lens each other.
goes undeviated.  Let the object is placed at ‘O’ beyond the principal
 But the ray parallel to principal axis, after focus of ① on the principal axis.
refraction it passes through secondary focus ‘F’  It forms an image at 𝐼1
 At the point of intersection of these two rays, an  This image 𝐼1 acts as an object for lens ② and
inverted, real image 𝐼𝐼1 is formed. hence the final image is formed at ‘I’
 Height of object ; 𝑂𝑂1 = ℎ  Writing the lens equation for lens ①
Height of image ; 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝒉𝟏 1 1 1
− = − − − − (1)
 The lateral magnification (m) is defined as the 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑓1
ration of the heiht of the image to that of the  Writing the lens equation for lens ②
object. 1 1 1
− = − − − − (2)
𝐼𝐼1 𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓2
𝑚= − − − − (1)  Adding equation (1) and (2)  Here, ‘PQ’ be incident ray, ‘QR’ be refracted ray
𝑂𝑂1
 ∆𝑃𝑂𝑂1 and ∆𝑃𝐼𝐼1 are similar triangles . So , 1 1 1 1 1 1 and ‘RS’ be emergent ray.
− + − = +  The angle between incident ray and emergent ray
𝐼𝐼1 𝑃𝐼 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓1 𝑓2
= 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 is called angle of deviation (d)
𝑂𝑂1 𝑃𝑂 − = + − − − (𝟑)  Let QN and RN be the normal drawn at the points
 Using Cartesian sign convension, 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
Q and R
−𝒉𝟏 𝑣  If this combination acts as a single lens of focal
𝑚= = lenth ‘F’, then, ,  The incident and emergent ray meet at a point M
𝒉 −𝑢  From figure, ∠ 𝑀𝑄𝑅 = 𝑑1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑟1
𝒉𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒎= = − − − − (𝟐) − = − − − (𝟒) and ∠ 𝑀𝑅𝑄 = 𝑑2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑟2
𝒉 𝒖 𝒗 𝒖 𝑭  Then total angle of deviation,
 The magnification is negative for real image and  Compare eqn (3) and (4)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
positive for virtural image. = + − − − (𝟓) 𝑑 = (𝑖1 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑖2 − 𝑟2 )
 Thus for convex lens, the magnification is 𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) − − − (1)
negative, and for concave lens, the magnification is  For any number of lenses,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏  In the quadrilateral AQNR, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝑅 = 90° .
positive.
= + + + +⋯ Hence
 Combining the lens equation and magnification 𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑 𝒇𝟒
𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
equation, we get  Let 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 , 𝑷𝟑 , 𝑷𝟒 … be the power of each lens,
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐴 = 180° − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 − − − (2)
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 then the net power of the lens combination,
𝒎= =  In QNR,
𝒉 𝒇+ 𝒖 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + 𝑷𝟒 + ⋯
 Let 𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 , 𝒎𝟑 , 𝒎𝟒 … be the magnification of 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 − 𝒗 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 180° − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 − − − (3)
(𝒐𝒓) 𝒎= = each lens, then the net magnification of the lens
𝒉 𝒇  From eqn (2) and (3)
combination,
9. Derive the equation for effective forcal length for 𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 − − − − (4)
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟏 𝑋 𝒎𝟐 𝑋 𝒎𝟑 𝑋 𝒎𝟒 𝑋 …
lenses in contact.  Put eqn (4) in eqn (1),
10. Derive the equation for angle of deviation
Focal length of lenses in contact : 𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨 − − − −(5)
produced by af prism and thus obtain the equation
for refractive index of material of the prism.  Thus the angle of deviation depends on,
Angle of deviation (d) : (1) the angle of incidence (𝑖1 )
 Let ‘ABC’ be the section of triangular prism. (2) the angle of the prism (A)
 Here face ‘BC’ is grounded and it is called base of (3) the material of the prism (n)
the prism. (4) the wavelength of the light ()
 The other two faces ‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are polished
which are called refracting faces.
Angle of minimum deviation (D) : 11. What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for 𝐴+𝛿
[ ] 𝐴+𝛿
 A graph is plotted between the angle of incidence dispersive power of a medium. 2
n= =
along x-axis and angle of deviation along y-axis. Dispersion : 𝐴 𝐴
[ ]
 From the graph, as angle of incidence increases,  Splitting of white light into its constituent colours 2
is called dispersion. n𝐴 = 𝐴+𝛿
the angle of deviation decreases, reaches a
 The coloured band obtained due to dispersion is (or) 𝛿 = n 𝐴 − 𝐴
minimum value and then continues to increase.
called spectrum. ∴ 𝜹 = (𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (2)
Dispersive power :  Thus, angle of deviation for violet and red light,
𝜹𝑽 = (𝐧𝑽 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (3)
𝜹𝑹 = (𝐧𝑹 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (4)
 The angular dispersion is given by,
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 = (n𝑉 − 1) 𝐴 − (n𝑅 − 1) 𝐴
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 = n𝑉 𝐴 − A − n𝑉 𝐴 + A
𝜹𝑽 − 𝜹𝑹 = (𝐧𝑽 − 𝐧𝑹 ) 𝑨 − − − − − (5)
 Let 𝜹 be the angle of deviation for mean ray
(yellow) and n be the corresponding refractive
 The minimum value of angled of deviation is index, then
called angle of minimum deviation (D). 𝜹 = (𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (6)
 At minimum deviation,  Dispersive power (𝝎) is the ability of the material  By definition, dispersive power
(1) 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 of the prism to cause dispersion. 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜹𝑽 − 𝜹𝑹
𝜔= =
(2) 𝑟1 = 𝑟2  It is defined as the ration of the angular 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜹
dispersion for the extreme colours to the (n𝑉 − n𝑅 ) 𝐴
(3) Refracted ray ‘QR’ is parallel to the base ‘BC’ 𝜔=
of the prism. deviation for any mean colour. (n − 1) 𝐴
Refractive index of the material of the prism (n) :  Let A be the angle of prism and D be the angle of (𝐧𝑽 − 𝐧𝑹 )
𝝎= − − − − − − − (𝟕)
 At angle of minimum deviation, minimum deviation, then the refractive index of (𝐧 − 𝟏)
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖 the material of the prism is  Dispersive power is a dimensionless quantity. It
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟 𝐴+𝐷 has no unit. It is always positive.
sin [ ]
 Put this in equations (4) and (5) n= 2
𝐴
𝐴= 𝑟+ 𝑟 =2𝑟 sin [ ]
2
𝑨  If the angle of the prism is small in the order of
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒓= − − − − − − (6)
𝟐 10 then it is called small angle prism. In this
and 𝐷 = (𝑖 + 𝑖) − 𝐴 = 2 𝑖 − 𝐴 prism, the angle of deviation also become small.
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑖 = 𝐴 + 𝐷  Let A be the angle of prism and 𝛿 be the angle of
𝑨+𝑫
𝒊= − − − − − − (7) minimum deviation, then the refractive index
𝟐 𝐴+𝛿
 Then by Snell’s law , sin [ ]
2
sin 𝑖 n= − − − − (1)
n= 𝐴
sin 𝑟 sin [ ]
2
𝑨+𝑫  Since A and 𝛿 are small, we may write,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 [ ]
𝐧= 𝟐 − − − − (𝟖) 𝐴+𝛿 𝐴+𝛿
𝑨 sin [ ] ≈ [ ]
𝐬𝐢𝐧 [ ] 2 2
𝟐 𝐴 𝐴
sin [ ] ≈ [ ]
2 2
 Put this in eqn (1),
CHAPTER-7-WAVE OPTICS
1. What are the salient features of corpuscular theory of light?
According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, massless (negligibly small mass) and
perfectly elastic particles called corpuscles. As the corpuscles are very small, the source of light
does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even if it emits light for a long time. On account of
high speed, they are unaffected by the force of gravity and their path is a straight line in a
medium of uniform refractive index. The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these
corpuscles. When these corpuscles impinge on the retina of the eye, the vision is produced.
The different size of the corpuscles give different colours of light. When the corpuscles
approach a surface between two media, they are either attracted or repelled. The reflection of
light is due to the repulsion of the corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light is due to
the attraction of the corpuscles by the medium.
====================================================================
2. What are the important points of wave theory of light?
Christian Huygens (1678) proposed the wave theory to explain the propagation of light
through a medium. According to him, light is a disturbance from a source that travels as
longitudinal mechanical waves through the ether medium that was presumed to pervade all
space as mechanical wave requires medium for its propagation. The wave theory could
successfully explain phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction of light.
=====================================================================
3. What is the significance of electromagnetic wave theory of light?
Maxwell (1864) proved that light is an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in nature
carrying electromagnetic energy. He could also show that no medium is necessary for the
propagation of electromagnetic waves. All the phenomenon of light could be successfully
explained by this theory.
=====================================================================
4. Write a short note on quantum theory of light.
Quantum theory was proposed by Max Planck. On the basis of quantum theory, Einstein
explained the Photoelectric effect. According to quantum theory of light, light interacts with
matter as photons to eject the electrons. A photon is a discrete packet of energy. Each photon
has energy E of,
Where, h is Plank’s constant (h = 6.625 × 10–34 J s) and ν is frequency of electromagnetic wave.

As light has both wave as well as particle nature it is said to have dual nature. Thus, it is
concluded that light propagates as a wave and interacts with matter as a particle.
=====================================================================
5. What is a wave front?
A wave front is the locus of points which are in the same state or phase of vibration.
============================================================
6. What are the shapes of wavefront for a) source at infinite b) point source
c) line source
a) Source at infinite – plane wave front
b) Point source – spherical wave front
c) Line source – cylindrical wave front
7. What is Huygens’ principle?

According to Huygens principle, each point of the wave front is the source of secondary
wavelets emanating from these points spreading out in all directions with the speed of the
wave. These are
called as secondary wavelets
=====================================================================
8 . What is interference of light?
The phenomenon of addition or superposition of two light waves which produces increase
in intensity at some points and decrease in intensity at some other points is called interference
of light.
=====================================================================
9. What is phase of a wave?
Phase is the angular position of a vibration
=====================================================================
10. Obtain the relation between phase difference and path difference.
In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ corresponds to a phase of 2π as shown in
Figure.
A path difference δ corresponds to a phase difference ϕ as given by the equation,
11. What are coherent sources?

Two light sources are said to be coherent if they produce waves which have same phase or
constant phase difference, same frequency or wavelength (monochromatic), same waveform
and preferably same amplitude.
=====================================================================
=====================================================================
12. How does wavefront division provide coherent sources?
Wavefront division: This is the most commonly used method for producing two coherent
sources. We know a point source produces spherical wavefronts. All the points on the
wavefront are at the
same phase. If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using a double slit, the two points
will act as coherent sources.
=====================================================================
13. What is intensity division (or amplitude division?
Intensity or amplitude division: If we allow light to pass through a partially silvered mirror
(beam splitter), both reflection and refraction take place simultaneously. As the two light
beams are obtained from the same light source, the two divided light beams will be coherent
beams. They will be either in-phase or at constant phase difference. Instruments like
Michelson’s interferometer, Fabray- Perrot etalon work on this principle.
14. How do source and images behave as coherent sources?

Source and images: In this method a source and its image will act as a set of coherent source,
because the source and its image will have waves in-phase or constant phase difference. The
Instrument, Fresnel’s biprism uses two virtual sources as two coherent sources and the
instrument, Lloyd’s mirror uses a source and its virtual image as two coherent sources.
=====================================================================
15. What is bandwidth of interference pattern?
The bandwidth (β) is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark
fringes.
===========================================================
16. What is diffraction?
Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the geometrically shadowed region
=====================================================================
17. Differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
=====================================================================
18. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in Fraunhofer diffraction.
Condition for P to be first minimum

Let us divide the slit AB into two half ’s AC and CB. Now the width of AC is (a/2).
We have different points on the slit which are separated by the same width (here a/2)
called corresponding points as shown in Figure.
The path difference of light waves from different corresponding points meeting at point P and
interfere destructively to make it first minimum. The path difference δ between waves from
these corresponding
points is,
=====================================================================
19. What is Fresnel’s distance?
Fresnel’s distance is the distance up to which ray optics is obeyed and beyond which ray optics
is not obeyed but, wave optics becomes significant.
=============================================================================
20. Mention the differences between interference and diffraction.
============================================================================
21. What is a diffraction grating?
Grating is a device which is used to diffract the light.Grating has multiple slits with equal
widths of size comparable to the wavelength of diffracting light. Grating is a plane sheet of
transparent material on which opaque rulings are made with a fine Diamond pointer. The
modern commercial grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre.
=============================================================================
22. What are resolution?
Resolution is the quality of image which is decided by diffraction effect and Rayleigh
criterion. Resolution is measured by the smallest distance which could be seen clearly without
the blur due to diffraction
============================================================================
23. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for two point objects to be just resolved, the minimum
distance between their diffraction images must be in such a way that the central maximum of
one coincides with the first minimum of the other and vice versa.
=============================================================================
24. what is the difference between resolution and magnification?
Resolution Magnification
Resolution is measured by the smallest It is the measure of how many times bigger
distance which could be seen clearly the image is compared to the original object
without the blur due to diffraction.
Resolution is pertaining to the quality of the
image.
=============================================================================
25. What is polarisation?
The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of light (electric or magnetic field vector) to a
particular direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation motion is called
polarization of light.
26. Differentiate between polarised and unpolarised light
=============================================================================
27. Discuss polarisation by selective absorption.
Selective absorption is the property of a material which transmits waves whose electric fields
vibrate in a plane parallel to a certain direction of orientation and absorbs all other waves. The
polaroids
or polarisers are thin commercial sheets which make use of the property of selective
absorption to produce an intense beam of plane polarised light. Selective absorption is also
called as dichroism.
=============================================================================
28. What are polariser and analyser?
The Polaroid which plane polarises the unpolarised light passing through it is called a polariser.
The polaroid which is used to examine whether a beam of light is polarised or not is called an
analyser.
============================================================================
29. What are plane polarised, unpolarised and partially polarised light?
Plane polarised light:
If the vibrations of a wave are present in only one direction in a plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave is said to be polarised or plane polarised light.
In plane polarised light the intensity varies from maximum to zero for every rotation of 90o of
the analyser
Unpolarised light :
A transverse wave which has vibrations in all directions in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is said to be unpolarised light.
Partially polarised light:
If the intensity of light varies between maximum and minimum for every rotation of 90o of the
analyser, the light is said to be partially polarised light
=============================================================================
30. State Malus’ law.(any of them could be answered)
I statement:
when a beam of plane polarised light of intensity I0 is incident on an analyser, the light
transmitted of intensity I from the analyser varies directly as the square of the cosine of the
angle θ between
the transmission axis of polariser and analyser.
II statement :
The intensity of light transmitted from the analyser is proportional to the square of the
component of the amplitude transmitted by the analyser.
=============================================================================
31 . List the uses of polaroids.
1. Polaroids are used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light.
2. Polaroids are useful in three dimensional motion pictures i.e., in holography.
3. Polaroids are used to improve contrast in old oil paintings.
4. Polaroids are used in optical stress analysis.
5. Polaroids are used as window glasses to control the intensity of incoming light.
6. Polarised laser beam acts as needle to read/write in compact discs (CDs).
7. Polaroids produce polarised lights to be used in liquid crystal display (LCD).
=============================================================================
32. State Brewster’s law.
The law states that the tangent of the polarising angle for a transparent medium
is equal to its refractive index.
=============================================================================
33. What is angle of polarisation and obtain the equation for angle of polarisation.
The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam is plane polarised is called polarising
angle ip.
From Brewster’s law,
ip = tan-1 (n)
=======================================================
34. Discuss about pile of plates.
The phenomenon of polarisation by reflection is used in the construction of pile of plates.
It consists of a number of glass plates placed one over the other in a tube. The pile of
plates is used as a polarizer and also as an analyser.
=============================================================================
35. What is double refraction?
when a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced.
Hence, two images of a single object are formed. This phenomenon is called double refraction.
Double refraction is also called birefringence.
=============================================================================
36. Mention the types of optically active crystals with example.
Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice having only one optic axis are called uniaxial
crystals.
Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite having two optic axes are called biaxial
crystals.
=============================================================================
37. Discuss about Nicol prism.
Nicol prism is an optical device incorporated in optical instruments both for producing and
analysing plane polarised light. The construction of a Nicol prism is based on the phenomenon
of Double
Refraction. It is used as a polariser and analyser.
=============================================================================
39. What are near point and normal focusing?
Near point focusing – The image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm for normal eye. This
distance is also called as least distance D of distinct vision. In this position, the eye feels
comfortable but there is little strain on the eye.
Normal focusing – The image is formed at infinity. In this position the eye is most relaxed to
view the image
=============================================================================
40. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a microscope?
To further reduce the value of dmin the optical path of the light is increased by immersing the
objective of the microscope in to a bath containing oil of refractive index n.
Such an objective is called oil immersed objective.

=============================================================================
41. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a reflecting telescope?
Advantages :
They have several advantages. Only one surface it to be polished and maintained. Support
can be given from the entire back of the mirror rather than only at the rim for lens. Mirrors
weigh much less compared to lens.
Disadvantages :
One obvious problem with a reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror would focus the
light inside the telescope tube. One must have an eye piece inside obstructing some light. This
problem could also be overcome by introducing a secondary mirror which would take the light
outside the tube for view
============================================================================
42. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial telescope?
A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at long distance on the surface of earth. Hence,
image should be errect. A terrestrial telescope has an additional erecting lens to make the final
image erect.
============================================================================
43. What is the use of collimator?
The collimator is an arrangement to produce a parallel beam of light in spectrometer.
=============================================================================
44. What are the uses of spectrometer?
The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to study the spectra of different sources of
light and to measure the refractive indices of materials. It is also used to measure the
wavelength of the spectral colours.
=============================================================================
45. What is myopia? What is its remedy?
A person suffering from near-sightedness or myopia cannot see distant objects clearly.
They need a correcting lens which should be a concave lens.
=============================================================================
46. What is hypermetropia? What is its remedy?
A person suffering from farsightedness or hypermetropia or hyperopia cannot clearly see
objects close to the eye. They need a correcting lens which should be a convex lens.
=============================================================================
47. What is astigmatism? What is its remedy?
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different curvatures along different planes
in the eye lens. Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions equally well. It can be rectified
by wearing the cylindrical lens(correcting lens)
============================================================================
48. What is presbyopia?
A kind of farsightedness arising due to aging is called presbyopia as the aged people cannot
strain their eye more to reduce the focal length of the eye lens.
Reading or viewing smaller things held in the hands(Near focussing) is difficult for them.
=============================================================================
2 & 3 mark questions and answers  Maxwell proposed electromagnetic theory of light. 9. State Huygen’s principle.
 According to electromagnetic wave theory, light is Huygen’s principle :
1. What are the salient features of corpuscular an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in  Each point of the wavefront is the source of
theory of light? nature carrying electromagnetic energy. secondary wavelets which spreading out in all
Corpuscular theory :  No medium is necessary for the propagation of directions with speed of the wave.
 Sir Isaac Newton proposed corpuscular theory of electromagnetic waves.  The envelope to all this wavelets gives the
light.  All the phenomenon of light could be successfully position and shape of the new wavefront at a later
 According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, explained by electromagnetic theory. time.
massless and perfectly elastic particles called  But the interaction of light with matter like 10. Define interference.
corpuscles. photoelectric effect, Compton effect could not be  The phenomenon of superposition of two light
 As the corpuscles are very small, the source of explained by this theory. waves which produces increase in intensity at
light does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even 4. Write a short note on quantum theory of light. some points and decrease in intensity at some
if it emits light for a long time. Quantum theory of light : other points is called interference of light.
 They travel with high speed and they are  By extending Max Plank quantum ideas, Albert 11. What is phase of a wave?
unaffected by the force of gravity. So their path is Einstein proposed quantum theory of light.  Phase is the angular position of a vibration.
a straight line.  According to quantum theory, light is not 12. Give the relation between phase difference and
 The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these continuous but it propagated in the form of path difference.
corpuscles. discrete packets of energy called photon.  In the path of the wave, one wavelength 
 When they impinge on the retina of the eye, the  Each photon has energy E of corresponds to a phase of 2 
vision is produced. The different size of the =  Hence the path difference 𝛿 corresponds to a
corpuscles is the reason for different colours of Here →Plank s constant = . 𝑿 − phase difference 𝜙 is
light. 5. What is Dual nature of light ?
 A light has both wave as well as particle nature 𝜹= 𝝓
 The reflection of light is due to repulsion of the 𝝅
corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light and hence it is said to have dual nature. 13. Whar are called coherent sources?
is due to the attraction of the courpuscles by the (1) Light propagated as a waves  Two light sources are said to be coherent, if they
medium. (2) Light interacts with matter as a particle produce waves which have same phase or
 This theory could not explain, why speed of light is 6. Write a note on wave nature of light. constant phase difference, same frequency or
lesser in denser medium than rarer medium and Wave nature of light : wavelength, same waveform and preferably same
also interference, diffraction and polarization.  Light is transverse electromagnetic wave. amplitude.
2. Write a note on wave theory of light.  The wave nature of light was confirmed by the 14. Can two independent monochromatic sources acts
Wave theory of light : experiments on interference and diffraction. as coherent sources?
 Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of  Like electromagnetic wave, light can travel  Two independent monochromatic sources never
light. through vacuum. be coherent, because they may emit waves of
 According to wave theory, light is a disturbance  The transverse nature of light was proved by same frequency and same amplitude, but not with
from a source that travels as longitudinal polarization. same phase.
mechanical wave through the ether medium that 7. Define wave front.  Due to thermal vibrations, the atoms while
was presumed to pervade in all space.  A wavefront is the locus of points which are in the emitting light undergoes this change in phase.
 This theory could successfully explain reflection, same state or phase of vibration. 15. Give the methods to obtain coherent light waves.
refraction, interference, and diffraction. 8. What are the shapes of wavefront for (a) source at  Coherent waves are obtained by following three
 But polarization could not explain by this theory infinite, (b) point source and (c) line source? techniques.
as it is the property of only transverse waves. (1) A point source located at a finite distance gives (1) Intensity or amplitude division
 Later the existence of ether in all space was spherical wavefront. (2) Wavefront division
proved to be wrong. (2) A point source located at infinite distance gives (3) Source and images
3. Write a note on electromagnetic wave theory . plane wavefront.
Electromagnetic wave theory of light : (3) A line source gives cylindrical wavefront.
16. Write a note on intensity or amplitude division. 20. What is bandwidth of interference pattern? Case (3) : If > (i.e.) = then, 𝜽= or
Intensity or amplitude division :  The band width () is defined as the distance 𝜽 = ° The diffraction is observed with a measurable
 If light is incident on a partially silvered mirror, between any two consecutive bright or dark spread. Hence, it is concluded that for observing the
both reflection and refraction takes place fringes. diffraction pattern, essentially the width of the slit a
simultaneously. 21. What are the conditions for obtaining clear and must be just few times greater than the wavelength of
 As the two light beams are obtained from the broad interference bands? light λ
same light source, the two divided light beams will (1) The screen should be as far away from the source Case(4) : If >> then 𝜽 << . The first
be coherent beams. as possible. minimum falls within the width space of the slit itself.
 They will be either in-phase or at constant phase (2) The wavelength of light used must be larger. Hence, the phenomenon of diffraction is not observed
difference. e.g. Michelson s interferometer (3) Two coherent sources must be as close as possible at all.
17. Write a note on wavefront division. 22. Brilliant colours are exhibited by the surface of oil 26. What is diffraction grating?
Wavefront division : films and soap bubbles. Why?  Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on
 It is the common method used for producing two  The colours exhibited by the surface of oil films which opaque rulings are made with a fine
coherent sources. We know all the points on the and soap bubbles are due to interference of white diamond pointer.
wavefront are at the same phase. light undergoing multiple reflections from the top  Thus gratting has multiple slits with equal widths
 If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using and bottom surfaces of thin films. of size comparable to the wavelength of light
a doubl slit, the two points will act as coherent  The colourd depends upon,  The modern commercial grating contains about
sources. e.g. Young s double slit method (1) thickness of the film 6000 lines per centimeter.
18. Write a note on Source and images method. (2) refractive index of the film 27. Define grating element and corresponding points.
Source and images : (3) angle of incidence of the light  The combined width of a ruling (b) and a slit (a) is
 In this method, a source and its image will act as a 23. What is diffraction? called grating element (e = a + b)
set of coherent source, because the source and its  Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp  Points on successive slits separated by a distance
image will have waves in-phase or constant phase edges into the geometrically shadowed region. equal to the grating element are called
difference. e.g. Lloyd s mirror  We observe diffraction only when the size of the corresponding points.
19. What are called constructive and destructive obstacle is comparable to the wavelength 28. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
interference? 24. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer
Interference Diffraction
Constructive interference : diffraction.
Superposition of two Bending of waves around
 During superposition of two coherent waves, the Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
waves the edges
points where the crest of one wave meets the Spherical or cylindrical wave Plane wavefront
crest of other (or) the trough of one wave meets Superposition of waves Superposition of wavefronts
front undergoes diffracion undergoes diffraction
the trough of the other wave, the waves are from two coherent sources emitted from various
The source of light is finite The source of light is points of the same
in-phase. distance from the obstacle infinite distance from
 Hence the displacement is maximum and these wavefront
the obstacle
points appear as bright. Equally spaced fringes Unequally spaced fringes
Convex lenses need not be Convex lenses are to be
 This type of interference is said to be constructive Intensity of all the bright Intensity falls rapidly for
used used
interference. fringes is almost same higher orders
Difficult to observe and Easy to observe and
Destructive interference : Large number of fringes Less number of fringes are
analyse analyse
 During superposition of two coherent waves, the are obtained obtained.
25. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in
points where the crest of one wave meets the 29. What is Fresnel’s distance? Obtain an expression
Fraunhofer diffraction.
trough of other (or) vice versa, the waves are for it.
 The equation for first minimum in single slit
out-of-phase. Fresnel’s distance:
diffraction is 𝜽=
 Hence the displacement is minimum and these  Fresnel s distance is the distance upto which ray
Case (1) :If < then 𝜽 > which is not possible.
points appear as dark. optics is obeyed and beyond which ray optics is
Hence diffraction does not takes place.
 This type of interference is said to be destructive not obeyed but wave optics becomes significant.
Case (2) : If = then 𝜽 = (or) 𝜽 = 𝟗 ° .
interference. (i.e.) The first minimumis at 𝟗 °
Expression : 33. Define polarization.  Edwin Land developed polarizer in the form of
 The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of thin sheets.
light to a particular direction perpendicular to the  Tourmaline is a natural polarizing material. But
direction of wave propagation motion is called polaroids are made artificially.
polarization.  A number of needle shaped crystals of quinine
34. Distinguish between unpolarized and plane iodosulphate with their axes parallel to one
 Let Fresnel distance = polarized light. another packed in between two transparent
 From the diffraction equation for first minimum, Unpolarized light Plane polarized light plastic sheets serve as a good polaroid.
A transverse wave which A transverse wave which has  Recently new type of polaroids are prepared in
sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 = has vibrations in all vibrations in only one which thin film of polyvinyl alcohol (colour less
 From the definition of Fresnel s distance, directions in a plane direction in a plane crystals) is used.
perpendicular to the perpendicular to the38. What is polarizer and analyser?
sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 =
direction of propagation is direction of propagation is Polariser :
 Equating the above two equantion, said to be unpolarized light said to be planepolarized light  The polaroid which plane polarizes the
Symmetrical about the ray Asymmetrical about the unpolarized light passing through it is called a
=
direction ray direction polarizer.
Produced by conventional It is obtained from Analyser :
=
light sources unpolarized light with help  The polaroid which is used to examine whether a
30. Give the reason for colourful appearance of the of polarizers beam of light is polarized or not is called analyser.
compact disc. 35. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization. 39. Discuss how a plane polarized and partially
 On the read or writable side of the disc, there are Plane of vibration: polarized light will be analysed using analyser?
many narrow circular tracks whose width are  The plane containing the vibrations of the electric Plane polarized light :
comparable to the wavelength of visible light. field vector is known as plane of vibration.  If the intensity of light varies from maximum to
 Hence the diffraction takes place after reflection Plane of polarization: zero for every rotation of 90 of the analyser, the
for incident white light to give colourful  The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration light is said to be plane polarized
appearance. and containing the ray of light is known as the Partially polarized light :
 Thus tracks act as reflecting grating. plane of polarization.  If the intensity of light varies from maximum to
31. What are resolution and resolving power? 36. How an unpolarized light can be polarized? mimimum for every rotation of 90 of the
 Two point sources must be imaged in such a way  The unpolarized light can be polarized by analyser, the light is said to be partially polarized.
that their images are sufficiently far apart that following techniques. 40. State and prove Malus’ law.
their diffraction pattersn do not overlap. This is (1) Polarization by selective absorption Malus’s law :
called resolution. (2) Polarization by reflection  When a beam of plane polarized light of intensity
 The inverse of resolution is called resolving (3) Polarization by double refraction 𝐼 is incident on an analyser, the light transmitted
power. The ability of an optical instrument to (4) Polarization by scattering of intensity I from the analyser varies directly as
separate or distinguish small or closely adjacent 37. Discuss polarization by selective absorption. the square of the cosine of the angle  between
objects through the image formation is said to be Polarization by selective absorption (Polaroids) : the transmission axis of polarizer and analyser.
resolving power of the instrument.  Selective absorption is the property of a material This is known as Malus law.
32. What is Rayleigh’s criterion? which transmits waves whose electric field vibrate = 𝐜 𝜽
 According to Rayleigh s criterion, for tow point in a plane parallel to a certain direction of Proof :
objects to be just resolved, the minimum distance orientation and absorbs all other waves.  Let the angle between plane of polarizer and
between their diffraction images must be in such a  The polroids or polarizer using this property of analyser = 
way that the central maximum of one coincides selective absorption to produce intense plane Intensity of electric vector transmitted by the
with the first minimum of the other and vice polarized light. polarizer = 𝐼
versa.  Selective absorption is also called as dichroism. Amplitude of this electric vector =
 The Rayleigh s criterion is said to be limit of
resolution.
43. Explain polarization by reflection.  From the figure,
Polarization by reflection : 𝑖 + °+ = °
= 𝟗 °− −−−−
 From Snell s law
sin 𝑖
=
sin
sin 𝑖
=
sin °− 𝑖
sin 𝑖
=
cos 𝑖
𝐚 =
 The amplitude of the incident light was resolved in  This relation is known as Brewster s law.
to two components,  This law states that, the tangent of the polarizing
 It is the simplest method to produce plane
(1) 𝐜 𝜽 - parallel component to the axis of angle for a transparent medium is equal to its
polarized light. refractive index.
transmission of the analyser
 It is discovered by Malus.
(2) 𝐢 𝜽 - perpendicular component to the axis 45. Write a note on pile of plates.
 Here, XY - reflecting surface Pile of plates :
of transmission of the analyser
AB - incident unpolarized light beam
 Here only the parallel component ( 𝐜 𝜽) will
BC - reflecting light beam
be transmitted by the analyser.
BD - refracted light beam
 Hence ht intensity of the transmitted light is,
 On examining the reflected beam BC with an
𝐼 ∝ cos 𝜃
analyser, it is found that the ray is is partially
𝐼 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
plane polarized.
𝐼 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
 When the light is allowed to be incident on
= 𝐜 𝜽
particular angle, the reflected beam is found to be
(1) When 𝜃 = ° , =
plane polarized. That angle of incidence is called
(2) When 𝜃 = ° , =
polarizing angle (  It work on the principle of polarization by
41. List the uses of polaroids.
44. State and prove Brewster’s law reflection.
Uses of polaroids :
Brewste’ s law :  It consists of a number of glass plates placed one
 Used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light
 The angle of incidence at which a beam of over the other in a tube.
 Used in holography (three dimensional motion
pictrure)
unpolarized light falling on a transparent surface  These plates are inclined at an angle . ° to the
is reflected as a beam of plane polarized light is axis of the tube.
 Used to improve contrast in old oil paintings
called polarizing angle or Brewster s angle 𝑖 )  A beam of unpolarized light is allowed to fall on
 Used in optical stress analysis.
 Sir David Brewster found that, at polarizing the pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So the
 Used as window glasses to control the intensity of
incoming light
angle, the reflected and transmitted rays are angle of incidence of light will be . °, which is
perpendicular to each other. the polarizing angle for glass.
 Polarised needle beam acts as needle to
 Let, incident polarizing angle = 𝑖  The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
read/write in compact discs (CDs)
Angle of refraction = incidence are reflected at each surface and those
 Polaroid produce polarized lights to be used in
liquid crystal display (LCD) parallel to it are transmitted.
42. Defined angle of polarization.  The larger the number of surfaces, the greater the
 The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam intensity of the reflected plane polarized light.
is plane polarized is called polarizing angle or  The pile of plates is used as a polrizer and also as
Brewste s angle ) an analyser.
 The polarizing angle for glass is ; = . °
46. Define double refraction.  Nicol prism is made by calcite crystal which is
 When a ray of unpolrized light is incident on a double refracting crystal.
calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced.  ABCD is the principal section of a calcite crystal
Hence two images of a single object are formed. with its length is three times of its breadth.
This phenomenon is called double refraction.  The face angles are 72 and 108
 The obtained images are called as,  It is cut in to two halves along the diagonal AB and
(1) Ordinary image joined together by a layer of canada balsam, a
(2) Extra ordinary image transparent cement.
 Double refraction is also called bi refringence.  Let an unpolarized light from monochromatic
47. Distinguish between ordinary ray and extra source is incident on the face AC of the Nicol prism.
ordinary ray.  Here double refraction takes place, and the ray
Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray split in to ordinary ray and extraordinary ray.
They obey the laws of They do not obey the laws  For this calcite crystal.
refraction of refraction refractive index for the ordinary ray = 1.658  Under the influence of the electric field of the
refractive index for the extraordinary ray = 1.486 incident wave the electrons in the molecules
Inside the crystal, they Inside the crystal, they
 The refractive index of canada balsam = 1.523 acquire components of motion in both these
travel with same velocity travel with different
Here canada balsam does not polarize light directions.
in all directions velocities along different
 The ordinary ray is totally internally reflected at  We have shown an observer looking at 90 to the
directions
the layer of canada balsam. direction of the sun.
A point source inside the A point source inside the
 The extraordinaty ray alone is transmitted  Clearly, charges accelerating paralled do not
crystal produces spherical crystal produces elliptical
through the crystal which is plane polarized. radiate energy towards this observer since their
wavefront for ordinary wavefront for extra
51. What are the uses and drawbacks of Nicol prism? acceleration has no transverse component.
ray ordinary ray
Uses :  The radiation scattered by the molecule is
48. Define Optic axis.
 It produces plane polarized light and funcitons as therefore polarized perpendicular to the plane of
 Inside the double refracting crystal, there is a
a polarizer. the paper.
particular direction in which both the ordinary
 It can also used as an analyser.  This explains the reason for polarization of
and extraordinary rays travel with same velocity.
Drawbacks : sunlight by scattering.
This direction is called optic axis.
 It cost is very high due to scarity of large and 53. Distinguish between near point focusing and
 Along optic axis, the refractive index is same for
flawless calcite crystal. normal focusing.
both rays.
 Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely Near point focusing Normal focusing
49. Define uniaxial crystal and biaxial crystal.
The image is formed at The image is formed at
 Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice through it, the emergent ray is always displaced a
little to one side. near point infinity
having only one optic axis are called uniaxial
crystals.  The effective field of view is quite limited. In this position, the eye In this position, the eye is
 Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite  Light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane feel little strain most relaxed to view the
having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals. polarized. image
50. Discuss about Nicol prism. 52. Explain polarization by scattering. Magnification is high Magnification is low
Nicol prism : Polarization by scattering: = + =
 The light from a clear blue portion of the sky
shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed 54. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a
through a polaroid which is rotated. microscope?
 This is because of sunlight, which has changed its  The ability of microscope depends not only in
direction on encountering the molecules of the magnifying the object but also in resolving two
earth s atmosphere. points on the object separated by a small distance
. 𝜆
 The electric field of light interact with the 𝑖 = sin 𝛽
electrons present in the air molecules.
 That is, smaller the value of ′ 𝑖 ′ better will be 60. What is hypermetopia? What is its remedy?
the resolving power of the microscope.  A person suffering from hypermetopia or
 To further reduce the value of ′ 𝑖 ′ , the optical farsightedness cannot see objects close to the eye.
path of the light is increased by immersing the  It occurs when the eye lens has too long focal
objective of the microscope in to a bath containg length due to thinning of eye lens or shortening of
. 𝜆 the eyeball than normal.
oil of refractive index n . 𝑖. . 𝑖 = sin 𝛽
 Using convex lens this defect can be rectified.
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective. 61. What is presbyopia?
 The term 𝐢 𝜷′ is called numerical aperture  The least distance for clear vision for aged people
(NA) is appreciably more than 25 cm and the person
55. What are the merits and demerits of reflecting has to keep the object inconveniently away from
telescope? the eye.
Merits :  Thus reasing or viewing smaller things held in the
 Only one surface is to be polished and maintained. hands is difficult for them.
 Support can be given from the entire back of the  This kind of farsightedness arising due to aging is
mirror rather than only at the rim for lens. called presbyopia.
 Mirror weigh much less compared to lens. 62. What is astigmatism?
Demerits :  Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different
 The objective mirror would focus the light inside curvatures along different planes in the eye lens.
the telescope tube. One must have an eye piece  Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions
insided obstruction some light. equally well.
56. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial  Lenses with different curvatures in different
telescope? planes called cylindrical lens is used to rectify
 A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at long astigmatism defect.
distance on the surface of earth. Hence image 63. Whar are called Airy’s discs?
should be erect.  When a circular aperture like a lens or the iris of
 So an additional erecting lens is used to make the eye forms an image of a point object, the image
final image enlarged and erect. formed will not be a point, but a diffraction
57. What is the use of collimator inspectrometer? pattern of concentric circles that becomes fainter
 The collimator is an arrangement to produce a while moving away from the centre.
parallel beam of light.  These are known as Airy s discs.
58. What are the uses of spectrometer?
 Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to,
(1) study the spectra of different sources of light
(2) measure the refractive indices of materials
59. What is myopia? What is its remedy?
 A person suffering from myopia or nearsightedness
cannot see distant objects clearly.
 It occurs when the eye lens has too short focal
length due to thickening of the lens or larger
diameter of the eyeball than usual.
 Using concave lens this defect can be rectified.
2. Prove laws of refraction using Huygen’ principle. 3. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to
5 - Mark Question & Answer Laws of refraction - Proof : interference of light.
1. Prove laws of reflection using Huygens principle. Resultant intensity due to interference :
Laws of reflection - Proof :
 Let and are the two light waves meeting at a

point P
 − Reflecting surface  Let XY be the refracting surface .  At any instant t , the displacement equations,
 −Incident plane wavefront.  The incident wavefront AB is in rarer medium (1) = sin 𝜔 −−−−
 The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular  The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular = sin 𝜔 + 𝜙 −−−−
to this incident wavefront. to this incident wavefront. where, 𝜙  phase difference between them
 Initially the point A reaches reflecting surface.  Initially the point A reaches refracting surface.  Then the resultant displacement,
 Then the successive points between AB reaches  Then the successive points between AB reaches = +
the surface. the surface. = sin 𝜔 + sin 𝜔 + 𝜙
 Finally, by the time B reaches , the point A  Finally, by the time B reaches , the point A  By solving this, we get,
would have reached would have reached in the other medium. =𝑨 𝝎 +𝜽 −−−−
 This is applicable to all the points on the  This is applicable to all the points on the
wavefront AB. Thus the reflected wavefront wavefront AB. Thus the refracted wavefront  where, = √ + + 𝜙 and
emanates as a plane wavefront. emanates as a plane wavefront. sin 𝜙
 The line from perpendiculars to  The line from perpendiculars to 𝜃 = tan− [ ]
+ cos 𝜙
represent reflected rays. represent refracted rays. (1) When , 𝜙 = , ± 𝜋, ± 𝜋, … …. .the resultant
 .As the reflection happens in the same medium,  Let be the speed of light in medium (1) and amplitude becomes maximum
the speed of light is same before and after be the speed of light in medium (2). Here >
𝑨 =√ +
reflection. Hence, =  The time taken for the ray to travel from B to is
same as the time taken for the ray to travel from (2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ± 𝜋, ± 𝜋 … …. the resultant
Law (1) :
 The incident rays, the reflected rays and the A reaches . So = and = amplitude becomes minimum
normal are in the same plane. 𝑨 =√ −
Law (2) : = −−−−−  The intensity of light is directly proportional to
 Angle of incidence, Law (1) : the square of the amplitude.
∠𝑖 = ∠ = °−∠ =∠  The incident rays, refracted rays and the normal 𝐼 ∝
 Angle of reflection, are in the same plane. 𝐼 ∝ + + cos 𝜙
∠ = ∠ = °−∠ =∠ Law (2) : ∝ + + √ 𝝓 −−−
 In ∆ and ∆ ,  Angle of incidence, (1) When, 𝜙 = , ± 𝜋, ± 𝜋, … …. .the resultant
∠ = ∠ = ° ∠𝑖 = ∠ = °−∠ =∠ intensity becomes maximum. This is called
= and  Angle of refraction, constructive interference.
hypotenuse 𝑖 ∠ = ∠ = °−∠ =∠ ∝ +
 Thus the two triangles are congruent. (i.e)  From ∆ and ∆ , ∝ + + √ −−−
∠ = ∠ ( )
𝑐 (2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ± 𝜋, ± 𝜋 … …. the resultant
∠ =∠ sin 𝑖 𝑣 𝑛
sin 𝑟
= = = = 𝑐 = intensity becomes minimum. This is called
 Hence laws of reflection are proved. ( ) 𝑣 destructive interference.
𝑛
 In product form, ∝ −
𝐢 = 𝐢 ∝ + − √ −−−
Special case :  When screen is placed at a distance of about 1 m 5. Obtain the equation for band width in young’s
 If = = , then resultant amplitude, from double slit, equally spaced alternate bright double slit method.
= √ + + 𝜙 and dark fringes are appears on the screen. These Theory :
are called interference fringes.
= √ + 𝜙
 At the point O on the screen, the waves from
= √ + 𝜙 and travels equal distances and arrive
𝜙 in-phase. Due to constructive interference, bright
= √ [ ( )] fringe is formed at point O . This is called central
bright fringe.
𝝓  When one of the slit is covered, then the fringes
𝑨= ( ) −−−−−
disappear and there is uniform illumination
 If = = , then the resultant intensity, observed on the screen. This clearly shows that
𝐼 ∝ the fringes are due to interference e.
𝜙 Path difference (𝜹) :
𝐼 ∝ ( )
𝝓
= ( ) −−−−−
 Let distance between =
When, 𝜙 = , ± 𝜋, ± 𝜋, … …., = Distance of the screen from double slit =
and 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ± 𝜋, ± 𝜋 … …., = Wavelength of coherent light wave =
 Thus the phase difference (𝜙) between the two  Hence path difference between the light waves
waves decides the intensity of light at the point, from to the point P is
where the two waves meet. 𝜹=
4. Explain Young’s double slit experimental set up
and obtain equation for path difference. Condition for bright fringe (maxima) :
Young’ s double slit experiment :  For constructive interference, the path difference
 Let distance between = will be,
Distance of the screen from double slit = 𝜹= [ = , , ,…]
Wavelength of coherent light wave =
=
 Hence path difference between the light waves
from to the point P is  Thus the distance of the n th brigt fringe from O is
𝛿= − = − = = −−−−−
 From the figure, ∠ = ∠ =𝜃
 𝐼 ∆ Condition for dark fringe (minima) :
𝛿  For destructive interference, the path difference
sin 𝜃 = = will be,
 Thomas Young used an opaque screen with two 𝛿 = sin 𝜃 . 𝜹= − [ = , ,…]
small openings called double slit and kept  Here 𝜃 is small. Hence, sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
equidistance from a source S 𝛿= 𝜃. −−− −− = −
 The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they  Also, in ∆ ,
 Thus the distance of the n th darkt fringe from O is
are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm.
𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = =
 As and are equidistant from S , the light = − −−−−−
waves from S reach and in phase.  Put this in eqn (1)
 So and act as coherent sources which are the 𝜹= −−− −− Band width (𝜷)
requirement of obtaining interference pattern.  The band width is defined as the distance between
 The wavefronts from and get superposed on  Point P may be apper either bright or dark
depending on the path differendce. any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
the otherside of the double slit.
 The distance between (n+1) th and nth consecutive Interference due to reflected light :  Let be the distance of of point P from O
bright fringes from O is  When light travelling in a rarer medium and  The lines joining P to the different points on the
= + − getting reflected by a denser medium, undergoes a slit can be treated as parallel lines, making and
phase change of  . Hence an additional path angle 𝜃 with the normal CO
= + −  All the parallel waves from different points on the
difference of is introduced.
slits get interfere at P to give resultant intensity.
𝜷= −−−−−−−  Again for normal incidence (𝑖 = ), the points A Condition for minima :
 Simillarly the distance between (n+1)th and nth and C are very close to each other.  To explain minimum intensity, divide the slit
consecutive dark fringes from O is  The extra distance travelled by the wave coming in to even number of parts.
= out from C is +
+ − (1) Condition for P to be first minimum :
 Hence the path difference between the waves  Let us divide the slit AB in to two half s each of
= [ + − ] − − reflected at A and C is 𝑎
width
𝛿= + = + =
𝜷= −−−−−−− 𝜆  The various points on the slit which are
 Since additional path difference is introduced 𝑎
 Eqn (5) and (6) shows that the bright and dark separated by the same width called
due to reflection at A, the the total path difference,
fringes are of same width equally spaced on either corresponding points
side of central bright fringe 𝜹= + −−−  The path difference of light waves from
6. Obtain the equations for constructive and (1) The condition for constructive interference in different corresponding points meeting at P
destructive interference for transmitted and reflected ray is,, 𝛿= sin 𝜃
reflected waves in thin films. 𝛿=
Interference in thin films :  The condition for P to be first minimum,
+ =
sin 𝜃 =
= − −−− 𝐢 𝜽 =
(2) Condition for P to be second minimum :
(2) The condition for destructive interference in
 Let us divide the slit AB in to four equal parts
reflected ray is, 𝑎
of width
𝛿= +  Here various corresponding points on the slit
𝑎
+ = + which are separated by the same width
 The path difference of light waves from
= −−−
different corresponding points meeting at P
7. Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain the
condition for nth minimum. 𝛿= sin 𝜃
 Consider a thin film of transparent material of Diffraction at single slit :  The condition for P to be second minimum,
refractive index  and thickness t
 A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at sin 𝜃 =
an angle 𝑖 𝐢 𝜽 =
 At upper surface, the light wave is divided in to (3) Condition for P to be nth minimum :
two parts. One part is reflected and other part is  Let us divide the slit AB in to 2n equal parts
refracted. 𝑎
of width
 The refracted part which enters in to the film,
again gets divided at the lower surface in two  The condition for P to be nth minimum,
parts. One is transmitted and the other is reflected  Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a sin 𝜃 =
back in to the film. single slit AB. The centre of the slit is C
 A straight line through C perpendicular to the 𝐢 𝜽 =
 Here interference is produced by both the
reflected and transmitted light. plane of slit meets the centre of the screen at O
Condition for maxima :  The path difference (𝛿) between the diffracted  The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated by a
 To explain maximum intensity, divide the slit in to waves from one pair of corresponding points is, monochromatic light, whose wavelength to be
odd number of parts. 𝛿= + sin 𝜃 determined.
 For first maximum, the slit is divided in to three  The point P will be bright, when  The telescope is brought in line with collimator to
equal parts each of width
𝑎
. Hence 𝛿= [ = , , , …] view the direct image of the slit.
 Hence,  The given transmission grating is then mounted
sin 𝜃 = 𝐢 𝜽 = + 𝐢 𝜽 = −−−− on the prism table with its plane perpendicular to
where  order of diffraction the incident beam of light coming from collimator.
 For secod maximum, the slit is divided in to five
𝑎 (1) Condition for zero order maximum :  The telsescope is turn to one side until the first
equal parts each of width . Hence  When, + sin 𝜃 = , then, 𝜃 = ; = order diffraction image of the slit coincides with
It is zero order diffraction or central the vertical cross wire of the eye piece.
sin 𝜃 = 𝐢 𝜽 =
maximum  The reading of the position of the telescope is
 nth
In general, for first maximum, the slit is divided (2) Condition for first order maximum : noted.
𝑎 
in to (2n+1) equal parts each of width .  When, + sin 𝜃 = , then, 𝜃 = 𝜃 ; = Similarly the first order diffraction image on the
+
It is first order diffraction other side is made to coincide with vertical cross
Hence
(3) Condition for second order maximum : wire and corresponding reading is noted.
sin 𝜃 = 𝐢 𝜽 = +  When, + sin 𝜃 = , then,𝜃 = 𝜃 ; =  The difference between two positions gives 𝜃
+  Half of its value gives 𝜃, the diffraction angle for
8. Discuss the diffraction at a grating and obtain the It is second order diffraction
(4) Condition for higher order maxima : first order maximum.
condition for mth maximum.
+ sin 𝜃 =  The wavelength of light is calculated from,
Diffraction in grating :
𝐢 𝜽
 If N be the number of rulings drawn per unit =
width (1 m), then , + =
+ = 10. Discuss the experiment to determine the
wavelength of different colours using diffraction
+ = grating.
Determination of wavelength of different colours :
sin 𝜃 =  White light is a composite light which contains all
𝐢 𝜽 = −−−−− wavlengths from violet to red in visible region.
9. Discuss the experiment to determine the  When white light is used, the diffraction pattern
wavelength of monochromatic light using consists of a white central maximum and on both
diffraction grating. sides continuous coloured diffraction patterns are
Experiment to determine wavelength of light : formed.
 Let AB represent the plane transmission grating.
 It has number of slits of equal width ( ) and equal
number of opaque rulings of equal width ( )
 Lte a plane wavefornt of monochromatic light of
wavelength be incident normally on the
grating.
 As the slit size is comparable to that of
wavelength, the incident light diffracts at the
grating.
 Using convex lens, the diffracted waves are  The wavelength of a spectral line can be very
focused on the screen. accurately determined with help of a diffraction
 Consider a point P on the screen, at an angle 𝜃 grating and a spectrometer.
with the normal drawn from the centre of the  Let all the preliminary adjustments are made on
grating to the screen. the spectrometer.
 The central maximum is white as all the colours Simple microscope - Normal focussing :
meet here constructively with no phase difference.
 It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from
violet to red on either side of central maximum.
 By measuring the angle (𝜽) at which these colours
appear for various order (m) of diffraction, the
wavelength of different colours could be
calculated using the formula,
𝐢 𝜽
=  Here the image is formed at infinity.
where,  number of rulings drawn per unit  So we will not get direct practical relation for
width of grating magnification. Hence we can practically use the
angular magnification.  The final image is inverted with respect to the
11. Discuss about simple microscope and obtain the original object.
equations for magnification for near point  The angular magnification is defined as the ratio
of angle (𝜃𝑖 ) subtended by the image with aided Magnification (m) :
focusing and normal focusing.  From the ray diagram, the linear magnification
Simple microscope - Near point focussing : eye to the angle (𝜃 ) subtended by the object with
unaided eye. That is, due to the objective is,
𝜃 ℎ
= −−−−−− = = −−−−−
𝜃𝑖 ℎ
 For unaided eye, Here L is the distance between the first focal
ℎ point of the eye piece to the second focal point of
tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = the objective. This is called the tube length.
 For aided eye,  The magnification of the eyepiece,
ℎ
tan 𝜃𝑖 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 = = + −−−−−
 Thus eqn (1) becomes,  The total magnification m in near point focusing ,
ℎ
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying lens of 𝜃 = = [ ][ + ]
small focal length. = =
𝜃𝑖 ℎ  If the final image is formed at infinity (normal
 In near point focusing, object distance u is less ( )
focusing), the magnification if eye piece is,
than f
 The image is formed at near point or least distance = = −−−−−
D of distinct vision. 12. Explain about compound microscope and obtain
 The magnification m is given by,  The total magnification m in normal focusing is,
the equation for magnification.
= Compound microscope : = = [ ][ ]
 Using lens equation,  The lens near the object is called the objective, 13. Obtain the equation for resolving power of
forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the microscope.
= − object. Resolving power of microscope:
  This serves as the object for the second lens which  A microscope is used to see the details of the
is the eyepiece. object under observation.
= −  Eye piece serves as a simple microscope that  Good microscope should not only magnify the
 Substitute, = − produces finally an enlarged and virtual image. object but also resolve the two points on an object
 The first inverted image formed by the objective is which are separated by the smallest distance dmin.
= + to be adjusted close to, but within the focal plane  Actually, dmin is the resolution and its reciprocal is
of the eyepiece, so that the final image is formed the resolving power.
nearly at infinity or at the near point.
14. Discuss about astronomical telescope. 15. Mention different parts of spectrometer and
Astronomical telescope : explain the preliminary adjustments.
 An astronomical telescope is used to get the Spectrometer :
magnification of distant astronomical objects like  The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to
stars, planets … analise the spectra of different sources of light, to
 The image formed by this will be inverted. measure the wavelength of different colours and
to measure the refractive indices of materials of
prisms.
 The spatial resolution (radius of central  It basically consists of three parts namely
maximum) is (i) collimator (ii) prism table and (iii) telescope.
. (1) Collimator:
=
 The collimator is used for producing parallel
 In microscope, the object distance is just more than beam of light.
the focal length f and the image is formed at v as  It has a convex lens and a vertical slit of
shown in the Figure. Hence,.
. adjustable width which faces the source.
=  The position of slit can be adjusted so that it is
 Here, in the place of focal length f we have the kept at the focus of the lens.
image distance v. If the difference between the two  The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base.
points on the object to be resolved is dmin, then the  It has an objective of long focal length and a much (2) Prism table:
larger aperture than eye piece.
magnification m is,  The prism table is used for mounting the
 Light from a distant object enters the objective
= and a real image is formed in the tube at its second
prism, grating etc. It consists of two circular
𝑖 discs provided with three levelling screws.
. . focal point.
𝑖 = = =  The eye piece magnifies this image producing a  It can be rotated and its position can be read
final inverted image. from two verniers V1 and V2 .
. . Magnification (m) :  The prism table can be fixed at any desired
𝑖 = = [ ≈ ]
 The magnification m is the ratio of the angle height.
𝑎
 On the object side, tan ≈ sin = subtended at the eye by the final image to the (3) Telescope :
. angle which the object subtends at the lens or  The telescope is an astronomical type.
𝑖 = the eye.
sin  It consists of an eyepiece provided with cross
 To further reduce the value of dmin the optical path = wires at one end and an objective at its other
of the light is increased by immersing the end.
 From figure,
objective of the microscope into a bath containing ℎ  The distance between the objective and the
oil of refractive index n. [ ]
eyepiece can be adjusted so that the telescope
. =
= ℎ forms a clear image at the cross wires.
𝑖
sin [ ]
 The telescope is attached to a circular scale
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective.
The term n sin β is called numerical aperture = and both can be rotated together.
(NA). Hence,  The telescope and prism table are provided
 The length of the telescope is approximately,
. = + with radial screws for fixing them at a
=
𝑨 desired position and tangential screws for
 Then the resolving power of microscope is, fine adjustments.
𝑨
𝑹 = =
.
Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer  The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall Refractive index ( ) of the prism :
(1) Adjustment of the eyepiece: The telescope is on the two faces AB and AC.  The refractive index of the material of the prism is
turned towards an illuminated surface and the  The telescope is rotated to the position until calculated using the formula,
the image of the slit formed by the reflection at the 𝑨+
eyepiece is moved to and fro until the cross wires 𝐢
face AB coincides with the vertical cross wire of =
are clearly seen. 𝑨
the telescope. 𝐢
(2) Adjustment of the telescope: The telescope is  The corresponding vernier readings are noted.
adjusted to receive parallel rays by focusing it to a  The telescope is then rotated to the position
distant object to get a clear image on the cross where the image of the slit formed by the
wire. reflection at the face AC coincides with the vertical
(3) Adjustment of the collimator : The telescope is cross wire of the telescope. The corresponding
brought in line with the collimator. The distance vernier readings are again noted.
between the illuminated slit and the lens of the  The difference between these two readings gives
the angle rotated by the telescope, which is twice
collimator is adjusted until a clear image of the slit
the angle of the prism.
is seen at the cross wire.  Half of this value gives the angle of the prism (A)
(4) Levelling of the prism table : The prism table is (2) Angle of minimum deviation (D) :
brought to the horizontal level by adjusting the
levelling screws and it is ensured by using sprit
level.
16. Explain the experimental determination of
material of the prism using spectrometer.
Determination of refractive index :
 The preliminary adjustments of the telescope,
collimator and the prism table of the spectrometer
are made.
 The refractive index () of the prism is  The prism is placed on the prism table, so that the
determined by knowing the angle of the prism (A) light from the collimator falls on a refracting face
and the angle of minimum deviation (D) and the refracted image is observed through the
(1) Angle of the prism (A) : telescope.
 The prism table is now rotated, so that the angle of
deviation decreases.
 A stage comes when the image stops for a moment
and if we rotate the prism table further in the
same direction, the image is seen to recede and
the angle of deviation increases.
 The vertical cross wire of telescope is made to
coincide with the image of the slit, where it turns
back. This gives the minimum deviation position.
 The vernier readings corresponding to this
position is noted.
 Now the prism is removed and the telescope is
 The prism is placed on the prism table with its turned to receive the direct ray and the vernier
refracting edge facing the collimator. readings are again noted.
 The slit is illuminated by a sodium light.  The difference between the two readings gives the
angle of minimum deviation (D)
CHAPTER- 8- DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
BOOK BACK QUESTIONS
1.Why do metals have a large number of free electrons?
In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells are loosely bound to the
nucleus. Even at room temperature, due to thermal agitation the loosely
bounded electrons are detached from their orbit and free to move inside the
metal in a random manner. This is the reason for large number of free electrons
in the metal.
=================================================================
2. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal
surface is called work function of that metal. work function of the metal is
denoted by φ0 and is measured in electron volt (eV).
================================================================
3. What is photoelectric effect?
The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any
other electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called
photoelectric effect.
================================================================
4. How does photocurrent vary with the intensity of the incident light?
From the graph in Figure it is evident that photocurrent – the number of

electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
=================================================================
5. Give the definition of intensity of light and its unit.
According to quantum concept, intensity of light of given wavelength is
defined as the number of energy quanta or photons incident per unit area per
unit time, with each photon having same energy. The unit is Wm–2
=================================================================
6. How will you define threshold frequency?
For a given surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the
frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called
the threshold frequency.
=================================================================
7. What is a photo cell? Mention the different types of photocells.
Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which converts light energy into
electrical energy. It works on the principle of photo electric effect. Photo cells
are classified into three types. They are i) Photo emissive cell ii) Photo voltaic
cell iii) Photo conductive cell.
===============================================================
8. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a
charged particle of charge q and mass m, when it is accelerated through a
potential V.
A charged particle of mass m is accelerated through a potential difference of
V volt. The de Broglie wavelength of charge particle is
=================================================================
9. State de Broglie hypothesis.
1. Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie suggested that if radiation like light
can act as particles at times, then matter particles like electrons should also act
as waves at times.
2. According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter particles like electrons,
protons, neutrons in motion are associated with waves. These waves are called
de Broglie waves or matter wave.
=================================================================
10. Why we do not see the wave properties of a baseball?
The de Broglie wavelength of matter is = 𝝀=𝒉/𝒎 𝒗
Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass.
Since the mass of base ball is too large as compared with the electron, the de
Broglie wavelength of base ball is negligibly small.
But they are not observable because the matter wavelength is too small for our
eyes to detect.
=================================================================
11. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater
de Broglie wavelength. Justify.
=================================================================
12. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ associated with a particle
of mass m in terms of its kinetic energy K.
=================================================================
13. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How are the
de Broglie wavelengths associated with them related?
=================================================================
====================================================
14. . Define stopping potential
Stopping potential is that the value of the negative (retarding) potential
given to the collecting electrode which is just sufficient to stop
the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and make the photocurrent
zero.
15. What is surface barrier?
In order to leave the metallic surface, the free electrons must cross a potential barrier
created by the positive nuclei of the metal.
The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic surface is
called surface barrier.
16. Mention the two features of x-ray spectra, not explained by classical
electromagnetic theory.
These features are given below.
(i) For a given accelerating voltage, the lower limit for the wavelength of
continuous x-ray spectra is same for all targets. This minimum
wavelength is called cut-off wavelength.
(ii) (ii) The intensity of x-rays is significantly increased at certain well-defined
wavelengths as shown in the case of characteristic x-ray spectra for
molybdenum
=================================================================
17. What is Bremsstrahlung?
When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a target nucleus, the
interaction between the electron and the nucleus either accelerates or
decelerates it which results in a change of path of the electron. The radiation
produced from such decelerating electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking
radiation
EXTRA 2 MARK QUESTIONS

=================================================================
18. Define Thermionic emission
When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the free electrons on the
surface of the metal get sufficient energy in the form of thermal energy so that
they are emitted from the metallic surface . This type of emission is known as
thermionic emission.
Examples: cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, X-ray tubes etc.
=================================================================
19. Define: Field emission.
Electric field emission occurs when a very strong electric field is applied across
the metal. This strong field pulls the free electrons and helps them to overcome
the surface barrier of the metal. Examples: Field emission scanning electron
microscopes, Field-emission display etc.
=================================================================
20. Define : Photoelectric emission
When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency is incident on the
surface of the metal, the energy is transferred from the radiation to the free
electrons. Hence, the free electrons get sufficient energy to cross the surface
barrier and the photo electric emission takes place . Examples: Photo diodes,
photo electric cells etc.
==============================================================
21. Define : Secondary emission
When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the surface of the metal, the
kinetic energy of the striking electrons is transferred to the free electrons on the
metal surface. Thus the free electrons get sufficient kinetic energy so that the
secondary emission of electron occurs . Examples: Image intensifiers, photo
multiplier tubes etc.
===============================================================
22.What is meant by quantisation of energy.
i) If an atomic oscillator vibrates with frequency v, its energy can have only
certain discrete values, given by the equation. En= nhν n=1,2,3where h is a
constant, called Planck’s constant.
ii) The atomic oscillators emit or absorb energy in small packets or quanta and
the energy of each quantum is E = hν. This implies that the energy of the
oscillator is quantized – that is, energy is not continuous as believed in the wave
picture. This is called quantization of energy.
=================================================================
23. What is a photon?
The individual light quantum of definite energy and momentum can be
associated with a particle. The light quantum can behave as a particle and this is
called photon. Therefore, photon is nothing but particle manifestation of light.
24. State the characteristics of a photon.

i) The photons of light of frequency ν and wavelength λ will have energy, given
by E =hv = hc/λ
ii) The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation and
not by its intensity and the intensity has no relation with the energy of the
individual photons in the beam.
iii) The photons travel with the velocity of light and its momentum is given by
iv) Since photons are electrically neutral, they are unaffected by electric and
magnetic fields.
================================================================
25. State the applications of photoelectric effect.(or Photo cells)
Photo cells have many applications, especially as switches and sensors.
1.Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark use photocells, as well as
street lights that switch on and off according to whether it is night or day.
2.Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures
3.They are used as timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
4. Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are used to measure the
intensity of the given light and to calculate the exact time of exposure.
=================================================================
26. What are matter waves or de Broglie waves?
According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter particles like electrons,
protons, neutrons in motion are associated with waves. These waves are called
de Broglie waves or matter waves.
=================================================================
27. Why Crystals are used as three dimensional grating?
(or) Why ordinary diffraction grating cannot be used for x-ray diffraction?
As the wavelength of light is very small, diffraction effects of light are very
small. In order to study diffraction of light, diffraction gratings are used.
Since X-rays and de Broglie waves of electrons have wavelengths (in the
order of 10–10m) much shorter than that of the light wave, diffraction grating
cannot be used for their diffraction. In a crystal, the spacing between atomic
planes is comparable to the wavelength of x-rays and de Broglie waves of
electrons. Hence, for their diffraction, the crystals are used which serve as
three-dimensional grating.
=================================================================
28.what are X-rays?
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength ranging from 0.1 to 100 Å They
travel along straight lines with the velocity of light and are not affected by electric and
magnetic fields. X-ray photons are highly energetic because of its high frequency or
short wavelength. Therefore, they can pass through materials which are opaque to
visible light.
29. What is meant by Bremsstrahlung or breaking radiation?
When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a target nucleus, the
interaction between the electron and the nucleus either accelerates or decelerates it which
results in a change of path of the electron. The radiation produced from such decelerating
electron is called Bremsstrahlung or breaking radiation
30. What is meant by Continuous x-ray spectra?
Continuous x-ray spectrum consists of radiations of all possible wavelengths
with a certain minimum wavelength λ0 .
31. What is meant by Characteristic x-ray spectra?
Characteristic x-ray spectra show some narrow peaks at some well – defined
wavelengths when the target is hit by fast electrons.
32. State the applications of x-rays in medical diagnosis.
X-rays can pass through flesh more easily than through bones. Thus an x-ray radiograph
containing a deep shadow of the bones and a light shadow of the flesh may be obtained.
X-ray radiographs are used to detect fractures, foreign bodies, diseased organs etc.
==========================================================================
33. State the applications of x-rays in medical therapy.
Since x-rays can kill diseased tissues, they are employed to cure skin diseases, malignant
tumours etc.
=======================================================================
34. State the applications of x-rays in Industry.
X-rays are used to check for flaws in welded joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood.
At the custom post, they are used for detection of contraband goods.
=======================================================================
35. State the applications of x-rays in Scientific research.
X-ray diffraction is important tool to study the structure of the crystalline materials – that is,
the arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.
===========================================================================
36. Define 1 electron volt (eV)
electron volt is a commonly used unit of energy in atomic and nuclear physics.
One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated by a
potential difference of 1 V.
1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J
===============================================================================
2 & 3 Marks Questions and Answers 8. How does photo electric current vary with the  There is no time lag between incidence of light
1. Why do metals have a large number of free intensity of the incident light? and ejection of photoelectrons.
electrons? Variation of photo current with intensity : 12. Explain why photoelectric effect cannot be
 In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells  Keeping the frequency explained on the basis of wave nature of light
are loosely bound to the nucleus. (𝜈 ) and acceleration Failures of classical wave theory :
 Even at room temperature, due to thermal
potential (V) as  According to wave theory, light of greater
constant, the intensity intensity should impart greater kinetic energy to
agitation the loosely bounded electrons are
of incident light is the liberated electrons.
detached from their orbit and free to move inside
varied and the But the experiments show that maximum kinetic
the metal in a random manner. This is the reason
corresponding photo energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on
for large number of free electrons in the metal.
2. Define surface barrier. eletric current is the intensity of the incident light.
measured  According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense
 The potential barrier which prevents free electrons
from leaving the metallic surface is called surface  A graph is drawn between intensity along X-axis beam of light is incident on the surface, electrons
and the photo current along Y-axis. will be liberated from the surface of the target,
barrier.
 From the graph, the photo current (i.e) the number however low the frequency of the radiation is.
 It is created by the positive nuclei of the metal
of electrons emitted per second is directly But photoelectric emission is not possible below a
3. Define electron emission.
proportional to the intensity of incident light. certain minimum frequency called threshold
 The liberation of electrons from any surface of a
9. Define stopping potential. frequency.
substance is called electron emission.
 The negative or retarding potential given to  Since the energy of light is spread across the
 The material with small work function is more
collecting electrode which is just sufficient to stop wavefront, each electron needs considerable
effective in electron emission.
the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and amount of time (a few hours) to get energy
4. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
make the photo current zero is called stopping sufficient to overcome the work function and to
 The minimum energy needed for an electron to potential or cut - off potential. get liberated from the surface.
escape from the metal surface is called work 10. Define threshold frequency. But experiments show that photoelectric emission
function of that metal. It is denoted by 𝜙𝑂
 For a giver surface, the emission of photo is almost instantaneous process
 Its unit is electron volt (eV). electrons takes place only if the frequency of 13. Explain the concept of quantization of energy.
5. Define electron volt (eV) incident light is greater than a certain minimum Quantization of energy :
 One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy frequency called threshold frequency.  Max Planck proposed quantum concept in 1900 in
gained by a electron when accelerated by a 11. State the laws of photo electric effect. order to explain the block body radiations.
potential difference of 1 volt. Laws of photo electric effect :  According to Planck, matter is composed of a large
− 𝟗
𝒆 = .  For a given frequency of incident light, the number number of oscillating particles (atoms) which
6. What is photo electric effect? of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional vibrate with different frequencies.
 The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when to the intensity of the incident light. The  Each atomic oscillator which vibrates with its
illuminated by light or any other electromagnetic saturation current is also directly proportional to characteristic frequency emits or absorbs
radiation of suitable wavelength or frequency is the intensity of incident light. electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
called photo electric effect.  Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is (i) If an oscillator vibrates with frequency v, its
 The ejected electrons are called as photo independent of intensity of the incident light. energy can have only certain discrete values,
electrons and the corresponding current is called  Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 [ = , , ,….]
photo electric current from a given metal is directly proportional to the where h  Planck s constant.
7. What are called photo sensitive materials? frequency of incident light. (ii) The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small
 The materials which eject photoelectrons upon  For a given surface, the emission of packets or quanta and the energy of each
irradiation of electromagnetic wave of suitable photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of quantum is E = h ν
wavelength are called photosensitive materials. incident light is greater than a certain minimum  This implies that the energy of the oscillator is
(e.g.) Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium etc frequency called the threshold frequency. quantized and not continuous This is called
and Alkali metals like lithium, sodium, caesium quantization of energy.
14. Explain Eienstein s explanation for the particle 19. What is called matter waves or de Broglie waves? 24. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ
nature (quanta ) of light  The waves assoiated with matter particles like associated with a particle of mass m in terms of its
Particle nature of light - Eienstein s explanation : electrons in motion is called matter waves or kinetic energy K.
 According to Einstein, the energy in light is not de Broglei waves.  De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential V ,
spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in 20. Derive the expression of de Broglie wavelength. 𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= 𝒗
=
small packets or energy quanta. Therefore, light of De Broglei wavelength : √
frequency v from any source can be considered  The momentum of photon of frequency ′𝜈′ is,  Since, q V = K (kinetic energy), we have
as a stream of quanta 𝐸 ℎ𝜈 ℎ 𝒉
= 𝑐= 𝑐 = 𝜆 [𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈] 𝝀=
 The energy of each light quantum ; E = h ν ℎ √
𝒉𝝂  The wavelength of a photon is, 𝜆 = 25. Name an experiment which shows wave nature of
 The linear momentum of quanta is ; =
𝒄
 According to de Broglie, this equation is applicable the electron. Which phenomenon was observed in
 The individual light quantum of definite energy this experiment using an electron beam?
to matter particle also.
and momentum can be associated with a particle.  The wave nature of electron (i.e) de Broglie
The light quantum can behave as a particle and  Let m be the mass and 𝒗 be the velocity of the
particle, then the wavelength hypothesis of matter waves was experimentally
this is called photon. confirmed by Davisson and Germer experiment.
𝒉 𝒉
15. Define intensity of light according to the quantum 𝝀= =
𝒗  Diffraction is the important property of waves. So
concept. in this experiment, diffraction of electron beam
 According to quantum concept, the intensity of  This wavelength of the matter waves is known as
de Broglie wavelength. was observed when they fall on crystalline solids.
light of given wavelength is defined as the number 26. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic
of energy quanta or photons incident per unit area 21. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength energy. How are the deBroglie wavelengths
per unit time with photon having same energy. associated with a charged particle of charge q and
− mass m , when it is accelerated through a associated with them related?
 The unit is  De Broglei wavelength of electron beam,
16. What is the nature of light? potential V.
ℎ
 The light possesses dual nature that of both wave  De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential V , 𝜆𝑒 =
√ 𝑚𝑒 𝐾
𝒉 𝒉
and particle. 𝝀= =  De Broglei wavelength of alpha particle,
 Light behaves as a wave during its propagation 𝒗 √ ℎ
𝜆𝛼 =
and behaves as a particle during its interaction 22. Why we do not see the wave properties of a √ 𝑚𝛼 𝐾
with matter. baseball? 𝝀𝒆 𝜶
𝒉 ∴ = √
17. What is photo electric cell? Give its type.  The de Broglie wavelength of matter is ; 𝝀 = 𝝀𝜶 𝒆
𝒗
 The device which converts light energy into
 Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely 27. What are called X - rays? Why are they so called?
electrical energy is called photo electric cell or  X - rays are invisible, electromagnetic waves of very
proportional to the mass
simply photo cell. short wavelength ranging from 0.1 A to 100 A
 Since the mass of base ball is too large as
 It works on the principle of photo electric cell  When a fast moving electrons strike a metal target
compared with the electron, the de Broglie
 Photo cells are classified in to three types. wavelength of base ball is negligibly small of high atomic weight, X - rays are produced.
(1) Photo emissive cell  At the time of discovery, the orgin of this highly
 So we do not see the wave property of the baseball
(2) Photo voltaic cell penetrating rays were not known. So they were
23. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy.
(3) Photo conductive cell called as X - rays.
Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength.
18. What is De Broglie hypothesis? 28. List the properties of X - rays.
Justify.
 Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie 𝒉 Properties of X - rays :
suggested that if radiation like light can act as  De Broglei wavelength of proton ; 𝝀 =
√  They travel in straight line with the velocity of light
particles at times, then matter particles like  De Broglei wavelength of electron ; 𝝀𝒆 =
𝒉
 They are not deflected both by electric and
electrons should also act as waves at times. √ 𝒆
 Here the mass of the proton is greater than the magnetic field
 According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter  X - ray photons are highly energetic
particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in mass of the electron ( > 𝒆)
 Hence the de Broglei wavelength of electron is  They pass through materials which are opaque to
motion are associated with waves. These waves
greater than that of proton (𝝀𝒆 > 𝝀 ) visible light.
are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.
29. What factor does the quality and intensity of X - 32. Write a note on continuous X - ray spectrum.  It is evident that K - series of lines in the X - ray
rays were depends? Continuous X - ray spectrum : spectrum arise due to the electronic transistions
 The quality of X - rays is measured in terms of its  When a fast moving electron penetrates and from L, M. N, O, ……… shells to K - shell.
penetrating power which depends on the velocity approaches a target nucleus, it get accelerates or
of the striking electron and the atomic number of decelerates
target material.  It may results in a change of path of the electron.
 The intensity of X - rays is depends on the number  The radiation produced from such decelerating
of electrons striking the target electron is called Bremsstrhlung or braking
30. Write a note on the production of X - rays. radiation.
Production of X - rays :  The energy of the emitted photon (radiation) is
equal to the loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
 So the photons are emitted with all possible
energies or frequencies.
 The continuous X -ray spectrum is due to such
radiations.
 When an electron gives up all its energy, then the
photon is emitted with highest frequency (𝜈 ) or
lowest wavelength (𝜆 )
 X - rays are produced in a Coolidge tube which is a  The intial kinetic energy of an electron = eV  Similarly L - series originates due to electronic
discharge tube. where, V  accelerating voltage transition from M, N, O, ……. shells to L - shell.
 Here a tungsten filament F is heated by L.T, so  Thus, 34. Explain the applications of X -rays.
that electrons are emitted from it by thermionic 𝑐
𝑒𝑉=ℎ𝜈 =ℎ (1) Medical diagnosis :
emission. 𝜆  X - rays can pass through flesh more easily
 These electrons are accelerated to very high 𝒉𝒄 than through bones. Thus X -ray radiograph
speeds by H.T 𝝀 = = 𝑨°
𝒆 containing a deep shadow of the bones and a
 The target material like tungsten is embedded in  This relation is known as Duane - Hunt formula. light shadow of flesh. So X -rays radiographs
the face of solid copper anode. 33. Write a note on characteristic X - ray spectra. ae used to detect fractures, foreign bodies,
 When high speed electrons strike the target, they Characteristic X - ray spectra : diseased organs etc.,
are decelarated suddenly and lose their kinetic  When the target is hit by fast electrons, the (2) Medical therapy :
energy. obtained X - ray spectra shows some narrow  X - ray can kill diseased tissues. So they are
 As a result, X -ray photons are produced. peaks at some well-defined wavelength. employed to cure skin diseases, malignant
 The face of target is inclined at particular angle, so  The line spectrum showing these peaks is called tumours etc.,
that the X - rays can leave the tube through its characteristic X - ray spectrum. (3) Industry :
side.  This X -ray spectrum is due to the electronic  They are used to check for flaws in welded
 Since most of the kinetic energy of electrons get transitions within the atoms. joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood,
converted in to heat, the target made of high  For example, when an energetic electron  At the custom post, they are used for
melting point and a cooling system are usally penetrates in to the target atom and removes the detection of contraband goods.
employed. electrons in K - shell and create a vacancy in it. (4) Scientific Research :
31. What is X -ray spectra? Give its types.  So the electrons from outer orbits jump to fill up  X - ray diffraction is important tool to study
 The intensity of the X-rays when plotted against the vacancy in K - shell. the structure of the crystalline materials (i.e)
its wavelength gives a curve called X - ray  During the downward transition, the energy the arrangement of atoms and molecules in
spectrum. difference between the levels is given out in the crystals.
 X - ray spectrum consists of two parts, namely form of X - ray photon of definite wavelength.
(1) Continuous X -ray spectrum  Such wavelengths, characteristic of the target,
(2) Characteristic X - ray spectrum consitute the line spectrum. .
35. Mention the two features of x-ray spectra, not  Thus free eletrons get sufficient kinetic energy
5 Marks Questions and Answers and emitted from the surface. This type is
explained by classical electromagnetic theory.
 Though classical electromagnetic theory suggests 1. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain called seconday emission.
the emission of radiations from accelerating briefly various methods of electron emission. (e.g.) photo multiplier tube
electrons, it could not explain two features Electron emission : 2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz,
exhibited by x-ray spectra. These features are  The liberation of electrons from any surface of a Hallwachs and Lenard.
given below. substance is called electron emission. Hertz experiment :
(1) For a given accelerating voltage, the lower  Heinrich Hertz successfully generating and
 The minimum energy needed to liberate the
limit for the wavelength of continuous x-ray detecting the existence of electromagnetic waves.
electorns from the metal surface is called work
spectra is same for all targets. This minimum function of that metal.  He used high voltage induction coil to cause a
wavelength is called cut-off wavelength. spark discharge between two metallic spheres.
 Depending upon the energy source, the electron
(2) The intensity of x-rays is significantly emission is classified as four types which are  When spark is formed, the charges will oscillate
increased at certain well-defined wavelengths explained below. back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
36. What is Bremsstralung? (1) Thermionic emission : waves are produced.
 When a fast moving electron penetrates and  When a metal is heated to a high temperature,  To detect this electromagnetic waves, a copper
approaches a target nucleus, it get accelerates or the free electrons on the surface get sufficient wire bent in the shape of a circle is used as
decelerates. It may results in a change of path of energy in the form of heat, so that they are detector.
the electron. emitted from the metallic surface. This type of Hallwachs s experiment :
 The radiation produced from such decelerating emission is known as thermionic emission.  In Hertz experiment, in order to improve the
electron is called Bremsstrhlung or braking  The intensity of the thermionic emission visibility of the spark, it is exposed to ultra violet
radiation. depends on the metal used and its rays which makes the spark as more vigorous.
temperature.  Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed that the strange
(e.g.) electron microscopes, X-ray tubes behaviour of the spark is due to the photo electric
(2) Field emission : emission under the action of ultra violet light.
 When a very strong electric field is applied  In Hallwachs experiment, a clean circular plate of
across the metal, this strong field pulls the zinc is mounted in insulating stand and is attached
free electrons and helps to overcome the to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire.
surface barrier of the metal. This type of
emission of electron is called field emission.
(e.g.) Field emission display
(3) Photo electric emission :
 When an electromagnetic radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on the surface
of the metal, the energy is transferred from
the radiation to free electrons.
 Hence the free electrons gets sufficient energy
to cross the surface barrier and this type is  When uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by
called photo electric emission. ultraviolet light, it becomes positively charged and
(e.g.) photo electric cells, phot diodes the leaves are open as shown in figure (a)
(4) Secondary emission :  If negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
 When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes ultraviolet light, the leaves will close as the charges
the surface of the metal, the kinetic energy is leaked away quickly as shown in figure (b)
transferred to the free electrons on the metal  If positively charged plate is exposed to uv-light, it
surface. becomes more positive and the leaves are open
further as shown in figure (c)
 From these observations, it was concluded that  S is the source of electromagnetic wave of  Let the frequency and intensity of the incident
negatively charged electrons were emitted from frequency 𝜈 and intensity I light are kept constant.
the zinc plate under the action of uv - light.  C is the cathode made up of photo sensitive  Now, the potential of A is increased and the
Lenard experiment : material and is used to emit electrons. corresponding photocurrent is noted.
 A is the anode which collects the emitted electrons  Simillarly, a negative (retarding) potential is
 A and C are placed in an evacuated glass envelope applied to A and again the photocurrent is noted.
with a quartz window that permits uv -light and  Plot a graph by taking anode potential along
visible light. X -axis and photo current along Y - axis
 PQ is a potential divider arrangement which is  From the graph,
connected through a key K and battery B (1) When the potential of A increases, the photo
 The voltmeter V and micro ammeter A also current also increases and reaches a
included in this circuit. saturation value called saturation current.
 If there is no light incident on the cathode C, no (2) When a negative potential is applied to A, the
photoelectrons are emitted and the micro photo current does not immediately drop to
ammeter reads zero. zero, because the photo electrons are emitted
 When uv - light or visible light is allowed to fall on wity some definite and different kinetic
 A and C are two metallic plates placed in an energies.
C, the photo electrons are emitted and are
evacuated quartz bulb. (3) If the negative or retarding potential of A
attracted towards anode.
 Galvanometer G and battery B are connected in gradually increased, the photo current starts
 As a result, the photo electric current is set up in
the circuit. decreasing and becomes zero at one
the circuit which is measured using micro
 When uv - light is incident on plate C, and electric particular negative potential 𝑉𝑂
ammeter.
current flows in a circuit which is indicated by the (4) The value of negative or retarding potential
 The photo electric current depends following
deflection in the galvanometer. give to anode A which is just sufficient to stop
quantities,
 But if the plate A is irradiated by uv - light, no the most energetic photo electrons emitted
(1) the intensity of incident light
current is observed in the circuit. and make the photo current zero is called
(2) the potential difference between the
 From these observations, it is concluded that electrodes stopping potential or cut - off potential (𝑉𝑂 )
when uv- light falls on the negative plate C, (3) the nature of the material (5) Here the initial kinetic energy of the fastest
electrons are ejected from it, which are attracted electron (0 is equal to the work done by the
(4) frequency of incident light
by the positive plate A. 4. Explain the effect of potential difference on photo stopping potential to stop it. (i.e.)
 Hence the circuit is completed and the current electric current.
flows in it. 𝑒 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Effect of potential difference on photoelectric
 Thus the uv - light falling on the negative plate current : 𝒆
causes the electron emission from the surface of 𝒗 𝒂𝒙 = √ = .𝟗 √
the plate.
3. Explain the experimental set up for study of photo 5. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with
electric effect stopping potential.
Experiment for study of photo electric effect : Effect of frequency on photoelectric current :
 Let the intensity of incident light is kept constant.
 The variation of photo current with the Anode
potential is studied for different incident
frequencies.
 A graph is plotted by taking anode potential along
x - axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is (1) Part of the photon energy is used for the
independent of intensity of the incident light. ejection of the electrons from the metal
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons surface and it is called work function (𝝓 )
from a given metal is directly proportional to the (2) Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (K) of
frequency of incident light. the ejected electron.
 For a given surface, the emission of photo  From the law of conservation of energy,
electrons takes place only if the frequency of ℎ𝜈= 𝜙 +
incident light is greater than a certain minimum
ℎ𝜈= 𝜙 + 𝑣 −−−−
frequency called the threshold frequency.
 There is no time lag between incidence of light where m  mass of the electron and
and ejection of photoelectrons. (i.e.) phote electric υ  velocity
(1) Stopping potential vary over different effect is an instantaneous process  At threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of
frequencies of incident light. (i.e) Greater the 7. Explain the particle nature of light. List the ejeced electrons will be zero. (i.e.)
frequency, larger the stopping potential characteristics of photons. when. 𝜈 = 𝜈 then = Thus eqn (1) becomes
(2) Thus as the frequency is increased, the Particle nature of light : ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙 −−−−
photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic  According to Eienstein, the energy in light is not  Put eqn (2) in (1)
energies so that the retarding potential needed spread out over wavefronts, but is concentrated in ℎ𝜈= ℎ𝜈 + 𝑣 −−−−
to stop thephotoelectrons is also greater. small packets or energy quanta.
Variation of stopping potential with frequency :  The energy of each light quantum is ; 𝑬 = 𝒉 𝝂  The equation 3 is known as Einstein s
 The individual light quantum of definite energy photoelectric equation.
and momentum can be associated with a particle  If the electron does not lose energy by internal
and this is called photon. collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic
Characteristics of photons : energy Kmax. Then
 Each photon will have energy given by ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈 + [ 𝑣 ]
𝒉𝒄 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑬=𝒉𝝂=
𝝀 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ 𝜈 − ℎ 𝜈
 The energy of a photon is determined by the
frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity. 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓 −−−−
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and  A graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax
its momentum is given by, of the photoelectron and frequency ν of the
𝒉 𝒉𝝂 incident light is a straight line
= =
 From the graph, 𝝀 𝒄
(1) The stopping potential varies linealy with  Photons are electrically neutral, and hency they
frequency. are not deflected ny electric and magnetic fields.
(2) Below a particular frequency called threshold  When photon interacts with matter, the total
frequency (𝝂 ), no electrons are emitted. energy, total linear momentum and angular
(3) Hence at threshold frequency stopping momentum are conserved.
potential is zero for that reason. 8. Obtain Einstein s photoelectric equation with
6. List out the laws of photoelectric effect. necessary explanation.
Laws of photoelectric effect : Einstein s explanation of photoelectric equation :
 For a given frequency of incident light, the number  When a photon of energy hν is incident on a
of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a
to the intensity of the incident light. The single electron and the electron is ejected.
saturation current is also directly proportional to  In this process, the energy of incident photom is
the intensity of incident light. utilized in two ways.
9. Explain experimentally observed facts of  In this, the resistance of the semiconductor  Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are
photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein s changes in accordance with the radiant used to measure the intensity of the given light
explanation. energy incident on it. and to calculate the exact time of exposure.
Explanation for photo electric effect : 11. Give the construction and working of photo 13. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of
 As each photon liberates one electron, then the emissive cell. electrons.
increase of intensity of the light increases the Photo emissive cell : De Boglie wavelength of electrons :
number of electrons emitted there by increasing  It consists of an  An electron of mass m is accelerated through a
the photo current. evacuated glass or potential difference of V volt.
 From, 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓 , it is evident that K max quartz bulb in which  The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is
is proportional to the frequency of the light and is two metallic given by
independent of intensity of the light. electrodes a cathode
and an anode are 𝑣 =𝑒𝑉
 From, 𝒉 𝝂 = 𝒉 𝝂 + 𝒗 , there must be
fixed.  Hence the speed of the electron is.
minimum energy (equal to the work function of 𝑒𝑉
the metal) for incident photons to liberate  The cathode C is semi-
𝑣 =
electrons from the metal surface. Below which, cylindrical in shape
emission of electrons is not possible. and is coated with a 𝑒𝑉
Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency photo sensitive 𝑣= √ −−−−
called threshold frequency below which there is material.
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the  The de Broglie wavelength of electron is
no photoelectric emission.
axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode. ℎ ℎ
 According to quantum concept, the transfer of 𝜆= =
 A potential difference is applied between the 𝑣
photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous
anode and the cathode through a galvanometer G. √ 𝑒𝑉
so that there is no time lag between incidence of
photons and ejection of electrons. Working : 𝒉
𝝀= −−−
10. Explain photo electric cells and its types.  When cathode is illuminated, electrons are √ 𝒆
Phot electric cell : emitted from it.
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence where, ℎ = . 𝑋 −
 Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which 𝑒= . 𝑋 − 9𝐶
converts light energy into electrical energy. a current is produced which is measured by the
galvanometer. = 9. 𝑋 − 𝑘𝑔
 It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
 When light is incident on the photosensitive  For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current . −
.
depends on ∴ 𝝀 = = 𝑨
materials, their electric properties will get √ √
(1) the intensity to incident radiation and
affected, based on which photo cells are classified 14. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment
into three types. They are Phote emissive cell, (2) the potential difference between anode and
which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.
Phot voltaic cell and Photo conductive cell cathode.
Davisson - Gerner experiment :
(1) Photo emissive cell : 12. Give the application of photo cells .
 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was
 Its working depends on the electron emission Applications of photo cells :
experimentally confirmed by Clinton Davisson
from a metal cathode due to irradiation of  Photo cells have many applications especially as
and Lester Germer in 1927.
light or other radiations. switches and sensors.
 They demonstrated that electron beams are
(2) Photo voltaic cell :  Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark
diffracted when they fall on crystalline solids.
 Here sensitive element made of use photocells, as well as street lights that switch
 Since crystal can act as a three-dimensional
semiconductor is used which generates on and off according to whether it is night or day.
diffraction grating for matter waves, the electron
voltage proportional tothe intensity of light or  Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in
waves incident on crystals are diffracted off in
other radiations. motion pictures
certain specific directions.
(3) Photo conductive cell :  They are used as timers to measure the speeds of
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
athletes during a race.
battery so that electrons are emitted from the hot
filament by thermionic emission.
 The graph shows the variation of intensity of the Principle :
scattered electrons with the angle θ for the  The wave nature of the electron is used in the
accelerating voltage of 54V. construction of microscope called electron
 For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered microscope.
wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of 50°  The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
to the incident electron beam. proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
 This peak in intensity is attributed to the used.
constructive interference of electrons diffracted  Thus higher resolving power can be obtained by
from various atomic layers of the target material. employing the waves of shorter wavelengths.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of  De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has less than (a few thousands less) that of the visible
been experimentally calculated as 1.65Å. light.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de  As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie
Broglie relation for V = 54 V as waves of electrons have very much higher
. . resolving power than optical microscope.
𝝀= 𝐴 = 𝐴 = . 𝐀
√𝑉 √  Electron microscopes giving magnification more
 This value agrees well with the experimentally than 2,00,000 times are common in research
observed wavelength of 1.65Å. laboratories.
 Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie s Working :
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.  The construction and working of an electron
 They are then accelerated due to the potential 15. Briefly explain the principle and working of microscope is similar to that of an optical
difference between the filament and the anode electron microscope. microscope except that in electron microscope
aluminium cylinder by a high tension (H.T.) Electron microscope : focussing of electron beam is done by the
battery. electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin  The electron beam passing across a suitably
aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a arranged either electric or magnetic fields
single crystal of Nickel. undergoes divergence or convergence thereby
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different focussing of the beam is done
directions are received by the electron detector  The electrons emitted from the source are
which measures the intensity of scattered electron accelerated by high potentials.
beam.  The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser
 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper lens.
so that the angle 𝜃 between the incident beam and  When the beam passes through the sample whose
the scattered beam can be changed at our will. magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is image of the sample.
measured as a function of the angle θ.  With the help of magnetic objective lens and
magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen.
 These electron microscopes are being used in
almost all branches of science.
CHAPTER-8-ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
BOOK BACK QUESTIONS
1. What are cathode rays?
Some invisible rays emanate from cathode called cathode rays, which are later found
be a beam of electrons.
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2. Write the properties of cathode rays.
(1) Cathode rays possess energy and momentum and travel in a straight line with high speed of the
order of 107m s-1. It can be deflected by application of electric and
magnetic fields. The direction of deflection indicates that they are negatively charged
particles.
(2) When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on matter, they produce heat. They affect the
photographic plates and also produce fluorescence when they fall on certain crystals and
minerals.
(3) When the cathode rays fall on a material of high atomic weight, x-rays are produced.
(4) Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
(5) The speed of cathode rays is up to 1/10TH of the speed of light
==============================================================================
3. Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering experiment.
From the experimental observations, Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot
of empty space and contains a tiny matter known as nucleus whose size is of the
order of 10-14 m. The nucleus is positively charged and most of the mass of the atom
is concentrated in nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
Since static charge distribution cannot be in a stable equilibrium, he suggested that the
electrons are not at rest and they revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits like
planets revolving around the sun.
4. Write down the postulates of Bohr atom model.
a)The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits under the influence of Coulomb
electrostatic force of attraction. This Coulomb force gives necessary centripetal force for the
electron to undergo circular motion.
(b) Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus only in certain discrete orbits called stationary
orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic energy. Only those discrete orbits allowed are
stable orbits. The angular momentum of the electron in these stationary orbits are quantized –
that is, it can be written as integer or integral multiple of . This condition is known as angular
momentum quantization condition.
(c) Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete. This is called the quantization of energy. An
electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose
energy is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE) between the two orbital levels.
===================================================================================
5. What is meant by excitation energy and excitation potential.
The energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to any higher energy state is
known as excitation energy.
Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy per unit charge
6. Define the ionization energy and ionization potential.
The amount of energy spent to remove an electron from the ground state of an atom (E = 0 for
n→∞) is known as first ionization energy (13.6 eV).
Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy per unit charge.
================================================================================
7. Write down the draw backs of Bohr atom model.
The following are the drawbacks of Bohr atom model
(a) Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom or hydrogen like-atoms but not for complex
atoms.
(b) When the spectral lines are closely examined, individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is
accompanied by a number of faint lines. These are often called fine structure. This is not
explained by Bohr atom model.
(c) Bohr atom model fails to explain the intensity variations in the spectral lines.
(d) The distribution of electrons in atoms is not completely explained by Bohr atom model.
=================================================================================
8. What is distance of closest approach?
The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha particle just
before it gets reflected back through 180° is defined as the distance of closest approach
r0 (also known as contact distance).
==================================================================================
9. Define impact parameter.
The impact parameter (b) is defined as the perpendicular distance between the centre of the gold
nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha particle when it is at a large distance
==================================================================================
10. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X. What each term denotes?
A
To specify the nucleus of any element, we use the following general notation ZX
where X is the chemical symbol of the element, A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number.
For example, the nitrogen nucleus is represented by 7N15It implies that nitrogen contains
15 nucleons of which 7 are protons (Z = 7) and 8 are neutrons (N = A – Z = 8).
=================================================================================
11. What is isotope? Give an example.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same atomic number Z, but different
mass number A. carbon has four main isotopes:

==================================================================================
12. What is isotone? Give an example.
Isotones are the atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons. 5B12 and 6C13 are
examples of isotones which have 7 neutrons.
=====================================================================
13. What is isobar? Give an example.
Isobars are the atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but different atomic
number Z. which have same mass number 40.

================================================================================
14. Define atomic mass unit u.
th
One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the (1/12) of the mass of the isotope of carbon 6C12 , the
most abundant naturally occurring isotope of carbon.
15. Show that nuclear density is almost constant for nuclei with Z > 10.
It is experimentally found that radius of nuclei for Z > 10, satisfies the following empirical formula.
The above expression shows that the nuclear density is independent of the mass number A. In other
words, all the nuclei (Z > 10) have the same density and it is an important characteristics of the nuclei.
We can calculate the numerical value of this density by substituting the corresponding values.
==================================================================================
16. What is mass defect?
The difference between total mass of its individual constituents of nucleus and experimental
Mass of the nucleus is called as mass defect.
=================================================================================
17. What is binding energy of a nucleus? Give its expression.
The energy required to bind all the nucleons together against Columbian repulsive force to
form the nucleus is called as binding energy. The mass equal to mass defect disappears and
binding energy is released. The energy equivalent of mass defect.
=====================================================================================
18. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 atomic mass unit.
======================================================================================
19. Give the physical meaning of binding energy per nucleon.
The average binding energy per nucleon is the energy required to separate single
nucleon from the particular nucleus.
========================================================================================
20. What is meant by radioactivity?
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations such as α, β and γ rays
by an element is called radioactivity and the substances which emit these radiations are called
radioactive elements
=================================================================================
21. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay.
Alpha decay:
Example:
Beta decay:
Example: Example:
Gamma decay:
Here the asterisk(*) means excited state nucleus.

Example:
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22. In alpha decay, why the unstable nucleus emits He nucleus?
Why it does not emit four separate nucleons?
After all 2He4 consists of two protons and two neutrons. For example, if 92U238nucleus decays
into 90U234by emitting four separate nucleons (two protons and two neutrons), then the disintegration
energy Q for this process turns out to be negative. It implies that the total mass of products is greater
than that of parent(92U238) nucleus. This kind of process cannot occur in nature because it would violate
conservation of energy. In any decay process, the conservation of energy, conservation of linear
momentum and conservation of angular momentum must be obeyed
===============================================================================
23.What is mean life of nucleus? Give the expression.
The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the
total number nuclei present initially.
===============================================================================
24.What is half-life of nucleus? Give the expression.
Half-life T1/2 is defined as the time required for the number of atoms initially present to
reduce to one half of the initial amount.
===================================================================================
25.What is meant by activity or decay rate? Give its unit.
Activity (R) or decay rate is defined as the number of nuclei decayed per second.
The SI unit of activity R is Becquerel. There is also another standard unit for the activity called
Curie(Ci).
=================================================================================
26.Define curie.
One curie was defined as number of decays per second in 1 g of radium and it is equal to
3.7 x 1010 decays/s.
===============================================================================
27. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?
According to quark model, proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark and neutron is
made up of one up quark and two down quarks.
Extra questions from the inside the lesson

28. Define Nuclear fission.
The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavier atom into two smaller nuclei with the
release of a large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
29. Define Nuclear fusion (or) thermonuclear reaction.
When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine to form a heavier nucleus, then
it is called nuclear fusion. When the surrounding temperature reaches around 107K, lighter nuclei
start fusing to form heavier nuclei and this resulting reaction is called thermonuclear fusion
reaction.
30. What are the four fundamental forces in nature.
Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak forces are called fundamental forces of nature.
31. How neutrons are classified according to their kinetic energy.
Neutrons are classified according to their kinetic energy as (i) slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV)
(ii) fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV). The neutrons with average energy of about 0.025 eV in
thermal equilibrium are called thermal neutron.
32. What are thermal neutrons?
The neutrons with average energy of about 0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are called
thermal neutron, because at 298K, the thermal energy kT approximately 0.025eV . Slow and fast
neutrons play a vital role in nuclear reactors.
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33. State the properties of neutrino.
The neutrino has the following properties
・ It has zero charge
・ It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
・ Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has very tiny mass.
・ It interacts very weakly with the matter.
Therefore, it is very difficult to detect. In fact, in every second, trillions of neutrinos
coming from the sun are passing through our body without any interaction.
34. What is meant by nuclear force?
There must be a strong attractive force between protons to overcome the repulsive
Coulomb’s force. This attractive force which holds the nucleus together is called strong
nuclear force.
35. State the properties of nuclear force.
1. Nuclear force is the strong force in the nature
2. Nuclear force is the short range force which act only up to a distance of few Fermi.
3. The strong nuclear force is attractive in nature
4. It acts with an equal strength between proton-proton, neutron-neutron and neutron-proton.
5. It does not act on the electrons.
6. It does not alter the chemical properties of the atom.
36. Define the unit Rydberg
The ground state energy of hydrogen (-13.6eV) is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.
(1 Rydberg = -13.6 eV)
37. On what factors, the specific charge of the electron does not depend on?
a) Gas used in the discharge tube
b) nature of the electrodes
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38. State the law of radioactive decay.
At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of decay(dN/dt)
Is proportional to the number of nuclei ( N ) at the same instant.
39. What is proton-proton cycle?

According to Hans Bethe, the sun is powered by proton-proton cycle of fusion reaction. This cycle
consists of three steps and the first two steps are as follows:
A number of reactions are possible in the third step. But the dominant one is
The overall energy production in the above reactions is about 27 MeV. The radiation energy we
received from the sun is due to these fusion reactions.
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 Let ‘e’ be the charge of cathode ray particle.  Hence the deflection at the end of the electric field
5 Mark Questions & Answers  The upward force acting on cathode rays due to 1 1
𝑦  = 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 = 0 + 𝑎𝐸 𝑡 2
1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine electric field ‘E’ is; 𝑭𝑬 = 𝒆 𝑬 2 2
the specific charge of electron.  The downward force acting on cathode rays due to 
1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 2 1 𝑒 𝐸 𝑙2
magnetic field is ; 𝑭𝑩 = 𝒆 𝑩 𝒗 𝑦 = ( ) =
Specific charge of elctron - J J Thomson Experiment 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 𝑚 𝑣2
 In undeflected equilibrium position, 2 2
 Charge per unit mass of an electron is called 1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 𝐵
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑦 =
specific charge (e/m) 2 𝑚 𝐸2
Principle : 𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝐵𝑣 𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝑬 𝒚 = − − − − (𝟐)
 Cathode rays (electron beam) deflects by both 𝒗 = − − − − − −(𝟏) 𝟐𝒎 𝑬
electric and magnetic fields is the principle 𝑩  Then the deflection on the screen,
involved in this method. Method (1) - To find specific charge : 𝑦 ∝ 𝑦 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑦
Set up :  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference between anode 𝐶  Proportionality constant
and cathode.  Using equation (2),
 Since the cathode rays (electron beam) are 1 𝑒 𝑙 2 𝐵2
accelerated from cathode to anode, the potential 𝑦=𝐶
2𝑚 𝐸
energy ‘eV’ of the electron beam at the cathode is 𝒆 𝟐𝒚𝑬
converted into kinetic energy of the electron beam = − − − − − (𝟑)
at the anode. Hence, 𝒎 𝑪 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
 By substituting the known values, we get
1 𝒆
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏
2 𝒎
𝒆 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝑬𝟐 Method (3) - Deflection due to magnetic field :
∴ = =
𝒎 𝟐𝑽 𝟐 𝑽 𝑩𝟐  When the electric field is turned off (𝐸 = 0), the
 The value of specific charge is , deflection is only due to magnetic field.
𝒆
 It is ahighly evacuated discharge tube = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏  The magnetic force provides the centripetal force,
 Cathode rays (electron beam) produced at 𝒎 the electron beam undergoes semi-circular path .
cathode ‘C’ are attracted towards anode disc A Method (2) - Deflection due to electric field :
Hence.
which allow only a narrow beam of cathode rays. 𝑚 𝑣2
 These cathode rays are now allowed to pass 𝑒𝑣𝐵=
𝑅
through the parallel plates and strike the screen 𝑚𝑣
coated with ZnS, a light spot is observed at O 𝑒𝐵=
𝑅
 The metal plates are maintained at high voltage. 𝐸
𝑚 ( ) 𝑚𝐸
 Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between 𝑒𝐵= 𝐵 =
pole pieces of magnet such that both electric and 𝑅 𝐵𝑅
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other. 𝒆 𝑬
= 𝟐 − − − − − (𝟒)
Velocity of cathode rays (𝒗) : 𝒎 𝑩 𝑹
 When the magnetic field is turned off (𝐵 = 0), the  The specific charge is independent of
deflection is only due to electric field. (1) Gas used
 Let ‘m’ be the mass of the electron, the upward (2) Nature of the electrodes
acceleration due to electric field ‘E’ is
𝐹𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑎𝐸 = =
𝑚 𝑚
 Upward initial velocity ; 𝑢 = 0
 Let ‘𝑙’ be the length of the deflecting plate, then
time taken to travel in electric field is,
𝑙
𝑡=
𝑣
2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to  Radius of the oil drop =𝑟
determine the charge of an electron. Density of the the oil =𝜌
Millikan’s oil drop method : Density of the air =𝜎
 The downward gravitational force acting on the
oil drop is.
4
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟 3 ] 𝑔
3
 The upthrust force experienced by the oil drop
due to displaced air is
4  From the free body diagram,
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜎 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟 3 ] 𝑔 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝐸
3
 Once the oil drop attains a terminal velocity υ, the 4 4
𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 + 𝑞 𝐸
net downward force 3 3
acting on the oil drop is 4 4
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑞 𝐸 = 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 − 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔
 It consists of two horizontal circular metal plates equal to the viscous 3 3
A and B each with diameter around 20 cm and are 4
force acting opposite to 𝑞𝐸= 𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌
− 𝜎 )𝑔
separated by a small distance 1.5 cm. the direction of motion 3
 These two parallel plates are enclosed in a 4
of the oil drop. 𝑞= 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
chamber with glass walls.  From Stokes law, the 3𝐸
 A high potential difference around 10 kV applied  Put equation (1), we get
viscous force on the oil 1
across the metal plates, such that electric field acts drop is ; 𝐹𝑣 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 4 9𝜂𝑣 9𝜂𝑣 2
vertically downward.  From the free body 𝑞= 𝜋 [ ][ ] (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
3𝐸 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
 A small hole is made at the centre of the upper diagram, 1
18 𝜂𝑣 2
plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the hole 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑣 𝑞= 𝜋 [𝜂 𝑣] [ ] (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
to spray the liquid. 4 4 𝐸 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
 When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid (like 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 + 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 𝟏
3 3 𝟏𝟖 𝜼𝟑 𝒗 𝟑 𝟐
glycerine) is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely 4 4 𝒒= 𝝅[ ] − − − −(𝟐)
3 3
𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟 ]𝑔 − 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟 ]𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 𝑬 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝈 )𝒈
downward through the hole of the top plate only 3 3
under the influence of gravity. 4  Millikan repeated this experiment several times
3 (𝜌
 Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric 𝜋𝑟 − 𝜎 )𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 and computed the charges on oil drops.
3
charge (negative charge) because of friction with 𝑟3 18 𝜋𝜂𝑣  He found that the charge of any oil drop can be
air or passage of x-rays in between the parallel = written as integral multiple of a basic value,
𝑟 4 𝜋 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 (−1.6 X 10−19 C), which is nothing but the charge of
plates. 9𝜂𝑣
 Further the chamber is illuminated by light which
2
𝑟 = an electron. Hence, 𝒆 = − 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑪
2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 3. Derive the expression for radius and energy of the
is passed horizontally and oil drops can be seen 𝟏
clearly using microscope placed perpendicular to 𝟗𝜼𝒗 𝟐 nth orbit of hydrogen atom using Bohr atom model.
𝒓 = [ ] − −(𝟏) Radius of nth orbit :
the light beam. 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝈 )𝒈
 These drops can move either upwards or (2) Determination of electric charge :
downward.  When the electric field is switched on, charged
(1) Radius of oil drop : oil drops experience an upward electric force
 When the electric field is switched off, the oil (qE).
drop accelerates downwards.  Strength of the electric field is adjusted to
 Due to the presence of air drag forces, the oil make that particular drop to be stationary.
drops easily attain its terminal velocity and  Under these circumstances, there will be no
moves with constant velocity. Let it be ‘𝑣’ viscous force acting on the oil drop.
𝟐
 Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at 𝒏  For hydrogen, (Z = 1), then
rest which is made up of of protons and neutrons. 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒂𝑶 − − − − (𝟑)
𝒁 𝒎 𝒆𝟒 𝟏
 Let an electron revolving around the stabe nucleus 𝒉 𝟐 𝜺𝑶 𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟕)
where, 𝑎𝑂 = = 0.529 𝐴 → Bohr radius 𝟖 𝜺𝑶𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
 Atomic number =𝑍 𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐
 For hydrogen, = 1), So radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit,
(Z  The negative sign in equation (7) indicates that
Total charge of th nucleus =+𝑍𝑒
𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒂 𝑶 𝒏𝟐 − − − − (𝟒) the electron is bound to the nucleus.
Charge of an electron =−𝑒
 For first orbit, n = 1, (ground level)  Put the values of 𝜺𝑶 , 𝒉, 𝒎, 𝒆 and using ‘eV’ unit we
Mass of the electron =𝑚
𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑂 = 0.529 𝐴 have,
 From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
between the nucleus and the electron is  For second orbit, n = 2, (first excited level) 𝑬𝒏 = − 𝒆𝑽
1 (+ 𝑍 𝑒) (−𝑒) 𝑟2 = 4 𝑎𝑂 = 4 𝑋 0.529 𝐴 = 2.116 𝐴 𝒏𝟐
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑟̂  For third orbit, n = 3, (second excited level)  when, n = 1, 𝑬𝟏 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 when, n = 2, 𝑬𝟐 = − 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒆𝑽
𝑟3 = 9 𝑎𝑂 = 9 𝑋 0.529 𝐴 = 4.761 𝐴
1 𝑍 𝑒2 when, n = 3, 𝑬𝟑 = − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒆𝑽
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = − 𝑟̂  Thus, radius of the orbit, 𝒓𝒏 ∝ 𝒏𝟐
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 Velocity of electron in nth orbit :  Thus, as ‘n’ increases, energy also increases. (i.e.)
 This force provides necessary centripetal force  According to Bohr’s quantization condition, the orbit which is closest to the nucleus has lowest
given by. ℎ energy. So it is often called ground state
𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛  The ground state energy of hydrogen (- 13.6 eV) is
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑟̂ 2𝜋
𝑟𝑛 𝑛2 ℎ used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.
 At equilibrium, 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑎𝑂 =𝑛 1 Rydberg = − 13.6 eV
𝑍 2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒉 𝒁 4. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.
𝒗𝒏 = − − − (𝟓)
1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝟐 𝝅 𝒎 𝒂𝑶 𝒏 Spectral series of hydrogen atom :
− 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂ 𝟏  When an electron jumps from mth orbit to nth orbit,
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛  Hence, 𝒗𝒏 ∝ (i.e.) the velocity of the electron
𝒏 a spectral line was obtained whose wave number
1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 decreases as the principal quantum number
= − − − − − (1) (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛 increases 1 1 1
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2 Total Energy of electron in nth orbit : 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜆 𝑛 𝑚
𝑍 𝑒2  Electrostatic force is a conservative force.  here, R  Ryderg constant(𝑅 = 1.097 𝑋 107 𝑚−1 )
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑚2 𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2  So potential energy of the electron in nth orbit,  For m > n, various spectral series are obtained.
𝑟𝑛 = 1 (+ 𝑍 𝑒) (−𝑒) 1 𝑍 𝑒2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑈𝑛 = = − (1) Lyman series :
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ]2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛  n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …..
𝑟𝑛 =  Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚  Hence the wave number,
 From Bohr’s postulate, 1 1 1 𝑍 𝑒2 1 1 1
ℎ 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 = [ ] [𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛(1)] 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 =𝑛ℏ 2 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 𝜆 1 𝑚
2𝜋  Thus , 𝑼𝒏 = −𝟐 𝑲𝑬𝒏  They lie in ultra violet region
 Hence, (2) Balmer series :
 Therefore, total energy of the electron in nth orbit,
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [𝑙𝑛 ]2  𝑛 = 2 and 𝑚 = 3, 4, 5, . ….
𝑟𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = −2 𝐾𝐸𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = − 𝐾𝐸𝑛
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 1 𝑍 𝑒2  Hence the wave number,
𝑛ℎ 2 𝐸𝑛 = − 1 1 1
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [ ] 8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑟𝑛 = 2𝜋 𝜆 2 𝑚
𝑂 ℎ2 𝜀 𝑛2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚  From equation (2), 𝑟𝑛 = [ ] .Hence  They lie in visible region
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑛2 ℎ2 (3) Paschen series :
𝑟𝑛 = 1 𝑍 𝑒2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑋 4 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑛 = −  𝑛 = 3 and 𝑚 = 4, 5, 6, ….
8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ℎ2 𝜀𝑂 𝑛2
𝒉𝟐 𝜺𝑶 𝒏𝟐 [ ]  Hence the wave number
𝒓𝒏 = [ ] − − − − (𝟐) 𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐 𝒁 𝟒 𝟐 1 1 1
𝒎𝒆 𝒁 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
 Here 𝜺𝑶 , 𝒉, 𝒎, 𝒆 and 𝝅 are constant. 𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟔) 𝜆 3 𝑚
𝟖 𝜺𝑶𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐  They lie in infra red region
(4) Brackett series : (3) For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces 𝑁
̅̅̅̅ ln [ ] = − 𝜆 𝑡
 𝑛 = 4 and 𝑚 = 5, 6, 7, …. slowly and 𝐵𝐸 for uranium is about 7.6 MeV. They 𝑁𝑂
 Hence the wave number, are unstable and radioactive. Taking exponential on both sides,
1 1 1 (4) If two light nuclei with A<28 combine to form 𝑁
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] = 𝑒− 𝜆 𝑡
𝜆 4 𝑚 heavier nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon is 𝑁𝑂
 They lie in middle infra red region, more for final nucleus than initial nuclei. Thus, if 𝑵 = 𝑵𝑶 𝒆− 𝝀 𝒕 − − − − (𝟐)
(5) Pfund series : the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus  Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay.
 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 6, 7,8, …. of medium value A, a large amount of energy will  Here the number of atoms is decreasing
 Hence the wave number be released. This is the basis of nuclear fusion exponentially over the time.
1 1 1 and is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.  This implies that the time taken for all the
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 5 𝑚 (5) If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
 They lie in far infra red region. two or more nuclei of medium value A, the energy
5. Explain the variation of average binding energy released would again be large. The atom bomb is
with the mass number by graph and discuss its based on this principle.
features. 6. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive decay)
Binding energy curve : Law of radioactivity :
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
time, called rate of decay (dN/ dt) is proportional
to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.
This is called law of radioactive decay.
Expression :
 Let 𝑁𝑂 be the numer of nuclei at initial time (t = 0)
 Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at any
time ‘t’ 7. Obtain an expression for half life time and mean
 If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ life time.
𝑑𝑁 Half life time (𝑻𝟏 ) :
then, rate of decay = 𝟐
𝑑𝑡
 From law of radioactivity,  Half-life T1/2 is thetime required for the number of
𝑑𝑁 atoms initially present to reduce to one half of the
∝𝑁 initial amount.
 The average binding energy per nucleon (𝐵𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ ) is 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁  From the law of radioactive decay, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑂 𝑒 − 𝜆 𝑡
the energy required to separate single nucleon (𝑜𝑟) = −𝜆𝑁 − − − − − (1) 𝑁
from the particular nucleus. 𝑑𝑡  If 𝑡 = 𝑇1 then, 𝑁 = 𝑂 . Hence
2
𝐵𝐸 [(𝑍 𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁 𝑚𝑛 ) − 𝑀𝐴 ] 𝑐 2 Here, 𝜆 → decay constant 2
̅̅̅̅ 𝑁 𝑂 − 𝜆 𝑇1
𝐵𝐸 = =  Decay constant (𝜆 ) is different for different = 𝑁𝑂 𝑒 2
𝐴 𝐴 radioactive sample and the negative sign in the 2
 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 is plotted against A of all known nuclei and the 1 − 𝜆 𝑇1
graph obtained is called binding energy curve. equation implies that the N is decreasing with = 𝑒 2
time. 2
 From the graph, 𝜆 𝑇1
 By rewriting the equation (1), we get (𝑜𝑟) 𝑒 2 = 2
̅̅̅̅
(1) The value of 𝐵𝐸 rises as the mass number A
 Taking log on both sides,
increases until it reaches a maximum value of
𝑑𝑁 𝜆 𝑇1 = ln 2
8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly = − 𝜆 𝑑𝑡 2
decreases. 𝑁 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
Integrating on both sides, 𝑻𝟏 = =
(2) The average binding energy per nucleon is 𝑁 𝑡 𝟐 𝝀 𝝀
𝑑𝑁
about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass number ∫ = − 𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡  If the number of atoms present at t = 0 is N0 , then
between A = 40 and 120. These elements are 𝑁𝑂 𝑁 0 (1) Number of atoms remais undecayed after
comparatively more stable and not [ln 𝑁]𝑁𝑁𝑂 = − 𝜆 𝑡 1st half life = 𝑶
𝑵
𝟐
radioactive. [ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁𝑂 ] = − 𝜆 𝑡
(2) Number of atoms remais undecayed after  Since our human body, tree or any living organism (3) Moderators :
𝑵
2nd half life = 𝑶 continuously absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, the  The probability of initiating fission by fast
𝟒
ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶 in the living organism is also neutron in another nucleus is very low.
(3) Number of atoms remais undecayed after
𝑵 nearly constant. Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for
3rd half life = 𝑶  But when the organim dies, it stops absorbing CO2. sustained nuclear reactions
𝟖
 In general, after n half-lives, the number of nuclei Since 146 𝐶 starts to decay, the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶  The moderator is a material used to convert
remaining undecayed is given by in a dead organism or specimen decreases over fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
𝑵𝑶 the years.  Usually the moderators having mass
𝑁 = 𝒏
𝟐  Suppose the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶 in the ancient tree comparable to that of neutrons. Hence, these
Mean life time (𝝉) : pieces excavated is known, then the age of the tree light nuclei undergo collision with fast
 The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of pieces can be calculated. neutrons and the speed of the neutron is
sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the 9. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a reduced
total number nuclei present initially. block diagram.  Most of the reactors use water, heavy water
 Let 𝜆 be the decay constant of the radioactive Nucleaar reactor : (D2O) and graphite as moderators.
substance, then  Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear (4) Control rods :
𝟏 fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled  The control rods are used to adjust the
𝝉=
𝝀 manner reaction rate.
 Thus mean life and decay constant is inversely  The energy produced is used either for research  During each fission, on an average 2.5
proportional to each other. purpose or for power generation. neutrons are emitted
Half life and mean life - Relation :  The first nuclear reactor was built in the year  In order to have the controlled chain
 Half life time is given by, 1942 at Chicago. reactions, only one neutron is allowed to
ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1 = 𝜆
= 𝜆
cause another fission and the remaining
2 neutrons are absorbed by the control rods.
 Mean life period is given by,  Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod
1
𝜏= 𝜆
material
 From the above two equations, (5) Coolants :
𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝝉  The cooling system removes the heat
𝟐 generated in the reactor core.
8. Explain radio carbon dating.  Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
Radio carbon dating : sodium are used as coolant since they have
 The important application of beta ecay is very high specific heat capacity and have large
radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using this boiling point under high pressure.
technique, the age of an ancient object can be  This coolant passes through the fuel block and
calculated. carries away the heat to the steam generator
 All living organisms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) Main parts of Nuclear reactor : through heat exchanger
from air to synthesize organic molecules. (1) Fuel :  The steam runs the turbines which produces
 In this absorbed CO2, the major part is  The commonly used fuels are 235 239
92𝑈 and 94 𝑃𝑢 electricity in power reactors.
12 14
6 𝐶 and very small fraction 6 𝐶 whose half-life is  Naturally occurring uranium contains only (6) Shielding :
5730 years. 0.7% of 235 238
92𝑈 and 99.3% are only 92𝑈 .  For a protection against harmful radiations,
238
 Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always decaying  So the 92𝑈 must be enriched such that it the nuclear reactor is surrounded by a
but at the same time, cosmic rays from outer space contains at least 2 to 4% of 235
92𝑈 concrete wall of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.
are continuously bombarding the atoms in the (2) Neutron source :
atmosphere which produces 146 𝐶 .  A neutron source is required to initiate the
 So the continuous production and decay of 146 𝐶 in chain reaction for the first time.
the atmosphere keep the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶  A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or
always constant. polonium is used as the neutron source
10. Briefly explain the elementary particles of nature. 11. Explain in detail the four fundamental forces.
Elementary particles : Fundamental forces in nature :
 An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons  Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak
and nuclei is made up of protons and neutrons. forces are called fundamental forces of nature.
 Initially, protons, neutrons and electrons are (1) Gravitational forces :
considered as fundamental building blocks of  The attractive force between two masses is
matter. called gravitational force and it is universal in
 But in 1964, Murray Gellman and George Zweig nature.
theoretically proposed that protons and neutrons  Our planets are bound to the sun through
are not fundamental particles, but they are made gravitational force of the sun.
up of quarks.  We are in the Earth because of Earth’s
 These quarks are now considered elementary gravitational attraction on our body.
particles of nature. (2) Electromagnetic force :
 Electrons are fundamental or elementary particles  Between two charges there exists
because they are not made up of anything. electromagnetic force and it plays major role
 In the year 1968, the quarks were discovered in most of our day-today events.
experimentally by Stanford.  We are standing on the surface of the earth
 There are six quarks namely, because of the electromagnetic force between
(1) Up quark atoms of the surface of the earth with atoms
(2) Down quark in our foot
(3) Charm quark  It is stronger than gravitational force.
(4) Strange quark (3) Strong Nuclear force :
(5) Top quark and  Between two nucleons, there exists a strong
(6) Bottom quark nuclear force and this force is responsible for
 There exist their anti particle also. stability of the nucleus.
 All these quarks have fractional charges. For  The atoms in our body are stable because of
example, strong nuclear force.
2
Charge of up quark is = + 𝑒 (4) Weak Nuclear force :
3
1  In addition to these three forces, there exists
Charge of down quark is = − 𝑒 another fundamental force of nature called
3
 According to quark model, the weak force.
(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks and one  This weak force is even shorter in range than
down quark nuclear force.
(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark and two  This force plays an important role in beta
down quarks decay and energy production of stars.
 During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in
sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are
produced through weak force.
 The lives of species in the earth depend on the
solar energy from the sun and it is due to
weak force which plays vital role during
nuclear fusion reactions going on in the core
of the sun
CHAPTER-10. ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (BOOK BACK QUESTIONS)
1.Define forbidden energy gap

The energy band formed due to the valence orbitals is called valence band (VB) and that
formed due to the unoccupied orbitals to which electrons can jump when energised is called
the conduction band (CB). The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is called forbidden energy gap (Eg). Electrons cannot exist in the forbidden energy gap
2. Why is temperature coefficient of resistance negative for semiconductors

When the temperature is increased further, more number of electrons are promoted to the
conduction band and they increase the conduction. Thus, we can say that the electrical conduction
increases with the increase in temperature. In other words, resistance decreases with increase in
temperature. Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
====================================================================================
3. What do you mean by doping?
The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
==================================================================================
4.Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semicondutors Extrinsic semiconductors
A semiconductor in its pure form A semiconductor doped with penta
without impurity is called an intrinsic valent or trivalent impurity is called an
semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductor.
Ex. Pure germanium and pure silicon Ex. N-type semi conductor or P- type
semiconductors
Concentration of carrier charges (electrons and Concentration of carrier charges (electrons and
holes) is not sufficient to develop electronic holes) is sufficient to develop electronic devices
devices
=========================================================================================
5. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain
A diode is called as a unidirectional device because,. current flows in only one direction (anode to
cathode internally). When a forward voltage is applied, the diode conducts; and when a reverse voltage
is applied, there is no conduction.
===================================================================================
6.What do you mean by leakage current in a diode?
In diodes ,under reverse bias condition, a very small current in µA, flows across the junction. This
is due to the flow of the minority charge carriers called the leakage current or reverse saturation
current.
7.Draw the output waveform of a full wave rectifier.
(input wave form)
(output wave form)

8. Distinguish between avalanche and zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown
It occurs in junctions which are

It occurs in junctions which are lightly heavily doped and have narrow
and have wide depletion widths. depletion widths.
It occurs at higher reverse voltages It occurs due to rupture of

when thermally generated electrons get covalent bonds by strong electric
enough kinetic energy to produce more fields set up in depletion region by
electrons by collision. the reveres voltage.
At reverse voltages above breakdown At reveres voltage below

is due to avalanche effect. breakdown is due to zener effect.
Charge carriers obtain energy from the Zener current is independent of

applied potential. applied voltage.
Large number of holes and

Electron hole pairs are generated. electrons are produced
Electric field produced is weak in

nature. A strong electric field is produced.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. State Barkhausen conditions for oscillations
==============================================================================
10.Explain the current flow in a NPN transistor
In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers in the emitter are electrons. As it is heavily
doped, it has a large number of electrons. The forward bias across the emitter base junction causes
the electrons in the emitter region to flow towards the base region and constitutes the emitter
current (IE).
The electrons after reaching the base region recombine with the holes in the base region. Since the
base region is very narrow and lightly doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient holes to
recombine and hence most of the electrons reach the collector region. Eventually, the electrons
that reach the collector region will be attracted by the collector terminal as it has positive
potential and flows through the external circuit. This constitutes the collector current.(Ic)
The holes that are lost due to recombination in the base region are replaced by the
positive potential of the bias voltage V and constitute the base current IB.The magnitude of the
base current will be in micoamperes as against milliamperes for emitter and collector currents.
Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter current as the sum of the collector current and
the base current.
11.What are logic gates
A logic gate is an electronic circuit whose function is based on digital signals. They are binary in
nature. The logic gates are considered as the basic building blocks of most of the digital systems.
They have one output with one or more inputs. There are three types of basic logic gates: AND,
OR, and NOT. The other logic gates are Ex-OR, NAND, and NOR.
=============================================================================
12. Explain the need for a feedback circuit in a transistor oscillator.
The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output to the input is called the feedback
network. If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the input, then the
magnitude of the input signal increases. It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
13. Write a short note on diffusion current across pn junction
Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons diffuse from the n-side to the p-side
while the holes from the p-side to the n-side. The diffusion of charge carriers happens due to the fact
that the n-side has higher electron concentration and the p-side has higher hole concentration. The
diffusion of the majority charge carriers across the junction gives rise to an electric current, called
diffusion current.
14. What is meant by biasing? Mention its types
Biasing means providing external energy to charge carriers to overcome the barrier potential and
make them move in a particular direction.
Depending on the polarity of the external source to the p-n junction, we have two types of biasing:
i) Forward bias
ii) Reverse bias
====================================================================================
15. Why can’t we interchange the emitter and collector even though they are made up of the same
type of semiconductor material?
Because of the differing size and the amount of doping, the emitter and collector cannot be
interchanged.
==================================================================================
16. Why are NOR and NAND gates are called universal gates
NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because any other logic gate can be made
from NAND or NOR gates.
==================================================================================
17. Define barrier potential
The difference in potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier potential (V ).
b
At 25 C, this barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium.
0
18. What is rectification?

Rectification is the process of converting alternating current into direct current is
called rectification. The circuit used for rectification is called as rectifier.
=====================================================================
19. List the applications of LED.
20. Give the principle of solar cells
A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Accordingly, the p-n junction of the solar cell generates emf when solar radiation falls on it.
21. What is an integrated circuit?
An integrated circuit is also referred as an IC or a chip or a microchip . It consists of
thousands to millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc. integrated on a small flat piece of
semiconductor material that is normally Silicon.
====================================================================================
22. What is modulation?
For long distance transmission, the low frequency baseband signal
(input signal) is superimposed onto a high frequency radio signal by a
process called modulation.
==============================================================
23. Define bandwidth of transmission system.
The range of frequencies required to transmit a piece of specified information in a particular channel
is called channel bandwidth or the bandwidth of the transmission system.
===================================================================================
24. What do you mean by skip distance
The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of
the sky wave along the surface is called as the skip distance
==================================================================================
25. Give the applications of Radar
Radars find extensive applications in
almost all fields. A few are mentioned below.
i) In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.
ii) It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne surface search, air search and
weapons guidance systems.
iii) To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in meteorological observations,
Radars are used.
iv) It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.
26. What is meant by mobile communications
Mobile communication is used to communicate with others in different
locations without the use of any physical connection like wires or cables
27.Explain Centre frequency or resting frequency
When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no input signal), there is no change in the
frequency of the carrier wave. It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre frequency or
resting frequency. Practically this is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter.
28. What is RADAR stands for?
Radar basically stands for Radio Detection and Ranging System. It is one of the important
applications of communication systems for remote sensing.
===================================================================================
Extra 2 mark questions

1.What are Analog and digital signals?
An analog signal is a continuously varying voltage or current with respect to time.
Such signals have been employed in rectifying circuits and transistor amplifier circuits.
Digital signals are signals which contain only discreate values of voltages. Digital
signals need two states: switch ON and OFF.
=================================================================================
2. What are Digital ICs’ and Analog ICs’
Digital ICs usually find their applications in computers, networking equipment, and most
consumer electronics.
Analog ICs or linear ICs work with continuous values. This means a component on a linear IC can
take any value and output another value. Linear ICs are typically used in audio and radio
frequency amplification.
3. Define input resistance. Give its unit.
==============================================================================
4. Define output resistance of a NPN transistor in CE mode. Give its unit.
===================================================================================
5. Define current gain of a NPN transistor in CE mode. Give its unit.
=================================================================================
6. State the relation between α and β of a transistor.
================================================================================
7.Define current gain of a NPN transistor in CB mode
===================================================================================
8.Define: Emitter follower.
As the output is taken from the emitter in common collector configuration,
it is called an emitter follower.
==================================================================================
9. Why a transistor is called as current controlled device.
It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero, then the collector current is almost zero.
It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a current controlled device.
===================================================================================
10. What is Zener diode.
A heavily doped reverse biased PN junction diode is called as zener diode. It is used in the
voltage regulator circuit.
===================================================================================
11. Define efficiency in the rectifier
Efficiency is the ratio of the output dc power to the ac input power supplied to
the circuit. Its value for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %.
====================================================================================
12. What is an ideal diode.
It acts like a conductor when it is forward biased. When it is reverse biased, it acts like an
insulator. The barrier potential is assumed to be zero and hence it behaves like a resistor.
=================================================================
13. What are the applications of zener diode
The zener diode can be used
• as voltage regulator
• for calibrating voltages
• to provide fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing
• to protect of any gadget against damage from accidental application of excessive voltage.
================================================================================
14.Define amplitude modulation
If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal, then it is called as
amplitude modulation.
15.State the advantages and limitations of Amplitude modulation.
=================================================================
16.Define frequency modulation.
The frequency of the carrier signal is modified according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the baseband signal in frequency modulation.
=============================================================
17.What are the advantages of FM modulation.
18.What are the limitations of FM modulation.
=====================================================================
19.Define Phase modulation.
The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the phase of
the carrier signal keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is called
phase modulation
==========================================================================
Semiconductors :  But at room temperature, some of the covalent
5 marks Questions & Answers  In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden bonds are brakes and releases the electrons free
1. Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy gap (𝐸𝑔 < 3 𝑒𝑉) between the valence band from the lattice.
energy band theory. and the conduction band.
Classification of solids :  At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the
 Based on the energy band theory, solids are solid can break the covalent bond between the
classified in to three types, namely atoms.
(1) Insulators  This releases some electrons from valence band to
(2) Metals (Condutors) conduction band.
(3) Semiconductors  Since free electrons are small in number, the
conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
that of the conductors.
 The resistivity value of semiconductors is from  As a result, some states in the valence band become
−𝟓 𝟔 empty and the same number of states in the
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 𝒎.
conduction band will be occupied.
 When the temperature is increased further, more
 The vacancies produced in the valence band are
number of electrons is promoted to the conduction
called holes which are treates as positive charges.
band and increases the conduction.
 Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge
 Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the
carriers in semiconductors.
increase in temperature. (i.e.) resistance decreases
Insulators :  In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of
with increase in temperature.
 In insulator the valence band (VB) and the electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
 Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative
conduction band (CB) are separated by a large number of holes in the valence band.
temperature coefficient of resistance.
energy gap.  The conduction is due to the electrons in the
 The most important elemental semiconductor
 The forbidden energy gap (𝐸𝑔 ) is approximately conduction band and holes in the valence band
materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
6 eV in insulators.  The total current (I) is always the sum of the
 At room temperature,
 The gap is very large that electrons from valence electron current (𝑰𝒆 ) and the hole current (𝑰𝒉 )
forbidden energy gap for Si ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 and
band cannot move into conduction band even on 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒆 + 𝑰𝒉
forbidden energy gap for Ge ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒆𝑽
the application of strong external electric field or  The increase in temperature increases the number
2. Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor. of charge carriers (electrons and holes).
the increase in temperature.
Intrinsic semiconductor : 3. Elucidate the formation of a N-type and P-type
 Therefore, the electrical conduction is not possible
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity semiconductors.
as the free electrons are almost nil and hence these
is called an intrinsic semiconductor. N - type semiconductor :
materials are called insulators.
(e.g) silicon, germanium
 Its resistivity is in the range of 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝛀 𝒎
 Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is
Metals (Conductors) :
covalently bonded with the neighbouring four
 In metals, the valence band and onduction band
atoms to form the lattice.
overlap
 At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as
 Hence, electrons can move freely into the
insulator, because there is no free charges.
conduction band which results in a large number of
free electrons in the conduction band.
 Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at
low temperatures.
 The application of electric field provides sufficient  A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a
energy to the electrons to drift in a particular pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant
direction to constitute a current. from pentavalent elements like Phosphorus,
 For metals, the resistivity value lies between Arsenic, and Antimony
𝟏𝟎−𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎
 The dopant has five valence electrons while the  As Silicon atom has four valence electrons, one  On the n-side, positive ion cores are exposed and
Silicon atom has four valence electrons. electron position of the dopant in the crystal lattice on the p- side, negative ion cores are exposed
 During the process of doping, four of the five will remain vacant.  An electric field E forms between the positive ion
valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound  The missing electron position in the covalent bond cores in the n-type material and negative ion cores
with the 4 valence electrons of the neighbouring is denoted as a hole. in the p-type material.
replaced Silicon atom.  To make complete covalent, the dopant is in need  The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this
 The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will of one more electron. region and hence it is called depletion region as it
be loosely attached with the nucleus as it has not  These dopants can accept electrons from the is depleted of free carriers.
formed the covalent bond. neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is  A barrier potential (Vb) due to the electric field E
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth called an acceptor impurity. is formed at the junction.
electron is found just below the conduction band  The energy level of the hole created by each  As this diffusion of charge carriers from both sides
edge and is called the donor energy level impurity atom is just above the valence band and is continues, the negative ions form a layer of
 The energy required to set free a donor electron is called the acceptor energy level. negative space charge region along the p-side.
only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.  For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the  Similarly, a positive space charge region is formed
 At room temperature, these electrons can easily valence band in addition to the thermally by positive ions on the n-side.
move to the conduction band with the absorption generated holes.  The positive space charge region attracts electrons
of thermal energy.  Hence, in an P - type semiconductor, the from P-side to n-side and the negative space charge
 The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons majority carriers - Holes region attracts holes from N-side to P -side.
to the conduction band and are called donor minority carriers - Electrons  This moment of carriers happen in this region due
impurities. 4. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss to the formed electric field and it constitutes a
 Therefore,each impurity atom provides one extra its V–I characteristics. current called drift current.
 electron to the conduction band in addition to the Formation of PN junction diode :  The diffusion current and drift current flow in the
thermally generated electrons opposite direction and at one instant they both
 Hence, in an N - type semiconductor, the become equal.
majority carriers - Electrons  Thus, a P-N junction is formed.
minority carriers - Holes V -I characteristics :
P - type semiconductor :  It is the study of the variation in current through
the diode with respect to the applied voltage across
the diode when it is forward or reverse biased.
 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

P-type semiconductor materials.
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a  Here the N-region has a high electron concentration
pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant and the P-region a high hole concentration.
from trivalent elements like Boron, Aluminium,  So the electrons diffuse from the N-side to the
Gallium and Indium P-side. Simillarly holes also diffuse from P - side to
 The dopant has three valence electrons while the the N- side. This causes diffusion current.
Silicon atom has four valence electrons.  In a P-N junction, when the electrons and holes
 During the process of doping, the dopant with three move to the other side of the junction, they leave
valence electrons are bound with the neighbouring behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites, which
three Silicon atoms. are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable to
move.
Forward bias characteristics : 5. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier  The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady
 If the positive terminal of the external voltage and explain its working. dc voltage but a pulsating wave.
source is connected to the P-side and the negative Half wave rectifier :  A constant ora steady voltage is required which can
terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased. be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
 A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias voltage regulator circuits.
voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I)  Efficiency (𝜼) is the ratio of the output dc power to
through the diode along the y-axis. This graph is the ac input power supplied to the circuit. Its value
called the forward V-I characteristics. for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
 From the graph, 6. Explain the construction and working of a full wave
(1) At room temperature, a potential difference rectifier.
equal to the barrier potential is required Full wave rectifier :
before a reasonable forward current starts
flowing across the diode. This voltage is known  In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half
as threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or or the negative half of the AC input is passed
knee voltage (Vth). through while the other half is blocked.
For Silicon ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽  Only one half of the input wave reaches the output.
For Germanium ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑽 Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
(2) The graph clearly infers that the current flow is  This circuit consists of a transformer, a
not linear and is exponential. Hence it does not P-N junction diode and a resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
obey Ohm’s law.  Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.
(3) The forward resistance (𝒓𝒇 ) of the diode is the During positive half During negative half
ratio of the small change in voltage (ΔV)to the cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
small change in current(ΔI), Terminal A becomes Terminal B becomes
∆𝑽 positive with respect to positive with respect to  The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input
𝒓𝒇 = terminal B. terminal A. signal pass through this circuit and hence it is called
∆𝑰
(4) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when The diode is forward The diode is reverse the full wave rectifier.
it is forward biased. biased and hence it biased and hence it does  It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center
Reverse bias characteristics : conducts not conducts tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL).
 If the positive terminal of the battery is connected No current passes through  The centre (C) is usually taken as the groundor zero
The current flows through voltage reference point.
to the n-side and the negative potential to the p- RL and there is no voltage
the load resistor RL and  Due to the centre tap transformer, the output
side, the junction is said to be reverse biased. drop across RL
the AC voltage developed voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of the
 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage (The reverse saturation
across RL constitutes the total secondary voltage.
and the current across the junction, which is called current in a diode is
output voltage V0
the reverse V - I characteristics. negligible) During positive half During negative half
 Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows  The output waveform is shown below. cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
across the junction. This is due to the flow of the Terminal M is positive, Terminal M is negative,
minority charge carriers called the leakage G is at zero potential and G is at zero potential and
current or reversesaturation current. N is at negative potential N is at positive potential
For Silicon ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 𝝁 𝑨 Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D1 is reverse biased
For Germanium ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎 𝝁 𝑨 Diode D2 is reverse biased Diode D2 is forward biased
 Besides, the current is almost independent of the D 1 conducts and current D2 conducts and current
voltage. flows along the path flows along the path
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up MD 1 AGC ND2 BGC
to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter The voltage appears The voltage appears
into the breakdown region. across RL in the direction across RL in the same
G to C direction G to C
 Hence in a full wave rectifier both postive and  The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown  The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical
negative half cycles of the input signal pass through below. which means that the diode possesses some small
the circuit in the same direction resistance called Zener dynamic impedance.
 The output waveform is shown below.  Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in the
breakdown region. It means an increase in the
Zener current produces only a very small increase
in the reverse voltage which can be neglected.
 Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not
change once it goes into breakdown.
 It means that VZ remains almost constant even
when IZ increases considerably.
8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator :
 Though both positive and negative half cycles of ac
input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature.
 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
7. Write a note on Zener diode. Explain the V - I  The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is
characteristics of Zener diode.
similar to that of an ordinary P-N junction diode.
Zener diode :  It starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V.
 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped  However, the reverse characteristics is highly
Silicon diode, designed to be operated in the
significant in Zener diode.
breakdown region.  The increase in reverse voltage normally generates  A Zener diode working in the breakdown region
 Zener breakdown occurs due to the breaking of very small reverse current. can serve as a voltage regulator.
covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in  While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is  It maintains a constant output voltage even when
the depletion region by the reverse voltage. increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the input voltage (𝑉𝑖 ) or load current (𝐼𝐿 ) varies.
 It produces an extremely large number of increase in current is very sharp.  Here, in this circuit the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is regulated
electrons and holes which constitute the reverse  The voltage remains almost constant throughout at a constant voltage Vz (Zener voltage) at the
saturation current. the breakdown region. output represented as V0 using a Zener diode.
 The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.  Here, IZ(max) represents the maximum reverse  The output voltage is maintained constant as long
current. as the input voltage does not fall below Vz .
 If the reverse current is increased further, the  When the potential developed across the diode is
diode will be damaged. greater than VZ, the diode moves into the Zener
V-I Characteristics of Zener diode :
 The important parameters on the reverse breakdown region.
 The circuit to study the forward and reverse
characteristics are  It conducts and draws relatively large current
characteristic s of a Zener diode is shown below.
VZ→Zener breakdown voltage through the series resistance 𝑹𝑺 .
IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain breakdown  The total current I passing through 𝑹𝑺 equals the
IZ(max)→maximum current limited by maximum sum of diode current IZ and load current IL (i.e.)
power dissipation. 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒁 + 𝑰𝑳
 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias  It is to be noted that the total current is always less
having the voltage greater than VZ and current less than the maximum Zener diode current.
than IZ(max).  Under all conditions 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒁
 Thus, output voltage is regulated.
9. What is meant by light emitting diode? Explain its 10. Explain in detail about the photo diode. 11. Explain the working principle of Solar cell. Mention
working principle with diagram. Photo diode : its applications.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) :  A P-N junction diode which converts an optical Solar cell :
 LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible or signal into electric current is known as photodiode.  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
invisible light when it is forward biased.  Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly converts light energy directly into electricity or
 Since, electrical energy is converted into light opposite to that of an LED. electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
energy, this process is also called electro  Photo diode works in reverse bias. Its circuit
luminescence. symbol below.
 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is

incident on the photo diode.
 The device consists of a P-N junction
semiconductor made of photosensitive material
 It consists of a P-layer, N-layer and a substrate.  It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
kept safely inside a plastic case
 A transparent window is used to allow light to when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
 It has a small transparent window that allows light
travel in the desired direction.  A solar cell is of two types : P-type and N-type.
to be incident on the P-N junction.
 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.  Both types use a combination of P-type and N-type
 Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N
 When the P-N junction is forward biased, the Silicon which together forms the P-N junction of
junction is exposed to light and hence are called as
conduction band electrons on N-side and valence the solar cell.
light sensors.
band holes on P-side diffuse across the junction.  The difference is that P-type solar cells use P-type
 When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes the
 When they cross the junction, they become excess Silicon as the base with an ultra-thin layer of N-type
depletion region of the diode, some of the valence
minority carriers (electrons in P-side and holes in Silicon, while N-type solar cell uses the opposite
band electrons are elevated into conduction band,
N-side). combination.
in turn holes are developed in the valence band.
 These excess minority carriers recombine with  The other side of the P-Silicon is coated with metal
 This creates electron-hole pairs.
oppositely charged majority carriers in the which forms the back electrical contact.
 The amount of electronhole pairs generated
respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the  On top of the N-type Silicon, metal grid is deposited
depends on the intensity of light incident on the
conduction band recombine with holes in the which acts as the front electrical contact.
P-N junction.
valence band  The top of the solar cell is coated with anti-
 These electrons and holes are swept across the
 During recombination process, energy is released reflection coating and toughened glass.
P-N junction by the electric field created by reverse
in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non-  In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated
voltage before recombination takes place.
radiative). due to the absorption of light near the junction.
 Thus, holes move towards the N-side and electrons
 For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv  Then the charge carriers are separated due to the
towards the P-side.
isemitted. For non-radiative recombination, electric field of the depletion region.
 When the external circuit is made, the electrons
energy is liberated in the form of heat.  Electrons move towards N–type Silicon and holes
flow through the external circuit and constitute the
 The colour of the light is determined by the energy move towards P-type Silicon layer.
photocurrent.
band gap of the material.  The electrons reaching the N-side are collected by
 When the incident light is zero, there exists a
 Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of the front contact and holes reaching P-side are
reverse current which is negligible.
colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and red collected by the back electrical contact.
 This reverse current in the absence of any incident
(GaAsP). Now a days, LED which emits white light  Thus a potential difference is developed across
light is called dark current and is due to the
(GaInN) is also available. solar cell.
thermally generated minority carriers.
 When an external load is connected to the solar cell, towards the base region and constitutes the 13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common
photocurrent flows through the load. emitter current (IE). emitter transistor and bring out the essence of
 Many solar cells are connected together either in  The electrons after reaching the base region input and output characteristics.
series or in parallel combination to form solar recombine with the holes in the base region. Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode :
panel or module.  Since the base region is very narrow and lightly
 Many solar panels are connected with each other to doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient
form solar arrays. For high power applications, holes to recombine and hence most of the electrons
solar panels and solar arrays are used. reach the collector region.
Applications :  Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector
(1) Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, region will be attracted by the collector terminal as
toys, portable power supplies, etc. it has positive potential and flows through the
(2) Solar cells are used in satellites and space external circuit.
applications  This constitutes the collector current (IC).
(3) Solar panels are used to generate electricity.  The holes that are lost due to recombination in the 𝑽𝑩𝑬 − Base - emitter voltage
12. Explain transistor action in common base base region are replaced by the positive potential 𝑽𝑪𝑬 − Collector - emitter voltage
configuration. of the bias voltage VEB and constitute the 𝑰𝑩 − Base current
Working of NPN transistor in CB mode : base current (IB ). 𝑰𝑪 − Collector current
 The magnitude of the base current will be in 𝑽 𝑩𝑩 & 𝑽𝑪𝑪 −Biasing voltages
micoamperes as against milliamperes for emitter 𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐 − Variable resistors
and collector currents. (1) Input characteristics :
 It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero,  Input Characteristics curves give the
then the collector current is almost zero. relationship between the base current (IB) and
 It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant
current controlled device. collector to emitter voltage (VCE)
 Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter
current as the sum of the collector current and the
base current.
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
 Basically, a BJT can be considered as two  Since the base current is very small, we can write,
P-N junction diodes connected back to- back. 𝑰𝑬 ≈ 𝑰𝑪
 In the forward active bias of the transistor, the  There is another component of collector current
emitter-base junction is forward biased by VEB and due to the thermally generated electrons called
the collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCB. reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO.
 The forward bias decreases the depletion region  This factor is temperature sensitive.
across the emitter-base junction and the reverse  The ratio of the collector current to the emitter
bias increases the depletion region across the current is called the forward current gain (𝜶𝒅𝒄 ) of
collector-base junction. a transistor.
 Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter- 𝑰𝑪
base junction is decreased and the collector-base 𝜶𝒅𝒄 =
𝑰𝑬
junction is increased.  The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a
 In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers transistor. Higher the value of α better is the  The curve looks like the forward
in the emitter are electrons. As it is heavily doped, transistor. characteristics of an ordinary P-N junction
it has a large number of electrons.  The value of α is less than unity and ranges from diode.
 The forward bias across the emitter-base junction 0.95 to 0.99.  There exists a threshold voltage or knee
causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow voltage (Vk) below which the base current is
very small.
 Beyond the knee voltage, the base current ∆𝑽𝑪𝑬 Presence of dc source at the input (saturation
𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
increases with the increase in base-emitter ∆𝑰𝑪 𝐼 region) :
𝐵
voltage.  The output resistance for transistor in  When a high input voltage (Vin = +5 V) is applied,
 It is also noted that the increase in the common emitter configuration is very low. the base current (IB) increases and in turn
collector-emitter voltage decreases the base (3) Current transfer characteristics : increases the collector current.
current. This shifts the curve outward.  This gives the variation of collector current  The transistor will move into the saturation region
 This is because the increase in collector- (IC) with changes in base current (IB) at (turned ON).
emitter voltage increases the width of the constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE)  The increase in collector current (IC) increases the
depletion region in turn, reduces the effective voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the
base width and thereby the base current. output voltage, close to zero.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage  The transistor acts like a closed switch and is
(ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a equivalent to ON condition.
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff region) :
called the input resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).  A low input voltage (Vin = 0 V ), decreases the base
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬 current (IB) and in turn decreases the collector
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑽 current (IC).
𝑪𝑬
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in  The transistor will move into the cut-off region
common emitter configuration.  It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is (turned OFF).
(2) Output characteristics : zero.  The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases the
 The output characteristics give the  This current is called the common emitter drop across RC, thereby increasing the output
relationship between the variation in the leakage current (ICEO), which is due to the flow voltage, close to +5 V.
collector current (ΔIC) with respect to the of minority charge carriers.  The transistor acts as an open switch which is
variation in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at  The ratio of the change in collector current considered as the OFF condition.
constant input current (IB) (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at  It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is and a low input gives a high output.
called forward current gain (β).  Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter
∆𝑰𝑪 in computer logic circuitry.
𝜷= [ ] 15. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑉
𝐶𝐸 with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the input and
 Its value is very high and it generally ranges output wave form.
from 50 to 200. Transisitor as an amplifier :
14. Transistor functions as a switch. Explain.
Transistor as a switch :
 There are four important regions in the curve

(i) Saturation region
(ii) Cut-off region
(iii) Active region
(iv) Break down region
 The ratio of the change in the collectoremitter
voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in  The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions
the collector current (ΔIC) at constant base functions like an electronic switch that helps to
current (IB) is called output resistance (𝒓𝑶 ). turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control
signal.
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal  The increase in collector current (IC) decreases Feedback network :
strength (increase in the amplitude). the potential drop across RC and increases the  The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output
 If a large amplification is required, multistage collector-emitter voltage (VCE). to the input is called the feedback network.
amplifier is used.  Thus, the input signal in the negative direction  If the portion of the output fed to the input is in
 Here, the amplification of an electrical signal is produces an amplified signal in the positive phase with the input, then the magnitude of the
explained with a single stage transistor amplifier direction at the output. input signal increases.
 Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of  Therefore, 1800 phase reversal is observed  It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
one transistor with the allied components. during the negative half cycle of the input Tank circuit :
 An NPN transistor is connected in the common signal  The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a
emitter configuration. capacitor connected in parallel
 A load resistance, RC is connected in series with the
collector circuit to measure the output voltage.
 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass
through.
 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low
reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one
stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
constructing multistage amplifiers.
16. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator.
 VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied
Transistor as an oscillator :
across the base-emitter.  Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit
 An electronic oscillator basically converts dc energy
 The output is taken across the collector-emitter. from a DC source, the energy is stored in inductor
into ac energy of high frequency ranging from a few
 Collector current, and capacitor alternatively.
Hz to several MHz.
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷 𝑰𝑩  This produces electrical oscillations of definite
 Hence, it is a source of alternating current or voltage.
 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law in the output frequency.
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any
loop, the collector-emitter voltage is  But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss
external signal source.
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
 Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
Working of the amplifier : capacitors.
Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.
(1) During the positive half cycle :  Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations
 An oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, an
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage decreases gradually.
amplifier and a feedback circuit as shown
across the emitter-base.  Hence, the tank circuit produces damped electrical
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases. oscillations.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC)  Therefore, in order to produce undamped
increases β times. oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from
 This increases the voltage drop across RC the output circuit to the input circuit.
which in turn decreases the collector-emitter  The frequency of oscillations is determined by the
voltage (VCE). values of L and C using the equation.
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive 𝟏
𝒇=
direction produces an amplified signal in the 𝟐 𝝅 √𝑳 𝑪
negative direction at the output. Hence, the
output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle : Amplifier :
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward  Amplification is the process of increasing
voltage across the emitter-base. amplitude of weak signals (i.e) Amplifier amplifies
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in the input ac signal
turn increases the collector current (IC).
17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second  From the above truth table, we can conclude
theorems. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
De Morgan’s First Theorem :  Thus De Morgan’s second Theorem is proved.
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is  It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled
equal to the product of its complements. OR gate.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅
Proof :  The corresponding logic circuit diagram 19. What is called modulation? Explain the types of
 The Boolean equation for NOR gate is modulation with help of necessary diagrams.
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 Modulation :
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is  For long distance transmission, the low frequency
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅ baseband signal (input signal) is superimposed
A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅ .𝑩
𝑨 ̅ 18. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to onto a high frequency radio signal by a process
simplify Boolean expressions with suitable called modulation.
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
example.  In the modulation process, a very high frequency
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Boolean laws : signal called carrier signal (radio signal) is used to
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 (1) Complement law : carry the baseband signal.
(i) ̿ =𝐴
𝐴 Types of modulation :
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 (1) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(2) OR -Laws:
 From the above truth table, we can conclude (2) Frequency modulation (FM)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ .𝑩
̅ (i) 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 (3) Phase modulation (PM)
(ii) 𝐴 + 1 = 1
 Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved. Amplitude modulation (AM) :
(iii) 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
 It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled  If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified
(iv) 𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1
AND gate. according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
(3) AND -Laws:
 The corresponding logic circuit diagram baseband signal, then it is called amplitude
(i) 𝐴 .0 = 0
(ii) 𝐴 .1 = 𝐴 modulation.
(iii) 𝐴 . 𝐴 = 𝐴  Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier
(iv) 𝐴 . 𝐴̅ = 0 signal remain constant.
(4) Commutative Laws :
De Morgan’s First Theorem : (i) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
 The complement of the products of two logical (ii) 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝐴
inputs is equal to the sum of its complements. (5) Associative Laws :
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩̅ (i) 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
Proof : (ii) 𝐴 . (𝐵. 𝐶) = (𝐴 . 𝐵). 𝐶
 The Boolean equation for NAwD gate is (6) Distributive Laws :
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 (i) 𝐴 (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐶
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is (ii) 𝐴 + (𝐵 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶)
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ +𝑩 ̅ Example :
A B A .B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅+𝑩
𝑨 ̅ Simplify the following Boolean expression.
𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Solution :
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 (1 + 𝐵)
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 .1 [𝑂𝑅 −law (2) ]
𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑪 [𝐴𝑁𝐷 −law (2) ]
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Circuit description
 We can see clearly that the carrier wave is modified  When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero  The electrical equivalent of the original
in proportion to the amplitude of the baseband (no input signal), there is no change in the information is called the baseband signal.
signal. frequency of the carrier wave. (e.g.) microphone
 Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV  It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre (2) Transmitter :
broadcasting. frequency or resting frequency.  It feeds the electrical signal from the
Advantages of AM :  Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the transducer to the communication channel.
 Easy transmission and reception FM transmitter.  The transmitter is located at the broadcasting
 Lesser bandwidth requirements Advantages of FM : station.
 Low cost  Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in
Limitations of AM : signal-noise ratio.
 Noise level is high  The operating range is quite large.
 Low efficiency  The transmission efficiency is very high as all the
 Small operating range transmitted power is useful.
Frequency modulation (FM) :  FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the better quality compared to AM radio.
baseband signal, then it is called frequency Limitations of FM :  It consists,
modulation.  FM requires a much wider channel. (i) Amplifier : The transducer output is very
 Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier  FM transmitters and receivers are more complex weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
signal remain constant. and costly. (ii) Oscillator : It generates high-frequency
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to carrier wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long
AM. distance transmission into space.
Phase modulation (PM) : (iii) Modulator : It superimposes the
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband baseband signal onto the carrier signal and
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal generates the modulated signal.
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is (iv) Power amplifier : It increases the power
called phase modulation level of the electrical signal in order to
 This modulation is used to generate frequency cover a large distance.
modulated signals. (3) Transmitting antenna :
20. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication  It radiates the radio signal into space in all
system with the necessary block diagram. directions.
Communication system :  It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves
 Electronic communication is nothing but the with the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1)
transmission of sound, text, pictures, or data (4) Communication channel :
 When the amplitude of the baseband signal is zero, through a medium.  Communication channel is used to carry the
the frequency of the modulated signal is the same Basic elements of communication system : electrical signal from transmitter to receiver
as the carrier signal. (1) Input transducer : with less noise or distortion.
 The frequency of the modulated wave increases  A transducer is a device that converts  The communication medium is basically of two
when the amplitude of the baseband signal variations in a physical quantity (pressure, types: wireline communication and wireless
increases in the positive direction (A, C). temperature, sound) into an equivalent communication.
 The increase in amplitude in the negative half cycle electrical signal or vice versa. (5) Receiver :
(B, D) reduces the frequency of the modulated  In communication system, the transducer  The signals that are transmitted through the
wave converts the information which is in the form communication medium are received with the
of sound, music, pictures or computer data into help of a receiving antenna and are fed into the
corresponding electrical signals. receiver.
 The receiver consists of electronic circuits like • Increasing distance  The communication systems like television
demodulator, amplifier, detector etc. • Absorption of energy by the Earth broadcast, satellite communication, and RADAR
• Tilting of the wave are based on space wave propagation.
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio  The range or distance (d) of coverage of the
navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto- shore propagation depends on the height (h) of the
communication and mobile communication. antenna given by the equation, 𝒉 = √𝟐 𝑹 𝒉
Sky wave propagation : where, 𝑅 → Radius of earth (6400 km)
 The mode of propagation in which the 22. Explain satellite communication.
electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna, Satellite communication :
directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by
the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave
propagation or ionospheric propagation.
 The demodulator extracts the baseband signal  Extremely long distance communication is possible
from the carrier signal. as the radio waves can undergo multiple
 Then the baseband signal is detected and reflections between the earth and the ionosphere.
amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed to the  The phenomenon of bending the radio waves back
output transducer. to earth is due to the total internal reflection.
(6) Output transducer :  The satellite communication is a mode of
 This is the reason why the EM waves are communication of signal between transmitter and
 It converts the electrical signal back to its transmitted at a critical angle to ensure that the
original form such as sound, music, pictures or receiver via satellite.
waves undergo total reflection and reaches the  The message signal from the Earth station is
data. (e.g.) loudspeakers, picture tubes, ground without escaping into space.
computer monitor, etc. transmitted to the satellite on board via an uplink
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and (frequency band 6 GHz), amplified by a
21. Explain the three modes of propagation of the point of reception of the sky wave along the
electromagnetic waves through space. transponder and then retransmitted to another
surface is called as the skip distance earth station via a downlink (frequency band
Modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves :  There is a zone in between where there is no
 The electromagnetic wave transmitted by : 4 GHz)
reception of electromagnetic waves neither ground  The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a
(1) Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
propagation (2 kHz to 2 MHz) straight line (line of sight) may come across tall
Space wave propagation : buildings or mountains or even encounter the
(2) Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric  The process of sending and receiving information
propagation (3 MHz to 30 MHz) curvature of the earth.
signal through space is called space wave  A communication satellite relays and amplifies
(3) Space wave propagation (30 MHz to 400 GHz) communication
Ground wave propagation : such radio signals via transponder to reach distant
 The electromagnetic waves of very high and far off places using uplinks and downlinks.
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space
transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to  It is also called as a radio repeater in sky.
waves. Applications :
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
 These waves travel in a straight line from the (1) Weather Satellites:
ground wave propagation.
transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used for a  They are used to monitor the weather and
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves line of sight communication (LOS).
or surface waves. climate of Earth.
 For high frequencies, the transmission towers  By measuring cloud mass, these satellites
 Both transmitting and receiving antennas must be must be high enough so that the transmitted and
close to the earth. enable us to predict rain and dangerous storms
received signals (direct waves) will not encounter like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
 The size of the antenna plays a major role in the curvature of the earth and hence travel with
deciding the efficiency of the radiation of signals. (2) Communication satellites:
less attenuation and loss of signal strength.  They are used to transmit television, radio,
 During transmission, the electrical signals are  Certain waves reach the receiver after getting
attenuated over a distance. internet signals etc. Multiple satellites are used
reflected from the ground. for long distances.
 Some reasons for attenuation are as follows:
(3) Navigation satellites: 24. Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity  Recent developments in optical communication
 These are employed to determine the among the various transmission media -justify. provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps
geographic location of ships, aircrafts or any Fiber optic communication :
other object.  The method of transmitting information from one
23. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its applications. place to another in terms of light pulses through
RADAR : an optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
 Radar basically stands for RAdioDetection And  It is in the process of replacing wire transmission
Ranging System. in communication systems.
 It is one of the important applications of  Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz)
communication systems and is mainly used to than microwave radio systems.
sense, detect, and locate distant objects like  The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon
aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc. dioxide which is highly abundant on Earth.
 The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that are  Now it has been replaced with materials such as
invisible to the human eye can be determined. chalcogenide glasses, fluoroaluminate crystalline
 Radar uses electromagnetic waves for materials because they provide larger infrared
communication. wavelength and better transmission capability.
 The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into  As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is
space by an antenna in all directions. preferred in places where multiple channels are to
 When this signal strikes the targeted object, it gets be laid and isolation is required from electrical and
reflected or reradiated in many directions. electromagnetic interference.
 This reflected (echo) signal is received by the radar Applications :
antenna which in turn is delivered to the receiver.  Optical fiber system has a number of applications
 Then, it is processed and amplified to determine namely, international communication, inter-city
the geographical statistics of the object. communication, data links, plant and traffic control
 The range is determined by calculating the time and defense applications.
taken by the signal to travel from RADAR to the Merits :
target and back.  Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than
Applications : copper cables.
 In military, it is used for locating and detecting the  This system has much larger band width. This
targets. means that its information carrying capacity is
 It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne larger.
surface search, air search and weapons guidance  Fiber optic system is immune to electrical
systems. interferences.
 To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in  Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
meteorological observations, Radars are used. Demerits :
 It is employed to locate and rescue people in  Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared
emergency situations. to copper wires.
 It is an expensive technology.
Importance :
 Fiber optic cables provide the fastest transmission
rate compared to any other form of transmission.
 It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and
business.
 Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps.
STD XII PHYSICS
BOOKBACK OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS
(WITH SOLUTIONS)
HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR-PHYSICS
NAME :
CHAPTER-1
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 ELECTROSTATICS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
4. An electric dipole is placed at an alignment angle of 30o with an electric field
UNIT - 1 ELECTROSTATICS of 2 × 105 NC–1. It experiences a torque equal to 8 N m. The charge on the dipole
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS if the dipole length is 1 cm is
(a) 4 mC (b) 8 mC (c) 5 mC (d) 7 mC
1. Two identical point charges of magnitude –q are fixed as shown in the figure
Solution :
below. A third charge +q is placed midway between the two charges at the
▪ Torque on the dipole is ; 𝜏 = sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
point P. Suppose this charge +q is displaced a small distance from the point P
▪ Hence the charge ;
in the directions indicated by the 𝜏 −
arrows, in which direction(s) will = = = = 𝐶= 𝐶
sin 𝜃 𝑋 − 𝑋 𝑋 5 𝑋 sin ° 𝑋 𝑋
+q be stable with respect to the
displacement?
Answer (b) 𝐦𝐂
(a) A1 and A2 (b) B1 and B2 (c) both directions (d) No stable 5. Four Gaussian surfaces are given below with charges
Soultion : inside each Gaussian surface. Rank the electric flux
through each Gaussian surface in increasing order.
▪ Stable means steady and unlikely to change
▪ If +q is moved towards either A1 or (a) D < C < B < A (b) A < B = C < D
A2, it will attracted by the nearer (c) C < A = B < D (d) D > C > B > A
charge -q. Thus +q moves away from Solution :
P and hence it is unstable ▪ Net charge inside A = + + − = . Hence Φ =
𝜀
▪ But if +q is moved towards either B1 or B2, the vertical components of the forces
brings the charge +q to the original position P and hence it is stable. ▪ Net charge inside B = − = . Hence Φ =
𝜀
Answer (b) B1 and B2 ▪ Net charge inside C = + − = . Hence Φ =
2. Which charge configuration produces a uniform electric field? ▪ Net charge inside D = − . Hence Φ = −
𝜀
(a) point charge (b) uniformly charged infinite line Answer (a) D<C<B<A
(c) uniformly charged infinite plane (d) uniformly charged spherical shell
6. The total electric flux for the following closed surface
Solution :
which is kept inside water
▪ Due to point charge ; = (or) ∝
𝜋𝜀 (a) (b)
𝜆 𝜀 𝜀
▪ Due to charged infinite line ; = (or) ∝
𝜋𝜀 (c) (d)
𝜎 𝜀 𝜀
▪ Due to uniformly charged infinite plane ; = (or) E = constant
𝜀 Solution :
▪ Due to uniformly charged spherical shell ; = (or) ∝ + −
𝜋𝜀 ▪ The total electric flux ; Φ = = = =
𝜀 𝜀𝑟 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
Answer (c) uniformly charged infinite plane
𝒒 Answer (b) 𝜀
3. What is the ratio of the charges | | for the
𝒒 7. Two identical conducting balls having positive charges q1 and q2 are separated
following electric field line pattern? by a centre to centre distance r. If they are made to touch each other and then
(a) (b) separated to the same distance, the force between them will be
(a) less than before (b) same as before (c) more than before (d) zero
(c) (d) Solution :
Solution : ▪ Initial force ; 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑘
▪ Number of electric lines enters to is Φ = = ▪ If the two balls touch each other and then separated, then the charge on each
𝜀
+
▪ Number of electric lines emerge out from is Φ = = ball becomes
𝜀
Φ 𝒒 +
▪ Thus ; =| |= ▪ Then the new force ; 𝑖 =𝑘
Φ 𝒒
▪ Hence 𝑖 > 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
Answer (d) Answer (c) more than before
8. Rank the electrostatic potential energies for the given system of charges in 11. Two points A and B are maintained at a potential of 7 V and - 4 V respectively.
increasing order. The work done in moving 50 electrons from A to B is
− −
(a) . 𝐽 (b) − . 𝐽
− −
(c) . 𝐽 (d) . 𝐽
Solution :
▪ Since, = ; = − ,then potential difference − = − − = −
(a) 1 = 4 < 2 < 3 (b) 2 = 4 < 3 < 1 ▪ Thus work done, → = − = −
− −
(c) 2 = 3 < 1 < 4 (d) 3 < 1 < 2 < 4 → = . − = . 𝐽
−
Solution : Answer (a) . 𝑿 𝑱
− 12. If voltage applied on a capacitor is increased from V to 2V, choose the correct
▪ In fig (1) ⇒ = =−
𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀 conclusion.
− −
▪ In fig (2) ⇒ = = (a) Q remains the same, C is doubled
𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀
− − (b) Q is doubled, C doubled
▪ In fig (3) ⇒ = = (c) C remains same, Q doubled
𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀
− (d) Both Q and C remain same
▪ In fig (4) ⇒ = = − =−
𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀 Solution :
Answer (a) 1=4<2<3 ▪ The charge stored in the capacitor is proportional to the potential difference
9. An electric field = ⃗ 𝒙 𝒊̂ exists in a certain region of space. Then the between the plates (i.e.) ∝ 𝑽 (or) =𝑪𝑽
potential difference V = Vo – VA, (where Vo is the potential at the origin and VA is ▪ Where the C is the proportionality constant called capacitance which depends
the potential at x = 2 m ) is shape and size of the conductor
(a) 10 V (b) –20 V (c) +20 V (d) –10 V ▪ When 𝑽 → 𝑽 , then →
Solution : Answer (c) C remains same, Q doubled
▪ The potential at any point is given by ; 13. A parallel plate capacitor stores a charge Q at a voltage V. Suppose the area of
𝑥
𝑥 = −∫ .
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫ 𝑥 𝑖̂ . 𝑥𝑖̂ = − ∫𝑥 𝑥 = − [ ]= − 𝑥 the parallel plate capacitor and the distance between the plates are each
doubled then which is the quantity that will change?
▪ At orgin (𝑥 = ) ; =− = (a) Capacitance (b) Charge
At 𝑥 = ; =− = − = − (c) Voltage (d) Energy density
▪ Then the potential difference ; = − = − − =+
Solution :
Answer (c) + 20 V ▪ When 𝑨 → 𝑨 and 𝒅 → 𝒅 then,
10. A thin conducting spherical shell of radius R has a charge Q which is uniformly 𝜺 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨
distributed on its surface. The correct plot for electrostatic potential due to a) New capacitance ; 𝑪 = = 𝒐 = 𝒐 = 𝒐𝒅 = 𝑪 (no change)
𝑽 𝒅 𝒅
this spherical shell is b) New charge ; =𝑪 𝑽= 𝑪𝑽= (no change)
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
c) New voltage ; 𝑽 = =𝜺 = = 𝑽 (no change)
𝜺𝒐 𝑨 𝒐 𝑨 𝜺𝒐 𝑨
d) New energy density ;
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Solution : 𝒖 = 𝜺 = 𝜺 [ ] = 𝜺 [ ] = ( 𝜺 [ ] )= [ 𝜺 ]= 𝒖
𝜺𝒐 𝑨 𝜺𝒐 𝑨 𝜺𝒐 𝑨
▪ For ≤ ; the electric potential = = 𝜋𝜀
= 𝑎 Answer (d) Energy density (quatered)
In this region, there is zero electric field and hence electric potential is constant
▪ For > ; the electric potential = (or) ∝
𝜋𝜀
In this region, spherical shell acts similar to point charge.
Answer (b)
14. Three capacitors are connected in triangle as shown in the figure. The
equivalent capacitance between the points A and C is
(a) 𝜇 (b) 𝜇
(c) 𝜇 (d) 𝜇
Solution :
▪ 𝜇 and 𝜇 are in series connection, their effective capacitance,

= + = 𝑪𝑺 = 𝝁
𝐶
▪ 𝜇 and 𝜇 are in parallel connection, their effective capacitance,
𝑪 = + = 𝝁
Answer (b) 𝝁
15. Two metallic spheres of radii 1 cm and 3 cm are given charges of –1 × 10–2 C
and 5 × 10–2 C respectively. If these are connected by a conducting wire, the
final charge on the bigger sphere is
(a) 3 × 10–2 C (b) 4 × 10–2 C
–2
(c) 1 × 10 C (d) 2 × 10–2 C
Solution :
− −
▪ Let = − 𝐶 and = 𝐶 , then the total charge will be,
−
= + = − + 𝐶= 𝑿 − 𝑪
▪ When these two spheres are connected by a conducting wire, distribution of
charge occurs between the two spheres but the total charge remains the same
(conservation of charges)
▪ In equilibrium stage, let be the charge on small sphere, then charge on bigger
sphere will be = − = 𝑿 − −
▪ Since the two spheres are connected, the surfaces of both spheres together form
an equipotential surface. Hence
= 𝑖
=
𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀 𝑖
−
−
=
𝑖
−
−
−
= −
−
= −
−
=
−
= 𝑿 𝑪
▪ Therefore the charge on bigger sphere,
= 𝑿 − − = 𝑿 − − 𝑿 −
= 𝑿 −
𝑪
Answer (a) 𝑿 − 𝑪
UNIT - 1 ELECTROSTATICS 9. An electric field ⃗ = 𝒙 𝒊̂ exists in a certain region of space. Then the
potential difference V = Vo – VA, (where Vo is the potential at the origin and VA is
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE
the potential at x = 2 m ) is
1. Two identical point charges of magnitude –q are fixed as shown in the figure (a) 10 V (b) –20 V (c) +20 V (d) –10 V
below. A third charge +q is placed midway between the two charges at the 10. A thin conducting spherical shell of radius R has a charge Q which is uniformly
point P. Suppose this charge +q is displaced a small distance from the point P distributed on its surface. The correct plot for electrostatic potential due to
in the directions indicated by the arrows, in which direction(s) will +q be this spherical shell is
stable with respect to the displacement?
(a) A1 and A2 (b) B1 and B2
(c) both directions (d) No stable
2. Which charge configuration produces a uniform electric field? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) point charge (b) uniformly charged infinite line 11. Two points A and B are maintained at a potential of 7 V and - 4 V respectively.
(c) uniformly charged infinite plane (d) uniformly charged spherical shell The work done in moving 50 electrons from A to B is
𝒒 − −
3. What is the ratio of the charges | | for the (a) . 𝐽 (b) − . 𝐽
𝒒 − −
(c) . 𝐽 (d) . 𝐽
following electric field line pattern?
12. If voltage applied on a capacitor is increased from V to 2V, choose the correct
(a) (b) conclusion.
(a) Q remains the same, C is doubled (b) Q is doubled, C doubled
(c) (d)
(c) C remains same, Q doubled (d) Both Q and C remain same
4. An electric dipole is placed at an alignment angle of 30 o with an electric field 13. A parallel plate capacitor stores a charge Q at a voltage V. Suppose the area of
of 2 × 105 NC–1. It experiences a torque equal to 8 N m. The charge on the dipole the parallel plate capacitor and the distance between the plates are each
if the dipole length is 1 cm is doubled then which is the quantity that will change?
(a) 4 mC (b) 8 mC (c) 5 mC (d) 7 mC (a) Capacitance (b) Charge (c) Voltage (d) Energy density
5. Four Gaussian surfaces are given below with charges inside 14. Three capacitors are connected in triangle as shown in the figure. The
each Gaussian surface. Rank the electric flux through each equivalent capacitance between the points A and C is
Gaussian surface in increasing order. (a) 𝜇 (b) 𝜇
(a) D < C < B < A (b) A < B = C < D
(c) 𝜇 (d) 𝜇
(c) C < A = B < D (d) D > C > B > A
6. The total electric flux for the following closed surface

which is kept inside water
(a) (b) 15. Two metallic spheres of radii 1 cm and 3 cm are given charges of –1 × 10–2 C
𝜀 𝜀
and 5 × 10–2 C respectively. If these are connected by a conducting wire, the
(c) (d) final charge on the bigger sphere is
𝜀 𝜀
(a) 3 × 10–2 C (b) 4 × 10–2 C (c) 1 × 10–2 C (d) 2 × 10–2 C
7. Two identical conducting balls having positive charges q1 and q2 are separated
by a centre to centre distance r. If they are made to touch each other and then
separated to the same distance, the force between them will be
(a) less than before (b) same as before (c) more than before (d) zero
8. Rank the electrostatic potential energies for the given system of charges in
increasing order.
(a) 1 = 4 < 2 < 3 (b) 2 = 4 < 3 < 1 (c) 2 = 3 < 1 < 4 (d) 3 < 1 < 2 < 4
NAME :
CHAPTER-2
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 5. What is the value of resistance of the following

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS resistor?
1. The following graph shows current versus voltage values a kΩ b kΩ
of some unknown conductor. What is the resistance of c kΩ d kΩ
this conductor? Solution :
(a) 2 ohm (b) 4 ohm  From colour code, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(c) 8 ohm (d)1 ohm  → B B R O Y G B V G W
Solution : 𝑎𝑐 →
 From Ohm s law, = 𝑒 → 𝑒
 Hence the resistance of the conductor, = = = Ω  Thus the value of resistor = Ω= Ω
𝐼
Answer (a) kΩ
Answer (a) 2 ohm
6. Two wires of A and B with circular cross section are made up of the same
2. A wire of resistance 2 ohms per meter is bent to
material with equal lengths. Suppose RA = 3 RB, then what is the ratio of radius
form a circle of radius 1m. The equivalent resistance
of wire A to that of B?
between its two diametrically opposite points, A and
B as shown in the figure is (a) 3 (b) √ (c) (d)
√
(a) 𝜋 Ω (b) Ω Solution :
(c) 𝜋 Ω (d) Ω  The resistance of the material ; = = (or) ∝
𝐴 𝑟2 𝑟2
2 2
Solution : 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
 Thus, = 𝑟2
(or)
𝑟2
= (or) =√ =√ =√
 Since = , Length of arc AB = 𝜋 = 𝜋 𝑒 𝑒 𝑟
 Hence resistance of the arc AB of length 𝜋 is 𝜋 Ω Answer (c)

 Here resistances 𝜋 and 𝜋 are in parallel, their effective resistance will be, √
7. A wire connected to a power supply of 230 V has power dissipation P1.
= + = = 𝑹 = 𝝅 𝛀 Suppose the wire is cut into two equal pieces and connected parallel to the
𝑷
Answer (a) 𝝅 𝛀 same power supply. In this case power dissipation is P2 . The ratio
𝑷
is
3. A toaster operating at V has a resistance of Ω. Its power is (a)1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
(a) 400 W (b) 2 W Solution :
(c) 480 W (d) 240 W
Solution :
 Power is given by, 𝑷 = = = = = 𝟖
𝑹
Answer (c) 𝟖
4. A carbon resistor of 7 ± .7 k Ω to be marked with rings of different colours  Let R be the resistance of the wire.
for its identification. The colour code sequence will be 𝑹
 If the wire is cut into two equal pieces, then the resistance of each piece will be
(a) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold (b) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
(c) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver (d) Green – Orange – Violet - Gold  If these two pieces are connected in parallel, their effective resistance will be
Solution : = /
+ /
= + = (or) 𝑃 =
𝑃
 Resistance = Ω= Ω ; Tolerance = . Ω = Ω= % 2 2 2 2 𝑷
 10% - Silver  Hence, 𝑃 = and 𝑃 = = = ∴ =
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 𝑃 / 𝑷
 5% - Gold B B R O Y G B V G W Answer (d) 4
 From the code,
 → 𝑒 , → 𝑖 𝑒 , 𝑒 → 𝑎 𝑔𝑒, % ⟶ 𝑖 𝑒
Answer (b) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
8. In India electricity is supplied for domestic use at 220 V. It is supplied at 110 V 12. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125 per °C. At 20°C,
in USA. If the resistance of a 60W bulb for use in India is R, the resistance of a its resistance is Ω. The resistance of the wire will be Ω at
60W bulb for use in USA will be (a) 800 °C (b) 700 °C (c) 850 °C (d) 820 °C
(a) R ` (b) 2 R (c) (d) Solution :
 The change in resistance due to change in temperature will be, Δ = 𝛼Δ
Solution :
2 2 − = 𝛼 − (or) R= 𝛼 − +
 We know that, Power ; 𝑃 = ∴ Resistance ; = R= [𝛼 − + ] (or)
R
= 𝛼 − +
𝑃 𝑜
2 𝑋 2 𝑋 R
 Thus, = 𝑃
= and 𝐴 = = 𝛼 − = − = − = − =
𝑃 𝑜
 Hence, = = ∴ = − =𝛼= = =
.
𝑹
Answer (c) = + = + = ℃
Answer (d) 𝟖 ℃
9. In a large building, there are 15 bulbs of 40 W, 5 bulbs of 100 W, 5 fans of 80 W
and 1 heater of 1k W are connected. The voltage of electric mains is 220 V. The 13. The internal resistance of a 2.1 V cell which gives a current of 0.2 A through a
maximum capacity of the main fuse of the building will be resistance of Ω is
(a) 14 A (b) 8 A (c) 10 A (d) 12 A (a . Ω (b . Ω (c .8 Ω (d . Ω
Solution : Solution :
𝐸− 𝐸−𝐼 . − . 𝑋 . − .
 Power of 15 bulbs each of 40 W = =  Internal resistance ; = = = = = = . Ω
𝐼 𝐼 . . .
Power of 5 bulbs each of 100 W = = . Ω
Answer (b)
Power of 5 fans each of 80 W = =
Power of 1 heater of 1 k W = = 14. A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from room
temperature to 80 K. The resistance of
 Thus Total power ; 𝑃 =
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (a) each of them increases
 Hence, 𝑃 = (or) = = = . ≅ (b) each of them decreases
Answer (d) (c) copper increases and germanium decreases
10. There is a current of 1.0 A in the circuit shown (d) copper decreases and germanium increases
below. What is the resistance of P ? Solution :
(a . Ω (b . Ω  Copper is a conductor for which, 𝑒 𝑖 𝑎 𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑒 𝑒 𝑎 𝑒
(c . Ω (d . Ω  Germanium is a semiconductor for which, 𝑒 𝑖 𝑎 𝑐𝑒 ∝
𝑟𝑎 𝑟
Solution : copper decreases and germanium
9
 By Ohm s law ; = (or) = = = Ω Answer (d)
𝐼 increases
 From the circuit, =
+ . +𝑃 = . +𝑃 = . +𝑃 15. In Joule’s heating law, when R and t are constant, if the H is taken along the y
(or) 𝑃 = − . = . Ω axis and I2 along the x axis, the graph is
Answer (c) . 𝛀 (a) straight line (b) parabola (c) circle (d) ellipse
11. What is the current drawn out from the battery? Solution :
(a) 1A ( b) 2A  By Joule s heating law ; =
(c) 3A (d) 4A  Here R and t are constants. So =
Solution :  It is in the form of = 𝒎 which is theequation of
 The effective resistance ; straight line
= + + = (or) 𝑃 = Ω
𝑃
 Then by Ohm s law, = = =

𝑃
Answer (a) Answer (a) straight line
8. In India electricity is supplied for domestic use at 220 V. It is supplied at 110 V
UNIT - 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY in USA. If the resistance of a 60W bulb for use in India is R, the resistance of a
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE 60W bulb for use in USA will be
1. The following graph shows current versus voltage values (a) R ` (b) 2 R
of some unknown conductor. What is the resistance of (c) (d)
this conductor?
(a) 2 ohm 9. In a large building, there are 15 bulbs of 40 W, 5 bulbs of 100 W, 5 fans of 80 W
(b) 4 ohm and 1 heater of 1k W are connected. The voltage of electric mains is 220 V. The
(c) 8 ohm maximum capacity of the main fuse of the building will be
(d)1 ohm (a) 14 A (b) 8 A
(c) 10 A (d) 12 A
10. There is a current of 1.0 A in the circuit shown below. What is the resistance of
2. A wire of resistance 2 ohms per meter is bent to form a P?
circle of radius 1m. The equivalent resistance between (a . Ω
its two diametrically opposite points, A and B as shown (b . Ω
in the figure is (c . Ω
(d . Ω
(a) 𝜋 Ω (b) Ω
(c) 𝜋 Ω (d) Ω
11. What is the current drawn out from the battery?
(a) 1A
3. A toaster operating at V has a resistance of Ω. Its power is
( b) 2A
(a) 400 W (b) 2 W
(c) 3A
(c) 480 W (d) 240 W
(d) 4A
4. A carbon resistor of 7 ± .7 k Ω to be marked with rings of different colours
for its identification. The colour code sequence will be
(a) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold (b) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
(c) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver (d) Green – Orange – Violet - Gold
12. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125 per °C. At 20°C,
5. What is the value of resistance of the following resistor?
its resistance is Ω. The resistance of the wire will be Ω at
a kΩ b kΩ
(a) 800 °C (b) 700 °C
c kΩ d kΩ
(c) 850 °C (d) 820 °C
6. Two wires of A and B with circular cross section are made up of the same
13. The internal resistance of a 2.1 V cell which gives a current of 0.2 A through a
material with equal lengths. Suppose RA = 3 RB, then what is the ratio of radius
resistance of Ω is
of wire A to that of B?
(a . Ω (b . Ω
(a) 3 (b) √ (c .8 Ω (d . Ω
(c) (d) 14. A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from room
√
7. A wire connected to a power supply of 230 V has power dissipation P1. temperature to 80 K. The resistance of
Suppose the wire is cut into two equal pieces and connected parallel to the (a) each of them increases
𝑷 (b) each of them decreases
same power supply. In this case power dissipation is P2 . The ratio is (c) copper increases and germanium decreases
𝑷
(a)1 (b) 2 (d) copper decreases and germanium increases
(c) 3 (d) 4 15. In Joule’s heating law, when R and t are constant, if the H is taken along the y
axis and I2 along the x axis, the graph is
(a) straight line (b) parabola
(c) circle (d) ellipse
NAME :
SCHOOL :
CHAPTER-3EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 3 MANGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 3 MANGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 4. A circular coil of radius 5 cm and 50 turns carries a current of 3 ampere. The
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS magnetic dipole moment of the coil is nearly
1. The magnetic field at the centre O of the following (a) 1.0 A m2
current loop is (b) 1.2 A m2
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜
(a)  (b)  (c) 0.5 A m2
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜
(d) 0.8 A m2
(c)  (d)  -Solution :-
-Solution :-  Magnetic dipole moment ;
𝝁 = = 𝑖𝜋 = 𝑋 𝑋 . 𝑋 𝑋 − = . ≅ .
 Magnetic field at the centre of current carrying circular loop, =
𝝁 Answer (b) .
 Hence at the centre of semi-circular loop, = = 5. A thin insulated wire forms a plane spiral of N = 100 tight turns carrying a
 By Maxwell s right hand rule, this magnetic field points into () the page current I = 8 m A (milli ampere). The radii of inside and outside turns are
𝝁
Answer (a)  a = 50 mm and b = 100 mm respectively. The magnetic induction at the centre
of the spiral is
2. An electron moves in a straight line inside a a 5 μT
charged parallel plate capacitor of uniform b μT
charge density σ. The time taken by the electron c μT
to cross the parallel plate capacitor undeflected d μT
when the plates of the capacitor are kept under -Solution :-
constant magnetic field of induction ⃗⃗ is  The magnetic induction at the centre of solenoid,
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝜇𝑜 𝜋𝑋 − 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 − . 𝑋 −
(a)
𝜎
(b)
𝜎
(c)
𝜎
(d)
𝜎
= = 𝑋 𝑋 − = = . 𝜇 ≅ 𝜇
𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑒
-Solution :-
𝜎 Answer (b) 𝝁𝑻
 Electric field between the plates ; =𝜀
𝑜 6. Three wires of equal lengths are bent in the form of loops. One of the loops is
 When electron moves in straighgt line with out any deflection ; = 𝑣 circle, another is a semi-circle and the third one is a square. They are placed in
𝐸 𝜎
 Thus the velocity of an electron ; 𝑣 = = a uniform magnetic field and same electric current is passed through them.
𝐵 𝜀𝑜 𝐵 Which of the following loop configuration will experience greater torque ?
𝜀𝑜 𝐵
 Hence the time taken to cross the length with velocity 𝑣 is ; 𝑡 = = (a) Circle
𝜎
(b) Semi-circle
Answer (d) 𝜺 (c) Square
𝝈
3. A particle having mass m and charge q accelerated through a potential (d) All of them
difference V. Find the force experienced when it is kept under perpendicular -Solution :-
magnetic field ⃗⃗ .  Let be the length of the wire. The maximum torque ; 𝜏 𝑥 =
 Here B and I are constants. So value of maximum torque ; 𝜏 𝑥 ∝
𝐵𝑉 𝐵 𝑉 𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝑉
(a)√ (b) √ (c) √ (d) √  For circular loop, = 𝜋 ⇒ = and 𝑖 =𝜋 =
𝜋
=
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
-Solution :- 𝜋 𝜋
 For semi-circle loop, = 𝜋 + ⇒ = and 𝑖 = =
𝜋+ 𝜋+
𝑉
 Velocity of the charged particle ; 𝑣 = √  For square, = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎= and =𝑎 =
𝑉 𝐵 𝑉  Since 𝑖 > 𝑖 > , hence circle experience greater torque.
 Lorentz force ; = 𝑣= √ = √
Answer (a) circle
𝑽
Answer (c) √
7. Two identical coils, each with N turns and radius R are 10. A non-conducting charged ring carrying a charge of q, mass m and radius r is
placed coaxially at a distance R as shown in the figure. If rotated about its axis with constant angular speed ω. Find the ratio of its
I is the current passing through the loops in the same magnetic moment with angular momentum is
direction, then the magnetic field at a point P at a (a) (b)
distance of R/2 from the centre of each coil is
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 (c) (d)
(a) (b) /
√ 𝑅 𝑅 -Solution :-
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜
(c) (d) 𝜋 𝜔
𝑅 √ 𝑅  Magnetic moment ; = = 𝜋 = =
-Solution :- 𝑇 𝜋/𝜔
 Magnetic field due to two coils,  Angular momentum ; = 𝜔
𝜔
𝜇𝑜 𝑅 𝜇𝑜 𝑅 𝜇𝑜 𝑅 𝜇𝑜 𝑅 𝜇𝑜 𝑅 𝜇𝑜 ( )
= [ 𝑅 + / ]= / = / = / = / = /  Hence the ratio, 𝑚
= =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝜔
(𝑅 + ) ( )
𝝁 𝑵 Answer (c)
Answer (b) / 𝑹 11. The BH curve for a ferromagnetic
8. A wire of length l carrying a current I along the Y direction is kept in a material is shown in the figure. The
𝜷
magnetic field given by ⃗⃗ = ( ̂ + ̂ + ̂ ) . The magnitude of Lorentz force material is placed inside a long solenoid
√
acting on the wire is, which contains 1000 turns/cm. The
current that should be passed in the
(a) √ 𝛽 (b) √ 𝛽 (c) √ 𝛽 (d) √ 𝛽 solenonid to demagnetize the
ferromagnet completely is
-Solution :- (a) 1.00 m A
 The force on current carrying wire placed in magnetic field, (b) 1.25 mA
𝛽 𝛽
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 ⃗ = ̂ 𝑋 ( ̂ + ̂ + ̂) = −̂ + + ̂ (c) 1.50 mA
√ √
(d) 1.75 mA
𝛽 𝛽
 Hence its magnitude, = √
√ + = √
√ = √ 𝛽 -Solution :-
 By definition, =𝜇
Answer (a) √ 𝜷  By Ampere circuital law, =𝜇
 Thus we have, =
−
9. A bar magnet of length l and magnetic moment pm is  From the figure, the coercivity ; =
bent in the form of an arc as shown in figure. The new − −
∴ = =
, ,
= 𝑋 = . 𝑋 = .
magnetic dipole moment will be
(a) (b) Answer (c) .
𝜋
12. Two short bar magnets have magnetic moments 1.20 Am 2 and 1.00 Am2
(c) (d) respectively. They are kept on a horizontal table parallel to each other with
𝜋
-Solution :- their north poles pointing towards south. They have a common magnetic
 The initial magnetic dipole moment ; = 𝑋 equator and are separated by a distance of 20.0 cm. The value of the resultant
𝜋
 Since the angle subtended by the arc is ° , the horizontal magnetic induction at the mid-point O of the line joining their
𝜋 centres is (Horizontal components of Earth’s magnetic induction is
length of the arc ; = and radius ; = 3.6 × 10–5 Wb m–2 )
𝜋
 The new magnetic moment ; (a) 3.60 × 10–5 Wb m–2 (b) 3.5 × 10–5 Wb m–2
–4
(c) 2.56 × 10 Wb m –2 (d) 2.2 × 10–4 Wb m–2
= 𝑋 sin °= 𝑋 = 𝑋 = 𝑋 𝜋
= 𝜋
Answer (b) 𝝅
-Solution :- 15. The potential energy of magnetic dipole whose dipole moment is
 Magnetic field due the short bar magnets along its ⃗⃗⃗ = − . ̂ + . ̂ kept in uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗ = . ̂ 𝑻
equatorial line, (a) –0.1 J (b) –0.8 J (c) 0.1 J (d) 0.8 J
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜
= and = -Solution :-
𝜋 𝜋
 The potential energy of magnetic dipole is ;
 Let horizontal component of earth s magnetic field is
 Hence resultant horizontal magnetic induction will be, = − ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗ = − − . ̂ + . ̂ . . ̂ = − − . . =+ .
= + + =
𝜇𝑜
+ + Answer (d) .
𝜋
𝜋𝑋 −
−
= 𝜋𝑋 𝑋 − . + + . X
− − −
= . X + . X = . 𝑋 wb m–2 (or) tesla
−
Answer (c) . 𝑿 wb m–2
13. The vertical component of Earth’s magnetic field at a place is equal to the
horizontal component. What is the value of angle of dip at this place?
(a) 30o (b) 45o (c) 60o (d) 90o
-Solution :-
𝐵𝐻
 Angle of dip ; = tan−
𝐵𝑉
−
 If = 𝑉 , then = tan = °
Answer (b) °
14. A flat dielectric disc of radius R carries an excess charge on its surface. The
surface charge density is σ. The disc rotates about an axis perpendicular to its
plane passing through the centre with angular velocity ω. Find the magnitude
of the torque on the disc if it is placed in a uniform magnetic field whose
strength is B which is directed perpendicular to the axis of rotation
(a) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅 (b) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅
(c) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅 (d) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅
-Solution :-
 The charge on the ring of radius 𝑥 and thickness
𝑥 is, =𝜎 =𝜎 𝜋𝑥 𝑥
 The current due this charge,
𝜎 𝜋𝑥 𝑥
𝑖= 𝑇
= 𝜋/𝜔
=𝜎𝜔𝑥 𝑥
 Torque on the disc of radius 𝑥 ;
𝜏= 𝑖𝑎= 𝜎𝜔𝑥 𝑥𝜋𝑥 = 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝑥 𝑥
 Then the net torque on the entire disc of radius R is,
𝑅
𝑅 𝑥
𝜏= ∫ 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝑥 𝑥= 𝜎𝜔𝜋 [ ] = 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝑅
Answer (d) 𝝈𝝎𝝅𝑹
UNIT - 3 MANGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

8. A wire of length l carrying a current I along the Y direction is kept in a
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE 𝜷
magnetic field given by ⃗⃗ = ( ̂ + ̂ + ̂ ) . The magnitude of Lorentz force
√
1. The magnetic field at the centre O of the following
acting on the wire is,
current loop is
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜
(a)  (b)  (a) √ 𝛽 (b) √ 𝛽 (c)√ 𝛽 (d)√ 𝛽
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜
(c)  (d)  9. A bar magnet of length l and magnetic moment pm is
2. An electron moves in a straight line inside a bent in the form of an arc as shown in figure. The new
charged parallel plate capacitor of uniform magnetic dipole moment will be
charge density σ. The time taken by the electron (a) (b)
𝜋
to cross the parallel plate capacitor undeflected
(c) (d)
when the plates of the capacitor are kept under 𝜋
constant magnetic field of induction ⃗⃗ is 10. A non-conducting charged ring carrying a charge of q, mass m and radius r is
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 rotated about its axis with constant angular speed ω. Find the ratio of its
(a) (b) (c) (d) magnetic moment with angular momentum is
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
3. A particle having mass m and charge q accelerated through a potential (a)
difference V. Find the force experienced when it is kept under perpendicular
magnetic field ⃗⃗ . (b)
𝐵𝑉 𝐵 𝑉 𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝑉 (c)
(a)√ (b) √ (c) √ (d) √
(d)
4. A circular coil of radius 5 cm and 50 turns carries a current of 3 ampere. The
magnetic dipole moment of the coil is nearly 11. The BH curve for a ferromagnetic material
(a) 1.0 A m2 (b) 1.2 A m2 (c) 0.5 A m2 (d) 0.8 A m2 is shown in the figure. The material is
5. A thin insulated wire forms a plane spiral of N = 100 tight turns carrying a placed inside a long solenoid which
current I = 8 m A (milli ampere). The radii of inside and outside turns are contains 1000 turns/cm. The current that
a = 50 mm and b = 100 mm respectively. The magnetic induction at the centre should be passed in the solenonid to
of the spiral is demagnetize the ferromagnet completely
a 5 μT b μT c μT d μT is
6. Three wires of equal lengths are bent in the form of loops. One of the loops is (a) 1.00 m A
circle, another is a semi-circle and the third one is a square. They are placed in (b) 1.25 mA
a uniform magnetic field and same electric current is passed through them. (c) 1.50 mA
Which of the following loop configuration will experience greater torque ? (d) 1.75 mA
(a) Circle (b) Semi-circle (c) Square (d) All of them
7. Two identical coils, each with N turns and radius R are placed coaxially at a 12. Two short bar magnets have magnetic moments 1.20 Am 2 and 1.00 Am2
distance R as shown in the figure. If I is the current passing through the loops respectively. They are kept on a horizontal table parallel to each other with
in the same direction, then the magnetic field at a point P at a distance of R/2 their north poles pointing towards south. They have a common magnetic
from the centre of each coil is equator and are separated by a distance of 20.0 cm. The value of the resultant
𝜇𝑜 horizontal magnetic induction at the mid-point O of the line joining their
(a) centres is (Horizontal components of Earth’s magnetic induction is
√ 𝑅
𝜇𝑜 3.6 × 10–5 Wb m–2 )
(b) / 𝑅
𝜇𝑜 (a) 3.60 × 10–5 Wb m–2
(c) (b) 3.5 × 10–5 Wb m–2
𝑅
𝜇𝑜 (c) 2.56 × 10–4 Wb m–2
(d)
√ 𝑅 (d) 2.2 × 10–4 Wb m–2
13. The vertical component of Earth’s magnetic field at a place is equal to the
horizontal component. What is the value of angle of dip at this place?
(a) 30o
(b) 45o
(c) 60o
(d) 90o
14. A flat dielectric disc of radius R carries an excess charge on its surface. The
surface charge density is σ. The disc rotates about an axis perpendicular to its
plane passing through the centre with angular velocity ω. Find the magnitude
of the torque on the disc if it is placed in a uniform magnetic field whose
strength is B which is directed perpendicular to the axis of rotation
(a) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅
(b) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅
(c) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅
(d) 𝜎𝜔𝜋 𝑅
15. The potential energy of magnetic dipole whose dipole moment is
⃗⃗⃗ = − . ̂ + . ̂ kept in uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗ = . ̂ 𝑻
(a) –0.1 J
(b) –0.8 J
(c) 0.1 J
(d) 0.8 J
NAME :
CHAPTER-4
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 4 ELECTOMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTIONAND ALTERNATING CURRENT 4. When the current changes from +2A to −2A in 0.05 s, an emf of 8 V is induced
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS
in a coil. The co-efficient of self-induction of the coil is
1. An electron moves on a straight line path XY as shown (a) 0.2 H (b) 0.4 H
in the figure. The coil abcd is adjacent to the path of (c) 0.8 H (d) 0.1 H
the electron. What will be the direction of current, if -Solution :-
𝐼
any, induced in the coil?  The self induced emf is given by, 𝜖 = −
(a) The current will reverse its direction as the
 Hence coefficient of self induction ;
electron goes past the coil 𝜖 𝜖 𝜖 𝑋 . .
(b) No current will be induced (c) abcd (d) adcb =− 𝑑𝐼 =− = − = − = − = .
𝐼 (𝐼𝑓 −𝐼𝑖 ) − − −
-Solution :- 𝑑𝑡
 Conventional current flows opposite to flow of electron (i.e) from Y to X Answer (d) 0.1 H
 When current approaches the coil, the magnetic flux linked with it increases and 5. The current i flowing in a coil varies with time as
hence current induced in it which flows in the direction abcd’ according to shown in the figure. The variation of induced emf
Lenz law. When current receeding away from the coil, the magnetic flux linked with time would be
with it decreases and hence current induced in it which flows along adcb’
 Thus the current will reverse its direction
The current will reverse its direction
Answer (a)
as the electron goes past the coil
2. A thin semi-circular conducting ring (PQR) of radius r
is falling with its plane vertical in a horizontal magnetic
field B, as shown in the figure. The potential difference
developed across the ring when its speed v is (a) (b) (c) (d)
𝜋 -Solution :-
(a) Zero (b) and P is at higher potential
𝐼
(c) 𝜋 r B v and R is at higher potential (d) 2 r B v and R is at higher potential  The self induced emf is given by, 𝜖 = −
-Solution :-  When I increases linearly with time, the rate
 The motional emf induced is, = 𝑣 = [ ]𝑣 = 𝑣 of change of current
𝐼
becomes positive
 By Lenz s law, the induced current opposes the flux change by producing
another magnetic field pointing outward (i.e.) opposite to the existing magnetic constant. So induced emf also constant
field. but with negative sign.
 From the direction of magnetic field thus produced, the direction of the induced  When I decreases linearly with time, the
𝐼
current is found to be along RQP by using right-hand thumb rule. Thus R is at rate of change of current becomes
higher potential.
negative constant. So induced emf also
Answer (d) 2 r B v and R is at higher potential constant but with positive sign.
3. The flux linked with a coil at any instant t is given by 𝚽 = 𝒕 − 𝒕+ .  When I is constant, the rate of change of
The induced emf at t = 3 s is 𝐼
current becomes zero and hence the
a − V b − V (c) 10 V (d) 190 V
-Solution :- induced emf also zero
 By Laws of electromagnetic induction ;
Φ
𝜖= − =− − + = − − = − + Answer (a)
 When = , the induced emf ; 𝜖 = − + = −
Answer (b) − 𝑽
6. A circular coil with a cross-sectional area of 4 has 10 turns. It is placed at cm2 10. In a series RL circuit, the resistance and inductive reactance are the same.
the centre of a long solenoid that has 15 turns/cm and a cross-sectional area Then the phase difference between the voltage and current in the circuit is
of 10 cm2. The axis of the coil coincides with the axis of the solenoid. What is 𝜋 𝜋
(a) (b)
their mutual inductance? 𝜋
a . μH b . μH c . μH d . μH (c) (d) zero
-Solution :- -Solution :-
 The mutual inductance is given by ; 𝑋
− −
 In RL- circuit, the phase difference will be; 𝜙 = tan− [ ]
𝜇𝑜 𝜋𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 −
= = = . = . 𝜇  Since = 𝑅, phase difference becomes, 𝜙 = tan− [ ] = °=
𝜋
𝐼
Answer (a) 7. μH 𝝅
Answer (a)
7. In a transformer, the number of turns in the primary and the secondary are
410 and 1230 respectively. If the current in primary is 6A, then that in the 11. In a series resonant RLC circuit, the voltage across Ω resistor is V. The
secondary coil is resonant frequency ω is rad/s. If the value of C is μF, then the voltage
(a) 2 A (b) 18 A across L is
(c) 12 A (d) 1 A (a) 600 V (b) 4000 V
-Solution :- (c) 400V (d) 1 V
𝐸 𝐼𝑃 -Solution :-
 From transformer equation ;
𝐸𝑃
= = 𝐼
=
𝐼𝑃
𝑃  Capacitive reactance ; =𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑋 − = − = Ω
𝑃
 Thus, = 𝐼
(or) = = = =
𝑃  And the current ; = = = .
Answer (a) 2A
 At resonance, = = Ω
8. A step-down transformer reduces the supply voltage from 220 V to 11 V and
increase the current from 6 A to 100 A. Then its efficiency is  The voltage across L is ; = = . =
(a) 1.2 (b) 0.83 Answer (c) 400 V
(c) 0.12 (d) 0.9 12. An inductor mH, a capacitor μF and a resistor Ω are connected in
-Solution :- series across a source of emf V = 10 sin 340 t. The power loss in AC circuit is
𝐸 𝐼 𝑋
 Efficiency ; 𝜂 = = = = = . (a) 0.76 W (b) 0.89 W
𝑖 𝐸𝑃 𝐼𝑃 𝑋
(c) 0.46 W (d) 0.67 W
Answer (b) .𝟖 Solution :-
−
9. In an electrical circuit, R, L, C and AC voltage source are all connected in series.  Inductive reactance ; =𝜔 = = . Ω
When L is removed from the circuit, the phase difference between the voltage  Capacitive reactance ; = = − = . Ω
𝝅 𝜔 𝑋 𝑋
and current in the circuit is . Instead, if C is removed from the circuit, the  Resultant reactance ; − = . − . = Ω
𝝅
phase difference is again . The power factor of the circuit is  Impeadance ; 𝑍 = √𝑅 + − =√ + =√ + = . Ω
𝑚 /√ 𝑋 .
√  RMS current ; = = = = .
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d) .
√  Then power loss ; 𝑃 = 𝑅= . . = .
-Solution :-
𝑋𝐶 𝜋 Answer (c) 0.46 W
 L is removed, we get RC- circuit and the phase difference ; 𝜙 = tan− [ ]=
𝑋 𝜋
 C is removed, we get RL- circuit and the phase difference ; 𝜙 = tan− [ ] =
 Hence, =
and the impedance becomes, 𝑍 = √𝑅 + − =𝑅
 Thus power factor ; cos 𝜙 = = =
Answer (c) 1
13. The instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage in a circuit are
𝝅
𝒊= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕 and 𝑽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕+ 𝑽.The average power
√ √
in watts consumed in the circuit is
√
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
-Solution :-
 The average power,
𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑜 𝜙= 𝑜 𝜙= 𝑜 𝜙
√ √
𝝅
𝑃 = 𝑜 𝜙= 𝑜 [ ]=
√ √
Answer (d) 𝟖
14. In an oscillating LC circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor is Q. The
charge on the capacitor when the energy is stored equally between the electric
and magnetic fields is
(a) (b)
√
(c) (d) Q
√
-Solution :-
 Maximum energy stored in capacitor ; =
 Let q be the charge, when energy is stored equally between the electric and
magnetic fields, then
𝑚𝑎𝑥
= (or) = (or) = (or) =
√
𝑸
Answer (c) √
15.
𝝅
𝑯 inductor is connected to a capacitor of capacitance C. The value of C in
order to impart maximum power at 50 Hz is
a μF b . μF
c μF d μF
-Solution :-
 For maximum power, current must be maximum. Hence
= (or) 𝜔 = 𝜔
(or) =𝜔 (or) = 𝜋
− −
= = 𝑋 𝑋
= = . = = 𝜇
𝜋
𝝅
Answer (d) 𝝁𝑭
8. A step-down transformer reduces the supply voltage from 220 V to 11 V and
UNIT - 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTIONAND ALTERNATING CURRENT increase the current from 6 A to 100 A. Then its efficiency is
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE (a) 1.2 (b) 0.83
1. An electron moves on a straight line path XY as shown (c) 0.12 (d) 0.9
in the figure. The coil abcd is adjacent to the path of 9. In an electrical circuit, R, L, C and AC voltage source are all connected in series.
the electron. What will be the direction of current, if When L is removed from the circuit, the phase difference between the voltage
𝝅
any, induced in the coil? and current in the circuit is . Instead, if C is removed from the circuit, the
(a) The current will reverse its direction as the 𝝅
electron goes past the coil phase difference is again . The power factor of the circuit is
(b) No current will be induced (c) abcd (d) adcb √
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d)
2. A thin semi-circular conducting ring (PQR) of radius r √
is falling with its plane vertical in a horizontal magnetic 10. In a series RL circuit, the resistance and inductive reactance are the same.
field B, as shown in the figure. The potential difference Then the phase difference between the voltage and current in the circuit is
𝜋 𝜋
developed across the ring when its speed v is (a) (b)
𝜋 𝜋
(a) Zero (b) and P is at higher potential (c) (d) zero
(c) 𝜋 r B v and R is at higher potential (d) 2 r B v and R is at higher potential 11. In a series resonant RLC circuit, the voltage across Ω resistor is V. The
3. The flux linked with a coil at any instant t is given by 𝚽 = 𝒕 − 𝒕+ . resonant frequency ω is rad/s. If the value of C is μF, then the voltage
The induced emf at t = 3 s is across L is
a − V b − V (c) 10 V (d) 190 V (a) 600 V (b) 4000 V
4. When the current changes from +2A to −2A in 0.05 s, an emf of 8 V is induced (c) 400V (d) 1 V
in a coil. The co-efficient of self-induction of the coil is 12. An inductor 20 mH, a capacitor μF and a resistor Ω are connected in
(a) 0.2 H (b) 0.4 H series across a source of emf V = 10 sin 340 t. The power loss in AC circuit is
(c) 0.8 H (d) 0.1 H (a) 0.76 W (b) 0.89 W
5. The current i flowing in a coil varies with time as (c) 0.46 W (d) 0.67 W
shown in the figure. The variation of induced emf 13. The instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage in a circuit are
with time would be 𝝅
𝒊= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕 and 𝑽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕+ 𝑽.The average power
√ √
in watts consumed in the circuit is
√
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
14. In an oscillating LC circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor is Q. The
charge on the capacitor when the energy is stored equally between the electric
and magnetic fields is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. A circular coil with a cross-sectional area of 4 cm2 has 10 turns. It is placed at (a) (b)
√
the centre of a long solenoid that has 15 turns/cm and a cross-sectional area
(c) (d) Q
of 10 cm2. The axis of the coil coincides with the axis of the solenoid. What is √
their mutual inductance? 15.
𝝅
𝑯 inductor is connected to a capacitor of capacitance C. The value of C in
a . μH b . μH c . μH d . μH
order to impart maximum power at 50 Hz is
7. In a transformer, the number of turns in the primary and the secondary are
a μF b . μF
410 and 1230 respectively. If the current in primary is 6A, then that in the
c μF d μF
secondary coil is
(a) 2 A (b) 18 A
(c) 12 A (d) 1 A
NAME :
CHAPTER-5
SCHOOL :
: EXAM NO

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 5. Consider an oscillator which has a charged particle oscillating about its mean
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS position with a frequency of 300 MHz. The wavelength of electromagnetic
waves produced by this oscillator is
1. The dimension of is (a) 1 m (b) 10 m
𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝒐
(a) [L T−1] (b) [L2 T−2] (c) 100 m (d) 1000 m
(c) [L−1 T] (d) [L−2 T2] -Solution :-
-Solution :- 𝑋
• We know that ; = 𝑓 (or) = = 6 =
𝑓 𝑋
• Velocity of electromagnetic waves ; = (or) =
√𝜀𝑜 𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝑜 Answer (a) 1m
• Since the dimension of velocity c be [ L T-1], then 6. The electric and the magnetic fields, associated with an electromagnetic wave,
the dimension of (= ) will be [ L2 T-2] propagating along negative X axis can be represented by
𝜀𝑜 𝑜 (a) ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐸 ̂ and ⃗ = 𝑜 ̂ (b) ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜 ̂
Answer (b) [ L2 T-2] ⃗ ⃗
(c) 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 ̂ and = 𝑜 ̂ (d) ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜 ̂
2. If the amplitude of the magnetic field is 3 × 10−6 T, then amplitude of the -Solution :-
electric field for a electromagnetic waves is • The Poynting vector for EM-waves ; ⃗⃗ = (⃗⃗⃗𝐸 𝑋⃗⃗⃗ )
𝜇
(a) 100 V m−1 (b) 300 V m−1
−1 • Thus electric vector (⃗⃗⃗𝐸 ), magnetic vector (⃗⃗⃗ ) and propagation
(c) 600 V m (d) 900 V m−1
-Solution :- vector (⃗⃗ ) are all mutually perpendicular to each other. (i.e.) If
8 − electric and magnetic fields are as shown in the figure, then the
• Velocity of electromagnetic waves ; = = 𝑋 direction of propagation will be along x- direction.
√𝜀𝑜 𝑜
• But; =
𝐸
(or) 𝐸𝑜 = = 𝑋 8
𝑋 𝑋 −6
= 𝑋 = 𝑉 − Answer (b) ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗𝑬 = 𝑬𝒐 𝒌 𝒐 ̂
0
7. In an electromagnetic wave travelling in free space the rms value of the
Answer (d) 𝑽𝒎− electric field is 3 V m−1. The peak value of the magnetic field is
3. Which of the following electromagnetic radiations is used for viewing objects (a) 1.414 × 10−8 T (b) 1.0 × 10−8 T
through fog −8
(c) 2.828 × 10 T (d) 2.0 × 10−8 T
(a) microwave (b) gamma rays -Solution :
(c) X- rays (d) infrared 𝐸 𝐸 𝑀 √
-Solution :-
• We know that; = =
0 0
• According to Rayleigh scattering law, shorter wavelengths are scattered much 𝐸 𝑀 √ 𝑋 . −8
(or) = = 𝑋 8
= . 𝑋
more than the longer wavelengths.
−
• Since the wavelength of IR radiaions are greater than visible light, then the Answer (a) . 𝑿 𝑻
scattering of IR- radiations is less than visible light and hence IR radiations are 8. An e.m. wave is propagating in a medium with a velocity ⃗⃗⃗𝒗 = 𝒗 ̂ . The
used for viewing objects through fog. instantaneous oscillating electric field of this e.m. wave is along +y-axis, then
Answer (d) infrared the direction of oscillating magnetic field of the e.m. wave will be along:
4. Which of the following is false for electromagnetic waves ? (a) –y direction (b) –x direction
(a) transverse (b) non-mechanical waves (c) +z direction (d) –z direction
(c) longitudinal (d) produced by accelerating charges -Solution :
-Solution :- • Electric vector (⃗⃗⃗𝐸 ), magnetic vector (⃗⃗⃗ ) and propagation
• Electromagnetic waves are transverse not longitudinal, because the oscillating vector (⃗⃗⃗𝑣) are all mutually perpendicular to each other.
electric field vector, oscillating magnetic field vector and propagation vector are • Since velocity is along +x -axis, oscillating electric field is
all mutually perpendicular direction. along +y -axis, then oscillating magnetic field is along +z -axis
Answer (c) Longitudinal Answer (c) +z direction
9. If the magnetic monopole exists, then which of the Maxwell’s equation to be 13. If E =Eo sin[106 x - ωt] be the electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave, the
modified?. value of ω is
𝑄
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
(a) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑙 𝑠
(b) ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (a) 0.3 × 10−14 rad s−1 (b) 3 × 10−14 rad s−1
𝜀
(c) 0.3 × 1014 rad s−1 (d) 3 × 1014 rad s−1
(c) ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜 𝑖 + 𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ (d) ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = − Φ -Solution :-
𝑡 𝑡
-Solution :- • The equation of a plane electromagnetic wave ; 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝑥 − 𝜔
𝜔
• Here option (a) indicates Gauss law in electrostatics • Thus, = (or) 𝜔 = = 6𝑋 𝑋 8= 𝑋 𝑎 −
• Option (c) indicates Ampere-Maxwell s law −
• Option d indicates Faraday s law Answer (d) 𝑿 𝒂𝒅
• Option (b) indicates Gauss law in magnetism which implies that the lines of 14. Which of the following is NOT true for electromagnetic waves?.
force form a continuous closed path. It means that no isolated magnetic (a) it transports energy
(b) it transports momentum
monopole exists. Thus if magnetic monopole exists, equation ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
(c) it transports angular momentum
should be modified.
(d) in vacuum, it travels with different speeds which depend on their frequency
Answer (b) ∮ ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅 = -Solution :-
10. Fraunhofer lines are an example of _______________________ spectrum. • Here option (a) (b) and (c) are correct statements. But option (d) is incorrect.
(a) line emission (b) line absorption • Electromagnetic waves travel with speed which is equal to the speed of light in
(c) band emission (d) band absorption 8 −
vacuum or free space ; = = 𝑋
-Solution :- √𝜀 𝜇
• When light from hot source pass through a cold gas, the atoms in the gas absorbs in vacuum, it travels with
their own characteristic wavelengths from the continuous spectrum gives rise to Answer (d) different speeds which depend
several dark lines. Such spectrum is called line absorbtion spectrum.
on their frequency
• The contiuous spectrum obtained from the Sun consists several dark lines and
15. The electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are
these dark lines (absorbed lines) in the solar spectrum are called Fraunhofer
(a) in phase and perpendicular to each other
lines.
(b) out of phase and not perpendicular to each other
Answer (b) line absorption (c) in phase and not perpendicular to each other
11. Which of the following is an electromagnetic wave? (d) out of phase and perpendicular to each other
a - rays b - rays -Solution :-
c γ - rays (d) all of them • In electromagnetic waves electric
-Solution :- vector (⃗⃗⃗𝐸 ), magnetic vector (⃗⃗⃗ )
• - rays and - rays are charged rays. So they are not an electromagnetic waves. and propagation vector (⃗⃗ ) are all
• But γ - rays have no charge and have velocity equal to that of light, hence it is an mutually perpendicular to each
electromagnetic wave other.
Answer (c) γ - rays • Also both the ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 and ⃗⃗⃗ attains their
12. Which one of them is used to produce a propagating electromagnetic wave? maxima and minima at the same
(a) an accelerating charge (b) a stationary charge time.(i.e.)they are inphase
(c) a charge moving with constant velocity (d) an uncharged particle in phase and perpendicular to
-Solution :- Answer (a)
each other
• Electromagnetic waves are produced by any accelerated charge.
Answer (a) an accelerating charge
11. Which of the following is an electromagnetic wave?
UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES a - rays b - rays
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE c γ - rays (d) all of them
12. Which one of them is used to produce a propagating electromagnetic wave?
1. The dimension of is (a) an accelerating charge
𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝒐 (b) a stationary charge
(a) [L T−1] (b) [L2 T−2] (c) a charge moving with constant velocity
(c) [L−1 T] (d) [L−2 T2] (d) an uncharged particle
2. If the amplitude of the magnetic field is 3 × 10−6 T, then amplitude of the 13. If E = Eo sin[106 x - ωt] be the electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave, the
electric field for a electromagnetic waves is value of ω is
(a) 100 V m−1 (b) 300 V m−1 (a) 0.3 × 10−14 rad s−1 (b) 3 × 10−14 rad s−1
(c) 600 V m−1 (d) 900 V m−1 14
(c) 0.3 × 10 rad s −1 (d) 3 × 1014 rad s−1
3. Which of the following electromagnetic radiations is used for viewing objects 14. Which of the following is NOT true for electromagnetic waves?.
through fog (a) it transports energy
(a) microwave (b) gamma rays (b) it transports momentum
(c) X- rays (d) infrared (c) it transports angular momentum
4. Which of the following is false for electromagnetic waves ? (d) in vacuum, it travels with different speeds which depend on their frequency
(a) transverse (b) non-mechanical waves 15. The electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are
(c) longitudinal (d) produced by accelerating charges (a) in phase and perpendicular to each other
5. Consider an oscillator which has a charged particle oscillating about its mean (b) out of phase and not perpendicular to each other
position with a frequency of 300 MHz. The wavelength of electromagnetic (c) in phase and not perpendicular to each other
waves produced by this oscillator is (d) out of phase and perpendicular to each other
(a) 1 m (b) 10 m
(c) 100 m (d) 1000 m
6. The electric and the magnetic fields, associated with an electromagnetic wave,
propagating along negative X axis can be represented by
(a) ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐸 ̂ and ⃗ = 𝑜 ̂ (b) ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜 ̂
(c) 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑜 ̂ and ⃗ = 𝑜 ̂ (d) ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜 ̂
7. In an electromagnetic wave travelling in free space the rms value of the
electric field is 3 V m−1. The peak value of the magnetic field is
(a) 1.414 × 10−8 T (b) 1.0 × 10−8 T
(c) 2.828 × 10 T −8 (d) 2.0 × 10−8 T
8. An e.m. wave is propagating in a medium with a velocity ⃗⃗⃗𝒗 = 𝒗 ̂ . The
instantaneous oscillating electric field of this e.m. wave is along +y-axis, then
the direction of oscillating magnetic field of the e.m. wave will be along:
(a) –y direction (b) –x direction
(c) +z direction (d) –z direction
9. If the magnetic monopole exists, then which of the Maxwell’s equation to be
modified?.
𝑄
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
(a) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑙 𝑠
(b) ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝜀
(c) ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜 𝑖 + 𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ (d) ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = − Φ
𝑡 𝑡
10. Fraunhofer lines are an example of _______________________ spectrum.
(a) line emission (b) line absorption
(c) band emission (d) band absorption
NAME :
SCHOOL :
CHAPTER-6
:EXAM NO

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 6 RAY OPTICS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 6 RAY OPTICS 5. If the velocity and wavelength of light in air is Va and λa and that in water is
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS Vw and λw, then the refractive index of water is,
𝑉𝑤 𝑉 𝜆𝑤 𝑉 𝜆
1. The speed of light in an isotropic medium depends on, (a) (b) (c) (d)
𝑉 𝑉𝑤 𝜆 𝑉𝑤 𝜆𝑤
(a) its intensity Solution :
(b) its wavelength 𝜆
(c) the nature of propagation  Refractive index of water; = = 𝜆𝑎
𝑤
(d) the motion of the source w.r.t medium 𝑽𝒂
Solution : Answer (b) 𝑽𝒘
 Velocity of light ; 𝑐 = 𝜆 𝜈 6. Stars twinkle due to,
 Here frequency 𝜈 is always constant and hence velocity depends on wavelength 𝜆 (a) reflection (b) total internal reflection
Answer (b) its wavelength (c) refraction (d) polarisation
2. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal Solution :
length 10 cm in such a way that its end closer to the pole is 20 cm away from  The change in intensity of light coming from the distance star is called twinkling
the mirror. The length of the image is, of stars. It is due to atmospheric refraction of star’s light when it passes
(a) 2.5 cm (b) 5 cm through different layers of a turbulent atmosphere and hence the star light
(c) 10 cm (d) 15 cm reaching our eyes change continuously and stars appear to twinkle.
Solution : Answer (c) refraction
 Here object distance . = − 𝑐 ; =− 𝑐 ; 𝑓=− 𝑐 . Then 7. When a biconvex lens of glass having refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a
+ = (or) = − = − =− ⟹ =− 𝑐 liquid, it acts as a plane sheet of glass. This implies that the liquid must have
− − refractive index,
+ = (or) = − = − =− ⟹ =− 𝑐 (a) less than one (b) less than that of glass
− −
 Hence image length, − = − − − = 𝑐 (c) greater than that of glass (d) equal to that of glass
Solution :
Answer (b) 5 cm 𝑔
3. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of focal length of f and the  From Len’s makers formula, = − [𝑅 − 𝑅 ]
𝑙
maximum and minimum distance of an object from the mirror such that the  For plane sheet of glass, 𝑓 = ∞
image formed is real and magnified.
(a) 2f and c (b) c and ∞  So, ∞ = 𝑔 − [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] (or)
𝑔
− [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] =
𝑙 𝑙
(c) f and O (d) None of these  Here, [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] ≠ Hence,
𝑔
− = (or)
𝑔
= (or) =
Solution : 𝑙 𝑙
 Convex mirror always forms virtual image irrespective of the position of the object Answer (d) equal to that of glass
Answer (d) None of these 8. The radius of curvature of curved surface at a thin planoconvex lens is 10 cm
4. For light incident from air on a slab of refractive index 2, the maximum and the refractive index is 1.5. If the plane surface is silvered, then the focal
possible angle of refraction is, length will be,
(a) 30o (b) 45o (a) 5 cm (b) 10 cm (c) 15 cm (d) 20 cm
(c) 60o (d) 90o Solution :
Solution :  Let 𝑓 be the focal length of plano convex lens, then
𝑅
 From the product form of law of refraction Snell’s law , 𝑖 sin 𝑖 = sin 𝑟 = − [ 𝑅 − ∞] = − (or) 𝑓 = = = = 𝑐
𝑅 − . − .
 Here angle of refraction is maximum, when angle of incidence will be 90
 If the plane surface is silvered, then it acts as plane mirror of focal length, 𝑓 = ∞
 Hence, sin 9  = sin 𝑟 (or) sin 𝑟 = (or) 𝑟 =   So the total power of silvered plano convex lens, 𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃
Answer (a) 30o (or)
𝐹
= + + = + = = = (or) 𝐹 = 𝑐
Answer (b) 10 cm
9. An air bubble in glass slab of refractive index 1.5 (near normal incidence) is 5
cm deep when viewed from one surface and 3 cm deep when viewed from the
opposite face. The thickness of the slab is,
(a) 8 cm (b) 10 cm
(c) 12 cm (d) 16 cm
Solution :
 We know that, Actual depth = refractive index X apparent depth
 Actual depth of drop from one surface= . 𝑋 = 7. 𝑐
 Actual depth of drop from opposite surface= . 𝑋 = . 𝑐
 So the thickness of the slab = 7. + . = 𝑐
Answer (c) 12 cm
10. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium of refractive index n falls, on a
surface separating the medium from air at an angle of incidents of 45 o. The ray
can undergo total internal reflection for the following n,
(a) n = 1.25 (b) n = 1.33
(c) n = 1.4 (d) n = 1.5
Solution :
 By the product form of Snell’s law ; sin 𝑖 = sin 𝑟
 When 𝑖 = 𝑖 , then 𝑟 = 9 °
 For total internal reflection occur, 𝑖 > 𝑖 Hence, sin 𝑖 > sin 9 °
> sin 𝑖
(or) > sin °
(or) > /√
(or) >√ .
Answer (d) n = 1.5
7. When a biconvex lens of glass having refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a
UNIT - 6 RAY OPTICS liquid, it acts as a plane sheet of glass. This implies that the liquid must have
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE refractive index,
(a) less than one
1. The speed of light in an isotropic medium depends on, (b) less than that of glass
(a) its intensity (c) greater than that of glass
(b) its wavelength (d) equal to that of glass
(c) the nature of propagation 8. The radius of curvature of curved surface at a thin planoconvex lens is 10 cm
(d) the motion of the source w.r.t medium and the refractive index is 1.5. If the plane surface is silvered, then the focal
2. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length will be,
length 10 cm in such a way that its end closer to the pole is 20 cm away from (a) 5 cm
the mirror. The length of the image is, (b) 10 cm
(a) 2.5 cm (c) 15 cm
(b) 5 cm (d) 20 cm
(c) 10 cm 9. An air bubble in glass slab of refractive index 1.5 (near normal incidence) is 5
(d) 15 cm cm deep when viewed from one surface and 3 cm deep when viewed from the
3. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of focal length of f and the opposite face. The thickness of the slab is,
maximum and minimum distance of an object from the mirror such that the (a) 8 cm
image formed is real and magnified. (b) 10 cm
(a) 2f and c (c) 12 cm
(b) c and ∞ (d) 16 cm
(c) f and O 10. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium of refractive index n falls, on a
(d) None of these surface separating the medium from air at an angle of incidents of 45 o. The ray
4. For light incident from air on a slab of refractive index 2, the maximum can undergo total internal reflection for the following n,
possible angle of refraction is, (a) n = 1.25
(a) 30o (b) n = 1.33
(b) 45o (c) n = 1.4
(c) 60o (d) n = 1.5
(d) 90o
5. If the velocity and wavelength of light in air is Va and λa and that in water is
Vw and λw, then the refractive index of water is,
𝑉𝑤
(a)
𝑉
𝑉
(b)
𝑉𝑤
𝜆
(c) 𝑤
𝜆
𝑉 𝜆
(d)
𝑉𝑤 𝜆𝑤
6. Stars twinkle due to,
(a) reflection
(b) total internal reflection
(c) refraction
(d) polarisation
NAME :
SCHOOL :
CHAPTER-7 EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 7 WAVE OPTICS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 7 WAVE OPTICS 4. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities I and 4I are
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS superposed. The maximum and minimum possible intensities in the resulting
beam are
1. A plane glass is placed over a various coloured letters (violet, green, yellow,
(a) 5I and I
red) The letter which appears to be raised more is,
(b) 5I and 3I
(a) red
(c) 9I and I
(b) yellow
(d) 9I and 3I
(c) green
Solution :-
(d) violet
Solution :-  Maximum intensity ; 𝐼 𝑎 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + √𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 𝑎 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + √𝐼 𝑋 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 9𝐼
 Shift is given by ; =𝑑 −
 Minimum intensity ; 𝐼 𝑖 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 − √𝐼 𝐼
 Thus, if refractive index increases, shift s also increases.
𝐼 𝑎 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 − √𝐼 𝑋 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 𝐼
 Since , > 𝑔> > 𝑟 we have > 𝑔 > > 𝑟
Answer (c) 9I and I
Answer (d) violet 5. When light is incident on a soap film of thickness 5×10–5 cm, the wavelength of
2. Two point white dots are 1 mm apart on a black paper. They are viewed by eye light reflected maximum in the visible region is 5320 Å. Refractive index of the
of pupil diameter 3 mm approximately. The maximum distance at which these film will be,
dots can be resolved by the eye is, [take wavelength of light, λ = 500 nm]
(a) 1.22
(a) 1 m
(b) 5 m (b) 1.33
(c) 3 m (c) 1.51
(d) 6m (d) 1.83
Solution :- Solution :-
𝜆
 Resolving power of eye lens; 𝑑 𝑖 =
. 𝜆  Condition for maximum intensity in thin film ; = −
𝑎
 Thus the maximum distance between the two points which can be just resolved,  For visible region, =
𝜆 𝜆 𝑋 𝑋 − 𝑋 −
𝑎𝑑 𝑖 𝑋 − 𝑋 𝑋 −
= = = ∴ = − = = 𝑋 𝑋 −5 𝑋 − == = .
. 𝜆 . 𝑋 𝑋 −9
Answer (d) 5 m Answer (b) 1.33

3. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slit separation is doubled. To maintain 6. First diffraction minimum due to a single slit of width 1.0×10–5 cm is at 30o.
the same fringe spacing on the screen, the screen-to-slit distance D must be Then wavelength of light used is,
changed to, (a) 400 Å
(a) 2D (b) 500 Å
𝐷 (c) 600 Å
(b) (d) 700 Å
(c) √ D Solution :-
𝐷  Condition for first minimum in single slit ; 𝑎 sin 𝜃 =
(d)
√ = 𝑋 − 𝑋 − 𝑖 ° = −7 𝑋 = . 𝑋 −7 = 𝑋 − = Å
Solution :-
𝜆𝐷 Answer (b) 𝟓𝟎𝟎 Å
 Band width ; 𝛽 =
𝑑
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
 If 𝑑 → 𝑑, then the new band width ; 𝛽 = =
𝑑 𝑑
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
 Given that ; 𝛽 = 𝛽 (or) = (or) 𝐷 = 𝐷
𝑑 𝑑
Answer (a) 2 D
7. A ray of light strikes a glass plate at an angle 60o.
If the reflected and refracted
rays are perpendicular to each other, the refractive index of the glass is,
(a) √
(b)
(c) √
(d) 2
Solution :-
 When reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other, then the
angle of incidence is equal to angle of polarization. From Brewster s law
= tan 𝑖𝑃 = tan ° = √
Answer (a) √𝟑
8. One of the of Young’s double slits is covered with a glass plate as shown in
figure. The position of central maximum will,
(a) get shifted downwards
(b) get shifted upwards
(c) will remain the same
(d) data insufficient to conclude
Solution :-
 When the slit is covered with a glass plate, due to refraction the light ray bends
upwards. Hence central maximum get shifted upwards
Answer (b) get shifted upwards
9. Light transmitted by Nicol prism is,
(a) partially polarised
(b) unpolarised
(c) plane polarised
(d) elliptically polarised
Solution :-
 The ordinary ray is total internally reflected at the layer of canada balsam and is
prevented from emerging along with extraordinary ray. Where as, the
extraordinary ray is transmitted through the crystal which is plane polarized.
Answer (c) plane polarised
10. The transverse nature of light is shown in,
(a) interference
(b) diffraction
(c) scattering
(d) polarisation
Solution :-
 Both, longitudinal and transverse waves exhibit the phenomena of interference
and diffraction. Since light is an electromagnetic wave, it is transverse in nature.
The transverse nature of light wave is proved in the phenomenon called
polarisation.
Answer (d) polarisation
7. A ray of light strikes a glass plate at an angle 60o. If the reflected and refracted
UNIT - 7 WAVE OPTICS rays are perpendicular to each other, the refractive index of the glass is,
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE (a) √
(b)
1. A plane glass is placed over a various coloured letters (violet, green, yellow,
red) The letter which appears to be raised more is,
(c) √
(a) red
(b) yellow (d) 2
(c) green 8. One of the of Young’s double slits is covered with
(d) violet a glass plate as shown in figure. The position of
2. Two point white dots are 1 mm apart on a black paper. They are viewed by eye central maximum will,
of pupil diameter 3 mm approximately. The maximum distance at which these (a) get shifted downwards
dots can be resolved by the eye is, [take wavelength of light, λ = 500 nm] (b) get shifted upwards
(a) 1 m (c) will remain the same
(b) 5 m (d) data insufficient to conclude
(c) 3 m 9. Light transmitted by Nicol prism is,
(d) 6m (a) partially polarised
3. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slit separation is doubled. To maintain (b) unpolarised
the same fringe spacing on the screen, the screen-to-slit distance D must be (c) plane polarised
changed to, (d) elliptically polarised
(a) 2D 10. The transverse nature of light is shown in,
𝐷 (a) interference
(b)
(b) diffraction
(c) √ D (c) scattering
𝐷 (d) polarisation
(d)
√
4. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities I and 4I are
superposed. The maximum and minimum possible intensities in the resulting
beam are
(a) 5I and I
(b) 5I and 3I
(c) 9I and I
(d) 9I and 3I
5. When light is incident on a soap film of thickness 5×10–5 cm, the wavelength of
light reflected maximum in the visible region is 5320 Å. Refractive index of the
film will be,
(a) 1.22
(b) 1.33
(c) 1.51
(d) 1.83
6. First diffraction minimum due to a single slit of width 1.0×10 –5 cm is at 30o.
Then wavelength of light used is,
(a) 400 Å
(b) 500 Å
(c) 600 Å
(d) 700 Å
NAME :
CHAPTER-8
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 4. When a metallic surface is illuminated with radiation of wavelength λ, the
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS stopping potential is V. If the same surface is illuminated with radiation of
𝑽
1. The wavelength λe of an electron and λp of a photon of same energy E are wavelength 2λ, the stopping potential is . The threshold wavelength for the
related by metallic surface is
(a) 𝜆 ∝ 𝜆𝑒 (a) 4 λ (b) 5 λ (c) λ (d) 3 λ
(b) 𝜆 ∝ √𝜆𝑒 Solution :-
(c) 𝜆 ∝ ➢ For stopping potential V ; 𝑒𝑉 =
ℎ𝑐
−
ℎ𝑐
= ℎ𝑐 [ − ]=ℎ𝑐 [
λ −λ
]
√𝜆𝑒 λ λ λ λ λλ
(d) 𝜆 ∝ 𝜆𝑒 𝑉 𝑉 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 λ − λ
➢ For stopping potential ; 𝑒 = − = ℎ𝑐 [ − ]=ℎ𝑐 [ ]
Solution :- λ −λ
λ λ λ λ λλ
ℎ ℎ 𝑒𝑉 ℎ𝑐[ ] [λ − λ]
➢ For electron, 𝜆𝑒 = (or) 𝐸 = ➢ Hence, =
λλ
λ − λ (or) = (or) λ − λ= λ − λ
√ 𝑒𝐸 𝑒 𝜆𝑒 𝑒𝑉/ ℎ𝑐[ ] [λ − λ]
λλ
ℎ𝑐
➢ For photon, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = λ − λ = λ− λ (or) λ = λ (or) λ = λ
𝜆
ℎ ℎ𝑐 𝑒 𝑐 Answer (d) 𝛌
➢ Since the energy is same,
𝜆𝑒
= 𝜆
(or) 𝜆 = [
ℎ
] 𝜆𝑒 5. If a light of wavelength 330 nm is incident on a metal with work function
𝑒
3.55 eV, the electrons are emitted. Then the wavelength of the wave associated
Answer (d) 𝝀 ∝ 𝝀𝒆 with the emitted electron is (Take h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
2. In an electron microscope, the electrons are accelerated by a voltage of 14 kV. (a) < . 𝑋 − (b) . 𝑋 −
If the voltage is changed to 224 kV, then the de Broglie wavelength associated (c) . 𝑋 −
(d) < . 𝑋 −
with the electrons would Solution :-
(a) increase by 2 times ➢ By Einstein s equation ; [note : ℎ 𝑐 = nm eV]
(b) decrease by 2 times ℎ𝑐 eV
[𝐾𝐸] = − Φ = − . 𝑒𝑉 = . − . = . 𝑒𝑉
(c) decrease by 4 times λ
(d) increase by 4 times ➢ Hence wavelength of electron,
ℎ . 𝑋 −
Solution :- −
λ 𝑖 = = − −
= . 𝑋
√ [𝐾𝐸] √ 𝑋 . 𝑋 𝑋 . 𝑋 . 𝑋
. .
➢ The de Broglei wavelength of electron ; 𝜆 = and 𝜆 = Answer (d) . 𝑿 −
𝒎
√𝑉 √𝑉
𝜆 𝑉 𝑋 𝜆 6. A photoelectric surface is illuminated successively by monochromatic light of
➢ Hence the ratio, = √ = √ = √ = (or) 𝜆 = 𝛌
𝜆 𝑉 𝑋 wavelength 𝛌 and . If the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
Answer (c) decrease by 4 times photoelectrons in the second case is 3 times that in the first case, the work
3. The wave associated with a moving particle of mass 3 X 10–6 g has the same function of the material is
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
wavelength as an electron moving with a velocity 6 X 10 6 m s-1 .The velocity of (a) (b) (c) (d)
λ λ λ λ
the particle is Solution :-
(a) 1.82 X 10-18 m s-1 ℎ𝑐
(b) 9 X 10-2 m s-1 ➢ For case (i) ; 𝐾 = ℎ 𝜈 − Φ = − Φ
λ
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
(c) 3 X 10-31 m s-1 ➢ For case (ii) ; 𝐾 = ℎ 𝜈 − Φ = λ − Φ = − Φ
λ
(d) 1.82 X 10-15 m s-1
Solution :- ➢ But given that, 𝐾 = 𝐾 . Hence,
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
➢ If wavelength is same, then their momentum also same. Hence, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑣𝑒 − Φ = − Φ (or) − Φ = − Φ
λ λ λ λ
−
𝑒 𝑣𝑒 . 𝑋 𝑋 𝐗 − ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
∴ 𝑣 = = 𝐗 − 𝑿 − = . 𝑋 𝑠− Φ − Φ =
λ
−
λ
(or) Φ =
λ
(or) Φ =
λ
𝒉𝒄
− − Answer (d)
Answer (d) . 𝑿 𝒎𝒔 𝛌
7. In photoelectric emission, a radiation whose frequency is 4 times threshold 10. If the mean wavelength of light from sun is taken as 550 nm and its mean
frequency of a certain metal is incident on the metal. Then the maximum power as 3.8 × 1026 W, then the average number of photons received by the
possible velocity of the emitted electron will be human eye per second from sunlight is of the order of
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 (a) 1045
(a) √ (b) √ (b) 1042
(c) 1054
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈
(c) √ (d) √ (d) 1051
Solution :-
Solution :- ℎ𝑐
➢ Total power (i.e.) energy per second ; 𝐸 = ℎ 𝜈 =
➢ According to Einstein s photo electric equation, ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑥 −
𝜆
𝐸 𝜆 . 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
➢ Hence, = = = = . 𝑋
➢ But given that, 𝜈 = 𝜈 . Hence, ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ𝜈 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝑐 . 𝑋 − 𝑋 𝑋 .
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 Answer (a) . 𝑿
(or) 𝑣 𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 (or) 𝑣 𝑎𝑥 = (or) 𝑣 𝑎𝑥 =√ 11. The threshold wavelength for a metal surface whose photoelectric work
function is 3.313 eV is
𝒉𝝂
Answer (b) √ (a) 4125 Å
𝒎
(b) 3750 Å
8. Two radiations with photon energies 0.9 eV and 3.3 eV respectively are falling (c) 6000 Å
on a metallic surface successively. If the work function of the metal is 0.6 eV, (d) 20625.Å
then the ratio of maximum speeds of emitted electrons in the two cases will be Solution :-
(a) 1:4 (b) 1:3 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
➢ By definition, work function ; Φ = ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜆 =
(c) 1:1 (d) 1:9 𝜆 Φ
Solution :- ➢ Thus threshold wavelength ;
ℎ𝑐 𝑒𝑉
➢ For photon -1 ; 𝑣 = ℎ 𝜈 − ℎ 𝜈 = . 𝑒𝑉 − . 𝑒𝑉 = . 𝑒𝑉 𝜆 = Φ
= . 𝑒𝑉
= . ≈ Å
➢ For photon -2 ; 𝑣 = ℎ 𝜈 − ℎ 𝜈 = . 𝑒𝑉 − . 𝑒𝑉 = . 𝑒𝑉 Answer (b) 3750 Å

𝑣 . 𝑒𝑉 𝑣 12. A light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on a sensitive metal plate of
➢ Hence the ratio ; = . 𝑒𝑉
= (or)
𝑣
= photoelectric work function 1.235 eV. The kinetic energy of the photo
𝑣
electrons emitted is (Take h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
Answer (b) 1:3
(a) 0.58 eV
9. A light source of wavelength 520 nm emits 1.04 × 1015 photons per second (b) 2.48 eV
while the second source of 460 nm produces 1.38 × 10 15 photons per second. (c) 1.24 eV
Then the ratio of power of second source to that of first source is (d) 1.16 eV
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.02 Solution :-
(c) 1.5 (d) 0.98 ➢ By Einstein s equation ; [note : ℎ 𝑐 = nm eV]
Solution :- ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑐 [𝐾𝐸] 𝑎𝑥 =ℎ𝜈−Φ = − Φ
➢ For source - 1 ; 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝑒𝑉
λ
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
[𝐾𝐸] 𝑎𝑥 = − . 𝑒𝑉 = . − . = . 𝑒𝑉
➢ For source - 2 ; 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝜆
−
Answer (c) 1.24 eV
𝐸 𝜆 . 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
➢ Hence the ratio ;
𝐸
= 𝜆
= . 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 − = .
Answer (c) 1.5
13. Photons of wavelength λ are incident on a metal. The most energetic electrons
ejected from the metal are bent into a circular arc of radius R by a
perpendicular magnetic field having magnitude B. The work function of the
metal is
ℎ𝑐 𝑒 𝐵 𝑅 ℎ𝑐 𝑒𝐵𝑅
(a) − 𝑒 + (b) + 𝑒 [ ]
𝜆 𝑒 𝜆 𝑒
(c)
𝜆
− 𝑒𝑐 − (d)
𝜆
− 𝑒 [ ]
𝑒 𝑒
Solution :-
➢ According Einstien s equation ; ℎ 𝜈 = Φ + 𝑒𝑣
ℎ𝑐
(or) Φ = ℎ𝜈− 𝑒 𝑣 𝑎𝑥 (or) Φ = 𝜆
− 𝑒 𝑣 𝑎𝑥
𝑒𝑣 𝐵𝑒𝑅
➢ Magnetic Lorentz force is given by ; 𝑒𝑣= (or) 𝑣 =
𝑅 𝑒
➢ Thus from two equations,
ℎ𝑐 𝐵𝑒𝑅 ℎ𝑐 𝐵𝑒𝑅
Φ =
𝜆
− 𝑒 =
𝜆
− 𝑒
𝑒 𝑒
𝒉𝒄 𝑩𝒆𝑹
Answer (c) 𝝀
− 𝒎𝒆
𝒎𝒆
14. The work functions for metals A, B and C are 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5.0 eV
respectively. The metal/metals which will emit photoelectrons for a radiation
of wavelength 4100Å is/are
(a) A only
(b) both A and B
(c) all these metals
(d) none
Solution :-
ℎ𝑐 Å 𝐞𝐕
➢ Energy of photon ; 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = = ≅ 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 Å
➢ Thus both the metals A and B emits photo electrons, but not C
Answer (b) both A and B
15. Emission of electrons by the absorption of heat energy is called
……………emission.
(a) photoelectric
(b) field
(c) thermionic
(d) secondary
Solution :-
➢ When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the free electrons on the surface
of the metal get sufficient energy in the form of thermal energy so that they are
emitted from the metallic surface .This type of emission is known as
thermionic emission.
Answer (c) thermionic
8. Two radiations with photon energies 0.9 eV and 3.3 eV respectively are falling
UNIT - 8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER on a metallic surface successively. If the work function of the metal is 0.6 eV,
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE then the ratio of maximum speeds of emitted electrons in the two cases will be
(a) 1:4 (b) 1:3
1. The wavelength λe of an electron and λp of a photon of same energy E are
(c) 1:1 (d) 1:9
related by
9. A light source of wavelength 520 nm emits 1.04 × 1015 photons per second
(a) 𝜆 ∝ 𝜆𝑒 (b) 𝜆 ∝ √𝜆𝑒 while the second source of 460 nm produces 1.38 × 1015 photons per second.
(c) 𝜆 ∝ (d) 𝜆 ∝ 𝜆𝑒 Then the ratio of power of second source to that of first source is
√𝜆𝑒
2. In an electron microscope, the electrons are accelerated by a voltage of 14 kV. (a) 1.00 (b) 1.02
If the voltage is changed to 224 kV, then the de Broglie wavelength associated (c) 1.5 (d) 0.98
with the electrons would 10. If the mean wavelength of light from sun is taken as 550 nm and its mean
(a) increase by 2 times (b) decrease by 2 times power as 3.8 × 1026 W, then the average number of photons received by the
(c) decrease by 4 times (d) increase by 4 times human eye per second from sunlight is of the order of
3. The wave associated with a moving particle of mass 3 X 10–6 g has the same (a) 1045 (b) 1042
wavelength as an electron moving with a velocity 6 X 10 6 m s-1 .The velocity of (c) 10 54 (d) 1051
the particle is 11. The threshold wavelength for a metal surface whose photoelectric work
(a) 1.82 X 10-18 m s-1 (b) 9 X 10-2 m s-1 function is 3.313 eV is
(c) 3 X 10 m s
-31 -1 (d) 1.82 X 10-15 m s-1 (a) 4125 Å (b) 3750 Å
4. When a metallic surface is illuminated with radiation of wavelength λ, the (c) 6000 Å (d) 20625.Å
stopping potential is V. If the same surface is illuminated with radiation of 12. A light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on a sensitive metal plate of
𝑽 photoelectric work function 1.235 eV. The kinetic energy of the photo
wavelength 2λ, the stopping potential is . The threshold wavelength for the electrons emitted is (Take h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
metallic surface is (a) 0.58 eV (b) 2.48 eV
(a) 4 λ (b) 5 λ (c) 1.24 eV (d) 1.16 eV
(c) λ (d) 3 λ 13. Photons of wavelength λ are incident on a metal. The most energetic electrons
ejected from the metal are bent into a circular arc of radius R by a
5. If a light of wavelength 330 nm is incident on a metal with work function
perpendicular magnetic field having magnitude B. The work function of the
3.55 eV, the electrons are emitted. Then the wavelength of the wave associated
metal is
with the emitted electron is (Take h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
(a) < . 𝑋 − (b) . 𝑋 − (a) − 𝑒 + (b) + 𝑒 [ ]
− 𝜆 𝜆
(c) . 𝑋 (d) < . 𝑋 − 𝑒 𝑒
6. A photoelectric surface is illuminated successively by monochromatic light of (c) − 𝑒𝑐 − (d) − 𝑒 [ ]
𝛌 𝜆 𝑒 𝜆 𝑒
wavelength 𝛌 and . If the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted 14. The work functions for metals A, B and C are 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5.0 eV
photoelectrons in the second case is 3 times that in the first case, the work respectively. The metal/metals which will emit photoelectrons for a radiation
function of the material is of wavelength 4100Å is/are
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 (a) A only (b) both A and B
(a) (b)
λ λ (c) all these metals (d) none
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
(c) (d) 15. Emission of electrons by the absorption of heat energy is called
λ λ
7. In photoelectric emission, a radiation whose frequency is 4 times threshold ……………emission.
frequency of a certain metal is incident on the metal. Then the maximum (a) photoelectric (b) field
possible velocity of the emitted electron will be (c) thermionic (d) secondary
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈
(a) √ (b) √
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈
(c) √ (d) √
NAME :
SCHOOL :
CHAPTER-9 EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 6. In J.J. Thomson e/m experiment, a beam of electron is replaced by that of
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS muons (particle with same charge as that of electrons but mass 208 times that
ofelectrons). No deflection condition is achieved only if
1. Suppose an alpha particle accelerated by a potential of V volt is allowed to (a) B is increased by 208 times (b) B is decreased by 208 times
collide with a nucleus of atomic number Z, then the distance of closest (c) B is increased by 14.4 times (d) B is decreased by 14.4 times
approach of alpha particle to the nucleus is Solution :-
𝑉 𝑉 𝑒 𝐸
(a) . 𝑉
Å (b) . Å (c) .
𝑉
Å (d) . Å  By J.J. Thomson e/m experiment, specific charge of electron ; =
Solution :-
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒  Hence the magnetic field ; = (or) =√
 Distance of closest approach ; = = = 𝑒 𝑒
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝐾 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑒 𝑉 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑉
𝐸
= . −
= . −
= . Å  Simillarly for muons ; =√
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑒
𝒁  = √ = . = .
Answer (a) . Å Hence the ratio ; (or)
𝑽
2. In a hydrogen atom, the electron revolving in the fourth orbit, has angular Answer (c) B is increased by 14.4 times
momentum equal to 7. The ratio of the wavelengths for the transition from n =2 to n = 1 in Li++, He+
ℎ ℎ ℎ and H is
(a) h (b) (c) (d)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 (a) 1 : 2: 3 (b) 1: 4: 9 (c) 3 : 2 : 1 (d) 4: 9: 36
Solution :- Solution :-
 According to Bohr s postulate ;
ℎ ℎ ℎ  Wave number of spectral line, ̅𝜈 = = 𝑅[ − ]
angular momentum = = = 𝜆
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
 Hence, ̅𝜈 = = 𝑅[ − ]= 𝑅[ − ] = 𝑅[ ]
𝜆
Answer (d) 𝝅  Therefore, 𝜆 = (or) 𝜆∝
3. Atomic number of H-like atom with ionization potential 122.4 V for n = 1 is 𝑅
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4  Here for lithium (Li++) Z =3 ; for helium (He+) Z =2 ; for hydrogen (H) Z =1
Solution :-  Thus, 𝜆𝐿𝑖++ ∶ 𝜆𝐻𝑒+ ∶ 𝜆𝐻 = ∶ ∶ = ∶ ∶ = ∶ ∶
.
 Ionisation potential ; 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 = Answer (d) ∶ ∶
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 . 𝑋 8. The electric potential between a proton and an electron is given by
 Hence, = .
= .
= (or) = 𝒓
𝑽 = 𝑽 𝐥𝐧 [ ], where r0 is a constant. Assume that Bohr atom model is
𝒓
Answer (c)
applicable to potential, then variation of radius of nth orbit rn with the
4. The ratio between the fi rst three orbits of hydrogen atom is
principal quantum number n is
(a) 1:2:3 (b) 2:4:6 (c) 1:4:9 (d) 1:3:5
Solution :- (a) ∝ (b) ∝ (c) ∝ (d) ∝
 Radius of nth orbit hydrogen atom ; = (or) ∝ Solution :-
 Hence, ∶ ∶ = ∶ ∶ 𝜕 𝑒
 The potential energy ; =𝑒 =𝑒 ln [ ] ; ∴ = − 𝜕
=
Answer (c) ∶ ∶ 𝑜
 This attractive force gives necessary centripetal force and hence,
5. The charge of cathode rays is 𝑒 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 𝑉𝑜
(a) positive (b) negative = (or) =
(c) neutral (d) not defined ℎ
Solution :-
 From Bohr s postulate ; = 𝜋
= ℏ
ℏ ℏ ℏ
 Cathode rays are deflected both by electric and magnetic field. The direction of  Thus, = 𝑒 (or) = (or) = (or) ∝
[ ] 𝑒 𝑒 𝑉𝑜
deflection indicates that cathode rays (electron beam) are negatively charged.
Answer (b) negative Answer (b) 𝒓 ∝
9. If the nuclear radius of 27Al
is 3.6 fermi, the approximate nuclear radius of 64Cu is 13. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and atomic number Z emits
(a) 2.4 2α and 2 positrons. The ratio number of neutrons to that of proton in the final
(b) 1.2 nucleus will be
(c) 4.8 − − − −
(a) (b)
(d)3.6 − −
− − − −
Solution :- (c)
−
(d) −
/ /
 Nuclear radius ; 𝑅 = 𝑅 and 𝑅 = 𝑅 . Hence Solution :-
/ /
𝑅 𝑢 𝑅𝑜 /
 Let z be the atomic number and a be the mass number of the final nucleus then
= 𝑢
= 𝑢
= = (or) 𝑅 = 𝑅 = . = .
𝑅 𝑙 𝑅𝑜
/
𝑙
/
𝑙
/
; ⟶ + 𝛼 + 𝑒+ (or) ⟶ + 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒
Answer (c) . 𝑭  By conservation of charge and mass, we have
10. The nucleus is approximately spherical in shape. Then the surface area of = + + = + ⟹ = −
nucleus having mass number A varies as = + + = + ⟹ = −
(a) A2/3  Hence number of neutrons in final nucleus ; = − = − −
− −
(b) A4/3  So for the final nucleus, the ratio ; = −
(c) A1/3
𝑨−𝒁−
(d) A5/3 Answer (b)
Solution :- 𝒁−
 If R be the radius of nucleus, then, its surface area 14. The half-life period of a radioactive element A is same as the mean life time of
S.A = 𝜋 𝑅 = 𝜋 (𝑅 /
) = 𝜋𝑅 /
(or) S.A ∝ / another radioactive element B. Initially both have the same number of atoms.
Then
Answer (a) A2/3 (a) A and B have the same decay rate initially
11. The mass of a nucleus is 0.042 u less than the sum of the masses of all its (b) A and B decay at the same rate always
nucleons. The binding energy per nucleon of nucleus is nearly (c) B will decay at faster rate than A
(a) 46 MeV (d) A will decay at faster rate than B.
(b) 5.6 MeV Solution :-
(c) 3.9MeV .
 Half life of nucleus A ; = 𝜆
and mean life of nucleus B ; 𝜏 =
𝜆
(d)23 MeV
.
Solution :-  Given that, =𝜏 (or) = (or) 𝜆 = . 𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
 Here mass defect ; ∆ = .
 Since 𝜆 > 𝜆 , nucleus B will decay at faster rate than A
 So binding energy ; = ∆ 𝑒 = . 𝑒 = . 𝑒
𝐸 . Answer (c) B will decay at faster rate than A
 Then binding energy per nucleon ; = = . ≈ . 𝑒
15. A radiative element has No number of nuclei at t = 0. The number of nuclei
Answer (b) . 𝒆𝑽
remaining after half of a half-life (that is, at time 𝒕 = 𝑻 / )
12. Mp denotes the mass of the protonand Mn denotes mass of a neutron. A given
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
nucleus of binding energy B, contains Z protons and N neutrons. The mass (a) (b)
√
M (N,Z) of the nucleus is given by (where c is the speed of light) 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
(a) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp − B c2 (c) (d)
(b) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp + B c2 Solution :-
(c) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp − B/ c2 𝑇 /
(d) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp + B/ c2  Number of half life periods ; = 𝑇 /
= 𝑇 /
=
Solution :-
𝑁𝑜
 Binding energy ; = ∆ 𝑐 (or) ∆ =  So the number of nuclei remaining ; = = =
𝑐 √
(or) + − , = (or) , = + −
𝑐 𝑐 Answer (b) √
Answer (c) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp − B/ c2
10. The nucleus is approximately spherical in shape. Then the surface area of
UNIT - 9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS nucleus having mass number A varies as
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE (a) A2/3 (b) A4/3
1. Suppose an alpha particle accelerated by a potential of V volt is allowed to (c) A1/3 (d) A5/3
collide with a nucleus of atomic number Z, then the distance of closest 11. The mass of a nucleus is 0.042 u less than the sum of the masses of all its
approach of alpha particle to the nucleus is nucleons. The binding energy per nucleon of nucleus is nearly
𝑉 (a) 46 MeV (b) 5.6 MeV
(a) . 𝑉
Å (b) . Å
(c) 3.9MeV (d)23 MeV
𝑉
(c) . Å (d) . Å 12. Mp denotes the mass of the protonand Mn denotes mass of a neutron. A given
𝑉
2. In a hydrogen atom, the electron revolving in the fourth orbit, has angular nucleus of binding energy B, contains Z protons and N neutrons. The mass
momentum equal to M (N,Z) of the nucleus is given by (where c is the speed of light)
ℎ (a) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp − B c2 (b) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp + B c2
(a) h (b) (c) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp − B/ c2 (d) M (N, Z) = N Mn + Z Mp + B/ c2
𝜋
ℎ ℎ 13. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and atomic number Z emits
(c) (d)
𝜋 𝜋 2α and 2 positrons. The ratio number of neutrons to that of proton in the final
3. Atomic number of H-like atom with ionization potential 122.4 V for n = 1 is nucleus will be
(a) 1 (b) 2 − − − −
(c) 3 (d) 4 (a) (b)
− −
4. The ratio between the fi rst three orbits of hydrogen atom is − − − −
(c)
−
(d) −
(a) 1:2:3 (b) 2:4:6
(c) 1:4:9 (d) 1:3:5 14. The half-life period of a radioactive element A is same as the mean life time of
5. The charge of cathode rays is another radioactive element B. Initially both have the same number of atoms.
(a) positive (b) negative Then
(c) neutral (d) not defined (a) A and B have the same decay rate initially
6. In J.J. Thomson e/m experiment, a beam of electron is replaced by that of (b) A and B decay at the same rate always
muons (particle with same charge as that of electrons but mass 208 times that (c) B will decay at faster rate than A
ofelectrons). No deflection condition is achieved only if (d) A will decay at faster rate than B.
(a) B is increased by 208 times (b) B is decreased by 208 times 15. A radiative element has No number of nuclei at t = 0. The number of nuclei
(c) B is increased by 14.4 times (d) B is decreased by 14.4 times remaining after half of a half-life (that is, at time 𝒕 = 𝑻 / )
7. The ratio of the wavelengths for the transition from n =2 to n = 1 in Li++, He+ 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
(a) (b)
and H is √
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
(a) 1 : 2: 3 (b) 1: 4: 9 (c) (d)
(c) 3 : 2 : 1 (d) 4: 9: 36
8. The electric potential between a proton and an electron is given by
𝒓
𝑽 = 𝑽 𝐥𝐧 [ ], where r0 is a constant. Assume that Bohr atom model is
𝒓
applicable to potential, then variation of radius of nth orbit rn with the
principal quantum number n is
(a) ∝ (b) ∝
(c) ∝ (d) ∝
9. If the nuclear radius of 27Al is 3.6 fermi, the approximate nuclear radius of 64Cu is
(a) 2.4 (b) 1.2
(c) 4.8 (d)3.6
NAME :
SCHOOL :
CHAPTER-10 EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 5. The zener diode is primarily used as

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS (a) Rectifier (b) Amplifier
(c) Oscillator (d) Voltage regulator
1. The barrier potential of a silicon diode is approximately,
Solution:-
(a) 0.7 V (b) 0.3V (c) 2.0 V (d) 2.2V
 Zener diode working in the breakdown region can serve as a voltage regulator
Solution:-
 A thin region formed near the PN-junction which is free from charge carriers Answer (d) Voltage regulator
(free electrons and holes) is called depletion region. The difference in potential 6. The principle based on which a solar cell operates is
across the depletion layer is called the barrier potential 𝑉𝑏 . (a) Diffusion (b) Recombination
 At 250C, this barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for (c) Photovoltaic action (d) Carrier flow
germanium Solution:-
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, works on the principle of
Answer (a) 0.7 V
photovoltaic effect. Accordingly, the p-n junction of the solar cell generates emf
2. Doping a semiconductor results in
when solar radiation falls on it.
(a) The decrease in mobile charge carriers (b) The change in chemical properties
(c) The change in the crystal structure (d) The breaking of the covalent bond Answer (c) Photovoltaic action
Solution:- 7. The light emitted in an LED is due to
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping. (a) Recombination of charge carriers
It increases the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the (b) Reflection of light due to lens action
semiconductor and in turn, its electrical conductivity. (c) Amplification of light falling at the junction
Answer (c) The change in the crystal structure (d) Large current capacity.
Solution:-
3. In an unbiased p-n junction, the majority charge carriers (that is, holes) in the
 The excess minority carriers formed due to diffusion recombine with oppositely
p -region diffuse into n-region because of
charged majority carriers in the respective regions. During recombination
(a) the potential difference across the p-n junction
process, energy is released in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non-
(b) the higher hole concentration in p-region than that in n-region
radiative).
(c) the attraction of free electrons of n-region
(d) the higher concentration of electrons in the n-region than that in the p-region Answer (a) Recombination of charge carriers
Solution:- 8. The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on (i) type of semiconductor
 Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons diffuse from the material (ii) amount of doping (iii) temperature. Which one of the following is
n-side to the p-side while the holes from the p-side to the n-side. The diffusion of correct?
charge carriers happens due to the fact that the n-side has higher electron (a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (ii) only
concentration and the p-side has higher hole concentration. (c) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i) (ii) and (iii)
Solution:-
(b) the higher hole concentration in p-region than  Barrier potential 𝑉𝑏 is 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge
that in n-region
Answer the higher concentration of electrons in the n-  If concentration of dopping is increased, number of charged carrier also
(d) region than that in the p-region increases. Due to this width of depletion region decreases and hence potential
4. If a positive half –wave rectified voltage is fed to a load resistor, for which part barrier increases.
of a cycle there will be current flow through the load?  As temperature increases, the value of barrier potential decreases, because the
(a) 00–900 (b) 900–1800 temperature affects the kinetic energy of the charge carriers.
(c) 00–1800 (d) 00–3600 Answer (d) (i) (ii) and (iii)
Solution:-
Answer (c) 00–1800

9. To obtain sustained oscillation in an oscillator, 13. The output of the following circuit is 1 when the input ABC is
(a) Feedback should be positive (b) Feedback factor must be unity
(c) Phase shift must be 0 or 2π (d) All the above
Solution:-
 The following conditions called Barkhausen conditions should be satisfied for
sustained oscillations in the oscillator.
i. There should be positive feedback.
ii. The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral multiples of 2π. (a) 101 (b) 100
iii. The loop gain must be unity. That is, A =1. (c) 110 (d) 010
Answer (d) All the above Solution:-
10. If the input to the NOT gate is A = 1011, its output is  Output ; 𝑌 = + .
(a) 0100 (b) 1000 (i) If ABC = 1 0 1, then 𝑌 = + . =
(c) 1100 (d) 0011 (ii) If ABC = 1 0 0, then 𝑌 = + . =
Solution:- (iii) If ABC = 1 1 0, then 𝑌 = + . =
(iv) If ABC = 0 1 0, then 𝑌 = + . =
 Output of NOT gate ; 𝑌 = ̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ =
Answer (a) 0100 Answer (a) 101
14. The variation of frequency of carrier wave with respect to the amplitude of the
11. Which one of the following represents forward bias diode?
modulating signal is called
(a) Amplitude modulation (b) Frequency modulation
(a) (b) (c) Phase modulation (d) Pulse width modulation
Solution:-
(c) (d)  If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified in accordance with amplitude
Solution:- of the baseband signal, then it is called amplitude modulation (AM).
 If the positive terminal of the external voltage source is connected to the p-side  If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified in proportion to the amplitude
and the negative terminal to the n-side, it is called forward bias of the baseband signal, then it is called frequency modulation (FM).
 If the phase of the carrier signal is modified in proportion to the amplitude of
Answer (a) the baseband signal, then it is called phase modulation (PM).
12. The given electrical network is equivalent to Answer (b) Frequency modulation
15. The frequency range of 3 MHz to 30 MHz is used for
(a) Ground wave propagation (b) Space wave propagation
(c) Sky wave propagation (d) Satellite communication
Solution:-
(a) AND gate (b) OR gate
 Ground wave (or) surface wave propagation (nearly 2 kHz to 2 MHz)
(c) NOR gate (d) NOT gate
 Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric propagation (nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
Solution:-
 Space wave propagation (nearly 30 MHz to 400 GHz)
Answer (c) Sky wave propagation
Answer (c) NOR gate
11. Which one of the following represents forward bias diode?
UNIT - 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS (a) (b)
1. The barrier potential of a silicon diode is approximately,

(a) 0.7 V (b) 0.3V (c) (d)
(c) 2.0 V (d) 2.2V 12. The given electrical network is equivalent to
2. Doping a semiconductor results in
(a) The decrease in mobile charge carriers (b) The change in chemical properties
(c) The change in the crystal structure (d) The breaking of the covalent bond
3. In an unbiased p-n junction, the majority charge carriers (that is, holes) in the (a) AND gate (b) OR gate
p -region diffuse into n-region because of (c) NOR gate (d) NOT gate
(a) the potential difference across the p-n junction 13. The output of the following circuit is 1 when the input ABC is
(b) the higher hole concentration in p-region than that in n-region
(c) the attraction of free electrons of n-region
(d) the higher concentration of electrons in the n-region than that in the p-region
4. If a positive half –wave rectified voltage is fed to a load resistor, for which part
of a cycle there will be current flow through the load?
(a) 00–900 (b) 900–1800
(c) 00–1800 (d) 00–3600 (a) 101 (b) 100
5. The zener diode is primarily used as (c) 110 (d) 010
(a) Rectifier (b) Amplifier 14. The variation of frequency of carrier wave with respect to the amplitude of the
(c) Oscillator (d) Voltage regulator modulating signal is called
6. The principle based on which a solar cell operates is (a) Amplitude modulation (b) Frequency modulation
(a) Diffusion (b) Recombination (c) Phase modulation (d) Pulse width modulation
(c) Photovoltaic action (d) Carrier flow 15. The frequency range of 3 MHz to 30 MHz is used for
7. The light emitted in an LED is due to (a) Ground wave propagation (b) Space wave propagation
(a) Recombination of charge carriers (c) Sky wave propagation (d) Satellite communication
(b) Reflection of light due to lens action
(c) Amplification of light falling at the junction
(d) Large current capacity.
8. The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on (i) type of semiconductor
material (ii) amount of doping (iii) temperature. Which one of the following is
correct?
(a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (ii) only
(c) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i) (ii) and (iii)
9. To obtain sustained oscillation in an oscillator,
(a) Feedback should be positive (b) Feedback factor must be unity
(c) Phase shift must be 0 or 2π (d) All the above
10. If the input to the NOT gate is A = 1011, its output is
(a) 0100 (b) 1000
(c) 1100 (d) 0011
NAME :
SCHOOL :
CHAPTER-11 EXAM NO :

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT - 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS 6. The materials used in Robotics are

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS WITH SOLUTIONS (a) Aluminium and silver (b) Silver and gold
(c) Copper and gold (d) Steel and aluminum
1. The particle size of ZnO material is 30 nm. Based on the dimension it is
Solution :-
classified as
 For robots aluminium and steel are the most common metals. Alluminium is a
(a) Bulk material (b) Nano material
softer metal but steel is several times stronger.
(c) Soft material (d) Magnetic material
Solution :- Answer (d) Steel and aluminum
 If the particle of a solid size less than nm,it is said to be a nano solid 7. The alloys used for muscle wires in Robots are
 When the particle size exceed nm, it is bulk solid (a) Shape memory alloys (b) Gold copper alloys
Answer (b) Nano material (c) Gold silver alloys (d) Two dimensional alloys
Solution :-
2. Which one of the following is the natural nano material.
 Muscle wires are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. They can
(a) Peacock feather (b) Peacock beak
contracted by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
(c) Grain of sand (d) Skin of the Whale
Solution :- Answer (a) Shape memory alloys
 Single strand DNA, double strand DNA, wings of a morpho butterfly, peacock 8. The technology used for stopping the brain from processing pain is
feathers, lotus leaf surface, parrot fist teeth are examples for nono in nature (a) Precision medicine (b) Wireless brain sensor
(c) Virtual reality (d) Radiology
Answer (a) Peacock feather
Solution :-
3. The blue print for making ultra durable synthetic material is mimicked from
 Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop the brain from processing pain
(a) Lotus leaf (b) Morpho butterfly
an cure soreness in the hospitalized patients. It helpsin the treatment of Autism.
(c) Parrot fish (d) Peacock feather
Memory loss and Mental illness
Solution :-
 Parrot fish crunches up coral all day because of interwoven fibre nano structure Answer (c) Virtual reality
of its teeth. Crystal of a mineral called fluorapatite are woven together in a 9. The particle which gives mass to protons and neutrons are
chain mail like arrangement which gives parrot fish teeth incredible durability. (a) Higgs particle (b) Einstein particle
Mimic of this nano structure provides the blue print for making ultra durable (c) Nanoparticle (d) Bulk particle
synthetic materials Solution :-
 Higgs particles also known as God particles were discovered by Peter Higgs
Answer (c) Parrot fish
and Englert which gives mass to many particles like protons, neutrons etc
4. Method of making nanomaterial by assembling the atoms is called
(a) Top down approach (b) Bottom up approach Answer (a) Higgs particle
(c) Cross down approach (d) Diagonal approach 10. The gravitational waves were theoretically proposed by
Solution :- (a) Conrad Rontgen (b) Marie Curie
 Top Down approach - breaking down bulk solids in to nano sizes (c) Albert Einstein (d) Edward Purcell
 Bottom Up approach - assembling the atoms/molecules together Solution :-
Answer (b) Bottom up approach  Gravitational waves are the disturbances in the curvature of space-time and it
travels with speed of light. Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic wave.
5. Ski wax is an application of nano product in the field of
Similarly any accelerated mass emits gravitational waves.
(a) Medicine (b) Textile
 The strongest source of gravitational waves are black holes.
(c) Sports (d) Automotive industry
 Albert Einstein theoretically proposed the existence of gravitational waves in
Answer (c) Sports the year 1915. After 100 years, it is experimentally proved that his predictions
are correct.
Answer (c) Albert Einstein
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
9. The particle which gives mass to protons and neutrons are
UNIT - 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS (a) Higgs particle (b) Einstein particle
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - PRACTICE (c) Nanoparticle (d) Bulk particle
10. The gravitational waves were theoretically proposed by
1. The particle size of ZnO material is 30 nm. Based on the dimension it is (a) Conrad Rontgen (b) Marie Curie
classified as (c) Albert Einstein (d) Edward Purcell
(a) Bulk material
(b) Nano material
(c) Soft material
(d) Magnetic material
2. Which one of the following is the natural nano material.
(a) Peacock feather
(b) Peacock beak
(c) Grain of sand
(d) Skin of the Whale
3. The blue print for making ultra durable synthetic material is mimicked from
(a) Lotus leaf
(b) Morpho butterfly
(c) Parrot fish
(d) Peacock feather
4. Method of making nanomaterial by assembling the atoms is called
(a) Top down approach
(b) Bottom up approach
(c) Cross down approach
(d) Diagonal approach
5. Ski wax is an application of nano product in the field of
(a) Medicine
(b) Textile
(c) Sports
(d) Automotive industry
6. The materials used in Robotics are
(a) Aluminium and silver
(b) Silver and gold
(c) Copper and gold
(d) Steel and aluminum
7. The alloys used for muscle wires in Robots are
(a) Shape memory alloys
(b) Gold copper alloys
(c) Gold silver alloys
(d) Two dimensional alloys
8. The technology used for stopping the brain from processing pain is
(a) Precision medicine
(b) Wireless brain sensor
(c) Virtual reality
(d) Radiology

STD Xii Physics - Complete Notes

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STD Xii Physics - Complete Notes

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S.B.O.A MATRIC.HR.SEC.SCHOOL.

s.no Coulomb force Gravitational force

The SI unit of capacitance is coulomb per volt or farad.

 Consider three capacitors of capacitance

Drift velocity Mobility

S.I unit of current is ampere.

Relative permeability is a dimensionless number and has no units.

The SI unit of intensity of magnetisation is ampere metre-1

This relation is called Curie-Weiss law.

The unit is Am2

 Let an electric charge q of mass m enters in to a

∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗

+ [cos ° − 𝜃 ̂ + sin °−𝜃 −̂ ] − ̂

⃗⃗𝜏 = [− sin 𝜃 ̂ + cos 𝜃 ̂ ] ̂

⃗⃗𝜏 =− sin 𝜃 − ̂ + − sin 𝜃 −̂

of the squares of all currents over one cycle. It is denoted by

This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

power to the input power. Thus

alternating voltage which is given by the relation. .The expression of alternating

Z is called impedance of the circuit which refers to the effective opposition

44. What is meant by three phase a.c. generator.

Emf induced in region a = change in flux is more (increases)/1 unit time

In the upper ring 1:

 Let a loop placed in a magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗ is pulled

27. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage

4. Explain the concept of intensity of electromagnetic waves

5. What is meant by Fraunhofer lines?

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

Compare the above equation with the following equation,

Where, h is Plank’s constant (h = 6.625 × 10–34 J s) and ν is frequency of electromagnetic wave.

7. What is Huygens’ principle?

A path difference δ corresponds to a phase difference ϕ as given by the equation,

11. What are coherent sources?

14. How do source and images behave as coherent sources?

Condition for P to be first minimum

Such an objective is called oil immersed objective.

 Let and are the two light waves meeting at a

From the graph in Figure it is evident that photocurrent – the number of

EXTRA 2 MARK QUESTIONS

24. State the characteristics of a photon.

mass number A. carbon has four main isotopes:

number Z. which have same mass number 40.

Here the asterisk(*) means excited state nucleus.

Extra questions from the inside the lesson

39. What is proton-proton cycle?

1.Define forbidden energy gap

2. Why is temperature coefficient of resistance negative for semiconductors

(output wave form)

Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown

It occurs in junctions which are

It occurs at higher reverse voltages It occurs due to rupture of

At reverse voltages above breakdown At reveres voltage below

Charge carriers obtain energy from the Zener current is independent of

Large number of holes and

Electric field produced is weak in

18. What is rectification?

Extra 2 mark questions

7.Define current gain of a NPN transistor in CB mode

18.What are the limitations of FM modulation.

 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is

 There are four important regions in the curve