School of Physics and Material Science

Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology

UPH004

Electromagnetic waves
 Electric and Magnetic fields

Coulomb’s law Biot Savart’s law

 1 1 rˆ  1  rˆ
E 
 0 4 
 ( r )
r 2
d B  0 
4 p
I (r )  2 dl
r

The form of both the equations for electrostatic and magnetostatic field is similar with
only difference in the coefficient ε 0 and μ0, and the source of respective field. The
integrals are in the dimension in which the source has its span.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1784) Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart (1820)

 Flux of the field
In the study of static fields the electric and magnetic flux is defined as the
number of electric and magnetic lines of force in a given area of surface.

The surface integral of a vector field gives the flux of that vector field (it
is a scalar quantity):

→ →
𝑑 𝜑=𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆
→ →
Φ=∫ 𝑑𝜑=∫ 𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑆=∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆

𝑑 𝜑 𝑒 , 𝑑𝜑 𝑚
 Gauss’s law
The integral equations are not easy to handle. They may be
converted into differential equations with no alteration in their
physical meaning:

𝑞 𝑒𝑛𝑐 1
∮ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆= 𝜀 ⇒∫ ( ∇. 𝐸 ) .𝑑𝜏= 𝜀 ∫ ( 𝜌 ) . 𝑑𝜏
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝑆 0 𝜏 0 𝜏

⃗
𝐵. ⃗
∮ 𝑑𝑆=0 ⇒∫ ( ∇. ⃗𝐵 ) .𝑑𝜏 =0
𝑆 𝜏 ⃗ 𝜌
∇ . 𝐸=
𝜀0

∇ .⃗
𝐵=0
 Faraday’s law
When a coil of wire suffers a change in magnetic flux attached
to it, by any means, an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
established in the coil. d
e.m. f .   m
dt

e.m.f.?
The work done to flow a unit positive charge through the
whole circuit including the battery… (Work, not force!!!).
Line integral of electric field over a closed path.

e.m. f .   E.dl
p
 Faraday’s law
𝑑
( )
𝑑 ⃗ ⃗
∮ 𝐸 .𝑑𝑙=− 𝑑𝑡 (Φ𝑚) 𝑑𝑡 ∫𝑆 𝑆
⃗ ¿− 𝐵 .𝑑
𝑝

  dB 

S

  E dS   
S
dt
.dS

The comparison gives 

 B
 E  
t
This is the differential form of Faraday’s law.
 Ampere’s law
As for highly symmetric charge distributions, we can calculate the
electric field more easily using Gauss’s Law than Coulomb’s Law . . . .
similarly Ampère’s Law relates …….

the tangential component Bt of the magnetic field summed

(integrated) around a closed curve C
to
the current IC that passes through the surface bounded by C.
 
 B.dl  0 I
• The line integral (circulation) of the
magnetic field around some arbitrary closed
curve is proportional to the total current
enclosed by that curve
 Ampere’s law

∮ ⃗
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑙=𝜇 𝐼=∫ ⃗𝐽 • 𝑑 ⃗𝑎
0𝐼
𝑆

Stock’s theorem

∫ ⃗ ⃗
( ) 0∫ 𝐽 • 𝑑 𝑎
∇× 𝐵 • 𝑑 ⃗
𝑎 =𝜇 ⃗
𝑆 𝑆
 
  B  0 J
 Laws before Maxwell

⃗ 𝜌
1. Gauss’s law in electrostatics ∇ . 𝐸=
𝜀0

2. No name ∇ .⃗
𝐵=0
⃗ 𝜕𝐵
3. Faraday’s law ∇ × 𝐸=−
𝜕𝑡
4. Ampere’s law ∇×⃗
𝐵=𝜇0 ⃗𝐽
 Equation of continuity
Suppose in a given volume τ, the charge is decreasing at some
rate. Assume that we have no “sources” or “sinks” of charge in
the system. This means that it has to go outside the region.

The amount of charge decreased per unit time has to go down as

a flux of the charge (current) through the boundary of the
volume.
𝑑𝑄 ⃗ ⃗ 𝜕
𝐼=− ⇒∮ 𝐽 • 𝑑 𝑆=− ∫ 𝜌 .𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜏
⃗ 𝜕
⇒∫ ( ∇• 𝐽 ) 𝑑𝑉 =− ∫ 𝜌 .𝑑𝑉
𝜏
𝜕𝑡 𝜏
⃗ 𝜕𝜌
Comparison gives ∇ • 𝐽 =−
𝜕𝑡
 Inconsistency in Ampere’s law
∇× ⃗
𝐵=𝜇0 ⃗𝐽
Divergence on both sides gives

∇ .( ∇ × ⃗
𝐵 ) =𝜇 0 ( ∇ . ⃗𝐽 )

Left hand side of the equation is zero essentially but the right
hand side needs not to be zero always.

For steady currents the right hand side becomes zero but when
you go beyond the limit of magnetostatics (electric currents are
steady) the Ampere’s law does not satisfy.
 Ampere’s law
Another way in which the inconsistency in Ampere’s circuital
law can be seen utilizes an electrical circuit containing a
capacitor. Let’s charge the capacitor by connecting a DC supply.
Ampere’s law says in its integral form
 
 B.dl  0
C11

  C1 C2
 B.dl   0 I inc
C22

But once they come closer to each other infinitesimally they

must give the same results.
   
 B.dl   B.dl
C1 C2
...xxx…
 Ampere’s law

There is a flaw in the calculation by Amperes’ law as the

infinitesimally close Amperian loops result for the different
answers.

This discrepancy in Ampere’s law was removed

theoretically by Maxwell by the introduction of the concept
of displacement current.
 Ampere’s law
Displacement current:
The discrepancy is at RHS of equation .  B    0 .J 

Continuity equation (the statement of conservation for charge in

electrodynamics) says: .J   / t  0

   E 
.J     ( 0 .E )  .  0 
t t  t 

 E 
or . J   0 0
 t 

Therefore albeit divergence of J is not zero but the divergence of

J plus something is always zero.
 Ampere’s law
The extra term which makes J divergenceless has the dimensions
of J and was called the Displacement current by Maxwell.
E
Jd  0
t
With this modification Ampere’s law becomes
  E 
  B  0  J   0 
 t 
J is the conduction current which is the actual current.
Jd term represents that varying electric field causes magnetic
field, even without an electric current. (converse Faraday’s law)
Without this correction one cannot talk
about electromagnetic radiation.
Consistency in Ampere’s law

C1 C2

⃗
∮ ⃗𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑙=𝜇 0𝐼
𝐶2

∮
𝐶1
⃗
𝐵 .𝑑 ⃗
𝑙=𝜇 0𝜀 0
𝜕∅ 𝐸
𝜕𝑡
 =𝜇0𝜀 0
𝜕 𝜎
𝜕𝑡 𝜀 0 ( )
𝑆  =𝜇 0  
𝜕
𝜕𝑡
( 𝑞 ) = 𝜇0  I
 Maxwell’s equations

Helmholtz theorem: provided the field vanishes far from its source, the curl and
divergence of it are sufficient to determine the field at any point of question.