Electronic Measurement

and
Instrumentation
 Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation
EI-203T, III Sem, Branch EC, EI
Unit -1: Measurement & Measurement Systems: Methods of Measurement, Direct and Indirect types of measurement systems;
Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments; Classification of Instruments- Null and Deflection type; Modes of Operation- Analog
and Digital. Characteristics of Instruments: Static and Dynamic Characteristics, Noise, Linearity, Hysteresis, Threshold, Dead Time &
Dead Zone, Input & Output Impedance, Loading Effects due to Shunt Connected Instruments, Loading Effects due to Series Connected
Instruments.
Unit-2: Errors in Measurement: Types of static errors-gross errors, systematic errors & random errors; Sources of errors. Dynamic Response
of Instruments & Measuring Systems: Dynamic response, First order system, Second order system.
Unit-3: Ammeter: DC Ammeter, Multirange Ammeter, Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt, Requirement of a Shunt, Extending of Ammeter
Ranges. Voltmeter: DC Voltmeter, Mutirange Voltmeter, Extending Voltmeter Ranges; Digital Voltmeter (DVM)-Ramp type DVM, Dual
slope Integrating type DVM, Successive Approximation DVM. Multimeter: Introduction, Display (No. of Digit), Range, Resolution,
Accuracy; Use of Multimeter as Micro-ammeter, DC Ammeter, DC Voltmeter, AC Voltmeter and Ohmmeter. Measurement of Power &
Wattmeter: AC & DC Current and Voltage Probes, Power in DC & AC Circuit, Electrodynamometer Wattmeter, Measurement of Power
in 3 Phase circuit, 3 Phase Wattmeter, Measurement refractive power.
Unit-4: Bridges: DC Bridge-Wheatstone Bridge, Kelvin Bridge, Measurement of Low & High Resistance; AC Bridge-General equation of bridge
balance, General form of AC Bridge, Maxwell’s Bridge, Hay’s Bridge, Anderson’s Bridge, Wein’s Bridge, Schering Bridge.
Potentiometers: DC Basic Circuit, Laboratory type, Standardization of Potentiometers; AC: Drysdale polar potentiometers, Gall-Tinsley
AC Potentiometer (Working & Construction both).
Unit-5 :Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): Block diagram of oscilloscope, Observation of waveform on CRO, Measurement of Phase &
Frequency of CRO (Lissajous Patterns). Waveform Analyzer: Frequency selective wave analyzer, Heterodyne wave analyzer,
Applications of wave analyzers. Q-Meter: Principle of working, Circuit of a Q-meter, Applications of Q- Meter.

Reference Books:
1. Electrical & Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, A K Sawhney, Dhanpat Rai & sons Publication
2. Electronic Instrumentation, H. S. Kalsi, TMH Publication
3. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, Cooper D & A D Helfrick, PHI.
4. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, David A Bell, PHI / Pearson Education
 Introduction
Instrumentation is the use of measuring instruments
to monitor and control a process. It is the art and
science of measurement and control of process
variables within a production, laboratory, or
manufacturing area.
Measurement : It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison between a
predetermined std. and or an unknown magnitude. Since two quantities are
compared and the result are expressed in numerical value.
Measurand : The physical quantity or the characteristic conditions which is the object
of measurement in an instrumentation system is termed as measurand or
measurement variable or process variable. e.g. Fundamental Quantity: length,
mass, time et.
Derived Quantity : Speed, Velocity, Pressure etc.
 Methods of Measurement: Direct and Indirect

1. Direct method : The unknown quantity is

directly compared against a standard . The
result is expressed as a numerical value e.g.
Length, Mass, Time.
2. Indirect method: Measurement of indirect
methods are not always possible feasible and
practicable. e.g. power, acceleration (These
methods in most of the cases are inaccurate
because they involve human factors)
 Types of measurement systems; Mechanical,
Electrical and Electronic Instruments
1. Mechanical instruments:- They are very reliable for static
and stable conditions. The disadvantage is they are unable
to respond rapidly to measurement of dynamic and
transient conditions.
2. Electrical instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating
the output of detectors are more rapid than mechanical
methods. The electrical system normally depends upon a
mechanical meter movement as indicating device.
3. Electronic instruments:- These instruments have very fast
response. For example a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is
capable to follow dynamic and transient changes of the
order of few nano seconds (10-9 sec).
Classification of Instruments- Null and Deflection type

Null and Deflection method

1. Deflection methods: includes the
deflection of pointer on a scale
due to the quantity to be
measured. Example: Wattmeter,
ammeter voltmeter

2. Null or Comparison methods:

include the comparison of the
quantity under measurement with
a pre-defined standard quantity
which gives measurement.
Example: potentiometer
 Classification of Instruments- Absolute Instruments
and Secondary Instruments

They are many ways in which instruments can be

Classified broadly
1. Absolute Instruments These instrument give the
magnitude of the quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument .e.g.
tangent galvanometer
2. Secondary Instruments These instruments are so
constructed that the quantity being measured can
only be measured by observing the output indicated
by the instrument . e.g. voltmeter
 Modes of Operation- Analog and Digital

Analog and digital instrument

1. Analog instrument: signals that in a continuous
fashion and take on an infinite number of values
in any given range are called analog signals .The
device which produce these signals are called
analog device.
2. Digital instrument: signals which vary in steps
and thus take up only finite different values a
given range are called digital signals. The device
which produce these signals are called digital
device
 Characteristics of Instruments
The performance of an instrument is described by
means of a quantitative qualities termed as
characteristics. These are broken down into:
1. Static Characteristics: These characteristics
pertain to a system where the quantities to be
measures are constant or vary slowly with time
2. Dynamic Characteristics: Performance criteria
based on dynamic relations (involving rapidly
varying quantities)
Static Characteristics
 Noise
Any undesired electrical signal that is present in addition to the voltage or
current being processed or measured is known as noise.
Nature of noise
1. Man made noise e.g. Machines, X-RAYS, Electric discharge machines,
Power supplies.
2. Natural Noise e.g. Noise in different components, Atmospheric noise.
3. White Noise Thermal Noise, Shot Noise,
Thermal Noise It is also known as Johnson noise, Nyquist noise, or resistance
noise. The thermal noise RMS voltage is given by Vrms=(4 ∆ )^1/2
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K T = Absolute temperature
(K) R = Resistance (Ω) Δf = Effective Noise Bandwidth
Shot Noise It is also known as Schottky noise, schrot noise or partition noise.
It is due to fluctuations present is DC current wherever it flows. RMS shot
noise current is given as Irms= (2 ∆ )^1/2 Where qe = charge on
electron Δf = effective noise bandwidth
4. Pink Noise Flicker and Burst Noise
5. Atmospheric Noise Lightening and EM radiations
 Noise
1. Signal to Noise ratio is used to represent noise in a signal or
system. It is expressed in dBs. It can be defined in terms of power
or voltage. (S/N)dB= 10 log ( / ) (S/N)dB= 10 log ( / ) In
case of voltage based calculations log is multiplied by 20. why?
2. Noise figure represents how much noise is added by the system
or some stage of the system or by the amplifier stage. N.F =
(S/N)in/(S/N)out In dBs we can represent it as N.FdB = [(S/N)in]dB
– [(S/N)out]dB
3. Noise Measurement Noise is not a symmetrical sinusoidal signal
and it does not specific peak value. To measure noise level in a
signal, true RMS meters are required. But if true RMS meters are
not available, then we can measure noise level by using AC
voltmeter . In case of AC voltmeter, the result should be
multiplied by some correction factor to get the required result.
 Linearity
• If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionally. If
input-output relationship is a straight line passing through
origin
• Nonlinearity cause lot of problem during signal conditioning
even though it is more
• accurate in some cases e.g. LVDT (linear) , Thermistor (Non-
linear)
• Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linearity
 Hysteresis effect
Figure illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits
hysteresis.
• The non-coincidence between these loading and unloading curves is
known as hysteresis.
• If the input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased
from a negative value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in
curve (a).
• If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the
manner shown in curve (b).
• Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and maximum
output hysteresis, as shown in Figure.
• Threshold:- If the input to instrument is gradually increased from
zero, there will some minimum value below which no output
change can be observed or detected. This minimum value is defined
as the threshold of the instrument.
• Sensitivity:- The ratio of change in output of instrument to a
change in input is called the sensitivity.
• Resolution:- The smallest change in a measured variable to which
an instrument will respond is called resolution.
• Expected value:- The most probable value that calculations indicate
and one should expect to measure.
• Drift:- It is an undesired change in the output- input relationship
over a period of time.
• Dead Time:- It is defined as the time required by a measuring
system to begin respond to a change in measured
 Static Characteristic
Static Characteristic
• Accuracy:- It is closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
• Precision:- It is the measure of reproducibility of measurement i.e.
gives a fixed value of quantity. Precision is a measure of degree of
agreement within the group of measurements Precision is
necessary but not a sufficient condition for accuracy
 The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its
design, the material used and the workmanship involved in
manufacturing the instrument, which contributes to various types
of errors
Accuracy may be specified in terms of
inaccuracy or limit of errors and can be
expressed in the following ways:
1. Point Accuracy
2. Accuracy as "Percentage of Scale Range"
3. Accuracy as "Percentage of True value"
• Repeatability: Closeness of output reading when the same input is applied
repeatedly over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer , same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout.
• Reproducibility: Closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in method of measurement, observer, location, conditions of use, and
time of measurement.
• Span & Range:
Range : High measurement possible
Span : Difference between max. and min measurement possible
E.g. Thermocouple (700 0C to 1200 0C) Ammeter (0 to 10 A)
 Dead Time & Dead zone
• Dead Time :The time before the instrument begins to respond after the
measured quantity has been changed. E.g: Camera, Data acquisition card,
Ammeter
• Dead zone : The largest of a measured variable for which the instrument
does not respond Cause: friction in mechanical measurement system
 Loading Effects due to Shunt
Connected Instruments

Voltage before connection

Voltage after connection

Conclusion: ZL >> Z0
 Loading Effects due to Series
Connected Instruments

Current before connection

Current after connection

Conclusion: Z0 >> ZL
Dynamic Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
1) Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with
which a measurement system responds to changes
in the measurement quantity.
2) Measurement Lag: It refers to retardation or
delay in the response of measurement system to
changes in measured quantity . The lag is
caused by conditions such as capacitance, inertia or
resistance.
Retardation type lag (b) Time delay type lag
3) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic
error.
4) Dynamic error or measurement error : It is the difference between
true value of the quantity changes with time and the value indicated
by the measurement system if no static error is assumed.