DENT 3563

Telecommunication
Engineering

Chapter 1
Basic Principles of Communication System
(Part 2)
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Objective

Students should be able to:

✓ Explain communication model & transmission modes

✓ Explain the parameters with regards to
communication system
✓ Explain modulation and noise
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Chapter Outline

1. Introduction
2. Transmission Modes
3. Power Measurement
4. Modulation Techniques
5. Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
6. Bandwidth and Information Capacity
7. Noise Analysis
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Bandwidth & Information

Capacity
• Significant limitations on the performance of a communication
system:
✓ Bandwidth
✓ Noise
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Bandwidth & Information

Capacity
• Bandwidth of information:
✓ Difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
contained in the information
• Bandwidth of communication channel:
✓ Difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies that
channel will allow to pass through it
• Bandwidth of communication channel should be equal or
greater than bandwidth of information
✓ Example : Voice frequencies contains signal between 300Hz and
3000Hz. So, voice frequency channel must have a bandwidth
equal to or greater than 2700Hz (300Hz - 3000Hz)
 Bandwidth & Information 6

Capacity
Hartley’s
Law, 1928 INFO measure of how much information can be
CAPACITY propagated through a communication
system and it’s a function of bandwidth
I  Bt and transmission time

number of bits
Capacity Bit Rate
transmitted
Bits
during one
second and is
most basic digital expressed in bits
symbol used to per second (bps)
number of represent
independent symbols information or
carried through a binary digit
system in given unit of
time
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Bandwidth & Information

Capacity
• 1948, Claude E.Shannon, mathematician introduce, Shannon
limit for information capacity
• Relate the information capacity of a communications channel
to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio:

 S
I = B log 2 1 +  Eq. (1.6)
 N
or
 S
I = 3.32 B log 10 1 +  Eq. (1.7)
 N

I = information capacity
B = bandwidth (Hz)
S/N = signal–to–noise ratio (unitless)
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Bandwidth & Information

Capacity
Example 1.4
Determine the Shannon limit for information capacity for a
standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power ratio of
1000 and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz.

 S
I = 3.32 B log 10 1 + 
 N

I = (3.32)(2700) log10 (1 + 1000)

= 26.9kbps
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Bandwidth & Information

Capacity
Example 1.5
1. Calculate the capacity of a standard 4kHz standard channel
with a 32 dB signal-to-noise ratio.
42,500 bps

2. A system has a bandwidth of 4kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of

28 dB at the input to the receiver. Calculate:
37,193 bps
a) Information capacity.
b) The capacity of the channel, if its bandwidth is doubled, while the
transmitted signal power remains constant.
66,409 bps
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Noise
ELECTRICAL
NOISE Any undesirable electrical
energy that falls within the
NOISE passband of the signal.

Correlation implies a
relationship between the
signal and the noise

Correlated
exists only when a
signal is present
Uncorrelated

present all the time

whether there is a signal
or not
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Type of Noise

Noise

Uncorrelated Correlated

External Internal

Atmospheric Extraterrestrial Man-made Transit-time

Shot noise Thermal noise
noise noise noise noise
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Effect of Noise

Noise effect on signal

Effects of noise on a signal (a) without noise; (b) with noise

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Uncorrelated Noise
EXTERNAL
INTERNAL

Man–made Noise Shot Noise

Extraterrestrial Noise Transit–time

Noise

UNCORRELATED
NOISE Thermal/
Atmospheric Noise Random Noise
Atmospheric noise

 Naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within

Earth’s atmosphere.

 Often in the form of impulses that spread energy throughout a

wide range of frequencies.

 E.g. lightning discharges in thunderstorms

 On a worldwide scale, there are about 40 lightning flashes

per second or 3.5 million lightning discharges per day
Extraterrestrial noise
Extraterrestrial noise
 Consists of electrical signals that originate from outside
Earth’s atmosphere.
Consists of electrical signals that originate from outside Earth’s
atmosphere.

 2 categories.

 Solar noise - generated directly from sun’s heat

 Cosmic noise - continuously distributed throughout the galaxies
 2 categories:

 Solar noise – generated directly from sun’s heat

 Cosmic noise – random noise continuously distributed
throughout the galaxies
 spark-producing mechanisms
electric motors automobile ignition systems
power generator

 Impulsive wide range of

frequencies
random arrival of carriers

transistor noise
Transit-time noise

semiconductors transit
time of the carriers crossing a junction
signal’s period
 20

Noise Analysis
Cannot be
Brownian Noise / eliminated &
Johnson Noise / proportional to
White Noise device quantity and
circuit length

Uniformly
distributed Most
significant!

Rapid and THERMAL

random electron NOISE
movements N = KTB
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Noise Analysis -
Uncorrelated
• J.B Johnson (1927), proved that thermal noise proportion to
product of bandwidth and temperature

N = KTB Eq. (1.8)

N = noise power (watts), B = bandwidth (Hertz)

K = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 X 10-23 joules/Kelvin)
T = absolute temperature.

• Noise power stated in dBm, Eq. (1.8) becomes:

 KTB 
N ( dBm) = 10 log   Eq. (1.9)
 0.001 
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Noise Analysis -
Uncorrelated
Absolute
temperature (kelvin)

N = KTB Bandwidth
(Hz)

Noise
power
(watts)
Boltzmann’s constant P = V2 / R
(1.38 x 10-23
joules/kelvin)

Noise source equivalent circuit

(V N / 2) 2 V N2
N = KTB = = 𝑉𝑁 = 4𝑅𝐾𝑇𝐵
R 4R
Noise voltage
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Noise Analysis -
Uncorrelated
Example 1.6
For an electronic device operating at a temperature of 17oC with
a bandwidth of 10kHz, determine:
a) Thermal noise power in watts and dBm

4.002 x 10-17 W / -133.98 dBm

b) rms noise voltage for a 100 Ω internal resistance and a 100 Ω

load resistance
1.265 x 10-7 V @
0.1265 µV
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Noise Analysis -
Correlated
• Internal noise that correlated to signal

• Produced by Non-linear amplification

• Non linear distortion

✓ Harmonic distortion
✓ Intermodulation distortion
• Non-linear distortion creates unwanted frequencies
that interfere signal & degrade performance
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Noise Analysis -
Correlated

Correlated
Noise

Harmonic Total Harmonic Intermodulation

Distortion Distortion (THD) Distortion
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Noise Analysis -
Correlated
➢ Harmonic Distortion:
✓ Exist through non–linear amplification (unwanted harmonics).
✓ Fundamental, 2nd, 3rd, and so on (times the original signal frequency)
✓ Various degrees of harmonic distortion.
 2nd–order, 3rd–order and so on.
 Ratio of rms amplitude of degree to rms value of the fundamental.

Harmonic distortion (in an amplifier)

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Noise Analysis -
Correlated
➢ Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):
✓ Ratio of quadratic sum of rms values of all higher harmonics to the rms value
of the fundamental.
✓ Mathematically, THD is:
 Vhigher 
%THD =   100 Eq. (1.10)
V 
 fundamental 
%THD = percent total harmonic distortion
Vhigher = quadratic sum of the rms voltages
Vfundamental = rms voltage of fundamental frequency

 V 2 + V 2 + V 2 + ...V 2 
%THD =  2 3 4 n  100 Eq. (1.11)
 V fundamental 
 
V2,V3, V4,…,Vn = the amplitude of the individual harmonics
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Noise Analysis -
Correlated
➢ Intermodulation Distortion:
✓ Generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produce when 2
or more signals mix in a nonlinear device

Intermodulation distortion (in a mixer)

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Noise Analysis
OTHER
NOISE TYPES

Impulse Noise
Interference
• High–amplitude of short
duration peaks. • Information signals outside
of allocated bandwidth.
• Eg: Electromechanical
switches transients, electric • Interfere other information
motors, electric lights, signals.
lightning & etc. • Eg: RF frequency
 30

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
➢ Ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level
➢ Mathematically, SNR power ratio :

S Ps
= Eq. (1.12)
N Pn
Ps = signal power (watts)
Pn = noise power (watts)

➢ Expressed as a logarithmic function:

S
(dB ) = 10 log Ps Eq. (1.13)

N Pn
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Signal Noise Signal + noise
High
High SNR
Signal
t t t

No errors

Signal Noise Signal + noise Low

SNR
Low
Signal
t t t

Average signal power

SNR = SNR (dB) = 10 log10 SNR error
Average noise power
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Noise Factor &

Noise Figure
➢ To indicate how much the SNR depreciates as signal passed through
a circuit.
➢ Noise Factor:
✓ Ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output signal-to-noise ratio
input _ signal − to − noise _ power _ ratio
F=
output _ signal − to − noise _ power _ ratio
( S / N ) in
F= Eq. (1.14)
( S / N ) out
➢ Noise Figure:
✓ Normally expressed in dB
✓ Indicate quality of receiver

NF (dB ) = 10 log F Eq. (1.15)

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Noise Parameters
NOISE
FIGURE

Ideal Amplifier Nonideal Amplifier

• Noiseless • Actual condition
• Input signal & noise are amplified
the same
• Adds internal noise.
• Output similar to input • Reduce overall S / N ratio.
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Noise Parameters
Noise Figure in
Cascaded
Amplifiers

If two or more
amplifiers are
Total Noise Figure is
cascaded, total noise Total Noise Factor by
logarithmic of Total
factor is accumulation Friis’ Formula:
Noise Factor!
of individual noise
factors.

F2 − 1 F3 − 1 FN − 1 NFT = 10 log FT
FT = F1 + + + ... +
A1 A1 A2 A1 A2 ...AN
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Noise Analysis

Example 1.7
S
Determine   in dB at the output.
N

S S
   
 N input  N  Output
Amplifiers
NF = 3 dB
50 dB ?

(NF )dB =  S  dB −  S 
( S / N ) in
F= → dB
( S / N ) out  N i  N 
S S
  dB =   dB − ( NF )dB 47 dB
 N O  N i
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Noise Analysis

Example 1.8
For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figures of 3
dB and power gains of 10 dB, determine the total noise figure.

NFT = 3.23 dB
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Noise Analysis

 Equivalent noise temperature (Te)

𝑇𝑒
𝑇𝑒 = T (F – 1) 𝐹 = 1+
𝑇

Te = equivalent noise temperature (kelvin)

T = environmental temperature
(reference value of 290 K)
F = noise factor
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Noise Analysis

Example 1.9
Determine
a) Noise figure for an equivalent noise temperature of 75 K (use
290 K for the reference temperature).

NF = 1 dB

b) Equivalent noise temperature for a noise figure of 6 dB.

Te = 864.5 K