Nabil El Maaroufi-Notes

Q1)

The IP (Internet Protocol) is considered unreliable primarily because of the following reasons:

 A packet may be lost: In an IP network, packets are sent from a source to a destination, but there
is no guarantee that every packet will reach its destination. Packets can be lost due to network
congestion, hardware failures, or other factors. IP does not provide mechanisms for ensuring
that all packets are delivered reliably.
 Packets may arrive out of order: IP does not guarantee that packets will arrive at the destination
in the same order in which they were sent. This can happen because different packets may take
different routes through the network, and they may arrive at the destination out of sequence.
Applications that require data to be received in a specific order must implement their own
mechanisms for reordering packets.
 Duplicate packets may be generated: In IP networks, it's possible for duplicate packets to be
generated and delivered to the destination. This can occur due to network errors or the
retransmission of packets by routers or other network devices. IP does not have built-in
mechanisms to prevent or detect duplicate packets.

Q2)

The Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is commonly known as a "segment." This layer, often referred to as the
Transport Layer, is responsible for end-to-end communication and ensuring reliable data transfer
between two devices or hosts in a network.

Modulation index: µ

The transmitter power: Ptotal

The carrier power = Pc

LSB = fc – fm = µAc / 4

USB = fc + fm = µAc / 4

fc = Ac / 2

1000 = 1 KHz

1 000 000 = 1 MHz

1 MHz = 1000 KHz (e.g)  3 MHz = 3000 KHz

0.01 Watts = 1 mlwhatts

P2, dBm = P1, dBm - LdB

 Nabil El Maaroufi-Notes P2 = P1 / 10L/10

Nyquist Theorem Nyquist formula Shannon Formula

In order to produce the original analog signal, the C = 2 x Blog2(M)

sampling frequency must be at least two times the
highest frequency contained in the signal.

Data rate depends on three factors

The 1.
major
Theduties of the
available data link layer are as
bandwidth
follows:
2. The level of the signals we are using
3.
1. The quality of the channel (the level of
Framing
2. physical degradation)
Physical addressing
3. Flow of control
4. Error control

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

 A high SNR means a high-quality signal.

 A low SNRdB means the signal is more corrupted by noise.
The major duties of the physical layer are as follows:

1. Representation of bits
Encoding techniques
2. Transmission Rate
3. Transmission Mode Data rate:
4. Physical topology
Is the number of bits sent in one second(expressed as bps).
PSK Technique
FSK Technique Channel Capacity:
1 bit(positive voltage) is
BFSK is less susceptible to error
The maximum compared
rate at which to
data can be transmitted over a given
represented by a phase starting
ASK. channel.
at 0 °.
High frequency in the carrier wave when the
0 bit(negative voltage) is
binary 1 is transmitted, and low frequency in the
represented by a phase starting
carrier wave when the binary is 0.
at 180 °.

ASK Technique

The amplitude is more affected by

noise than the frequency or phase.
hence it's more sensitive to noise.
 Nabil El Maaroufi-Notes

Four types of noise:

The SNR calculation focuses on the ratio
between the signal power and the noise
power, and that's why we consider the noise
power in the context of the loss. The signal
power, on the other hand, remains constant in
the SNR calculation because it is the power
level that we are transmitting into the channel

Data link:
Data flow and error control.
 Nabil El Maaroufi-Notes

Check understanding:

1. Why IP is considered unreliable?

2. What’s PDU?
3. Why modulation is used ?
4. What’s data rate?
5. What are some line coding techniques?
6. Why data link layer ?
7. Peep to peer process?
8. Sampling?
9. Internet Vs. internet?
 Nabil El Maaroufi-Notes

TCP/IP Vs OSI  Calculate power loss:

Simplicity: TCP/IP is a simpler model with fewer layers (typically five: physical, data Ldb = 10 log10(SPinput /SPoutput)
link, network, transport, and application layers) compared to OSI, which has seven
layers. This simplicity makes it easier to implement and manage in real-world
networks.

Protocols: Many well-known and widely used networking protocols, such as HTTP,
FTP, and DNS, are built on top of the TCP/IP stack.

Compatibility: TCP/IP is the foundation of the internet, and virtually all modern
devices and operating systems support it. This widespread compatibility makes it the
obvious choice for global communication.

SNR = signal power / noise power Conversion

SNRdB =10 * log 10 (signal power / noise power)

Thermal noise power

Why layer architecture is used ?

It provides a structured way to divide the

networking functionality into distinct layers, each
with its specific responsibilities. This modularity
makes it easier to understand, design, and
maintain complex networking systems. Each layer
can be designed and updated independently,
which promotes flexibility and scalability.