Networks - Physical Layer Cheat Sheet

by Bayan (Bayan.A) via cheatography.com/122738/cs/22931/

Nyquist Theorem Twisted Pair (cont) Overhead Defini​tion

Equation expressing maximum data rate for Full-D​‐ Links can be used in both Overhead is any combin​ation of excess or
a finite bandwidth noiseless channel uplex directions at the same time, like indirect comput​ation time, memory,
If signal is run The filtered signal can be a two-way road bandwidth, or other resources that are
through a low- completely recons​tructed Half-D​‐ Link can be used in either required to perform a specific task.
pass filter of by making only 2B uplex direction, only one way at a time
bandwidth B samples per second NRZ
Simplex Links that allow traffic in only one
Sampling Higher frequency direction. Non-return to zero
faster than 2B components have already Simplest, literal line code
x per second been filtered out. Digital Modulation
-V for 0 +V for 1
is pointless
Process of converting between bits and A long run Differ​ent​iating between bits
B = channel bandwidth signals of 0's or 1's become difficult. A long line
V = discrete levels the signal consists of To send digital inform​ation, we must devise leaves the of 15 0's looks like 16
Max data rate = 2B log₂ V bits/sec analog signals to represent bits signal without a very accurate
unchanged clock
Twisted Pair Baseband Transm​ission
A form of transm​ission media NRZ
Signals occupies frequency from zero up to
Two insulated Twisted in helical a maximum
copper wires (1mm form (like DNA) The maximum frequency depends on the
thick) signaling rate.
Wires are twisted so the waves cancel out
Used for transm​itting analog or digital Clock recovery Bandwidth Efficiency
inform​ation The process of extracting timing inform​ation For NRZ, it moves Requires bandwidth
Bandwidth depends Several megabi​‐ from a data stream for the receiver to between + and - of at least B/2 when
on wire thickness ts/sec for a few decode levels every 2 bits the bit rate is B
and distance kilometers To encode bits into symbols, receiver must bits/sec
traveled know when one symbol ends and the next This limits the speed, as more bandwidth is
Widely used Adequate perfor​‐ begins required to run faster.
mance and cheaper Receiver needs to reference a clock of the Using more than two signalling levels, the
UTP Unshielded Twisted same frequency limited bandwidth can be used for effici​ently
Pair Accurate clocks are Another strategy e.g. using 4 Effective only if the
Cat 5 UTP cable, 4 pairs of twisted expensive must be used voltages, 2 bits can receiver can distin​‐
mostly in office insulated wires in a be sent at once, as a guish the 4 levels
buildings: single plastic single symbol
sheath. The signal change rate is now half the bit
rate, thus reducing the required bandwidth.
 Networks - Physical Layer Cheat Sheet
by Bayan (Bayan.A) via cheatography.com/122738/cs/22931/

Bandwidth Efficiency (cont) Bipolar Encoding (AKA Alternate Mark Link Failure
Inversion) (cont)
The rate the signal changes is the symbol Instances for possible link failure:
rate Guarantees a -1's are encoded in Sequence used for Transm​itting all
the bit rate is the symbol rate multiplied by balanced signal altern​ating +V, - V scrambling could be the 0's, consti​tuting
the number of bits per symbol because: signal levels same as the signal a link failure
If -V is a logical zero, and the two voltages With unbalanced signals, the average may
NRZI +1V and -1V represents a logical zero, to drift from the true decision level due to a
The inverted vesion of NRZ send "​1", the transm​itter alternates between density of 1s, for example, which would
+1V and -1V. cause more symbols to be decoded with
transition for 1 no transition for 0
errors.
Used by USB Universal Serial Bus
Bipolar Encoding Image
Capacity Coupling
NRZI Image
Method of connecting the reciever to the
channel.
Passes only the AC portion of the signal.

Balanced Signal 4B/5B

Manchester
Used for classic Ethernet
low to high = 0
Requires twice as much bandwidth as NRZ
because of the clock
Adds 100% overhead
Guarantees clock
recovery and balanced
signal because:
Manchester Image
Base-band As much + voltage as -, A form of line code
signal even after short period of
Maps groups of 4 bits of data onto groups of
high to low = 1 averages time
5 bits for transm​ission
zero
Used to prevent more than 3 consec​utive
No DC Advant​ang​eous, as some
0's
electrical channels (coaxial or lines
Every data (4B) has a fixed codewo​rd(5)
components with transf​ormers) attenuate
-Each bit is that it is translated to
a DC component due to their
modulated in a physical properties This scheme Better than the 100%
balanced signal adds 25% overhead of Manchester
DC Avoids energy waste
overhead encoding
component
Non-data codes can represent physical
filtered out
layer control signals
Provides Through transi​tions, due to
better clock mix of + and - volatages. e.g: "​111​11" - "​110​00" = start of a frame
recovery idle line

Allows For error detection and Produces at least two transi​tions per 5 bits
bit
Bipolar Encoding (AKA Alternate Mark measuring receiver calibr​ation. of output code, regardless of input data.
Inversion) the signal Impossible with an
0 = logical Encodes 0's with a zero-s​ignal average unbalanced signal
zero
1 = + or - Encodes 1 with positive or
negative level
In telephone networks, it is know as
Alternate Mark Invers​ion​(AMI), where "​mar​‐
k" is 1 and "​spa​ce" is 0.
 Networks - Physical Layer Cheat Sheet
by Bayan (Bayan.A) via cheatography.com/122738/cs/22931/

4B/5B Encoding Table Passband Transm​ission (cont) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Common for wireless and optical channels. Two freque​ncies used

Regulatory constr​aints and intere​ference one symbol for 0, another for 1
prevention dictates choice of freque​ncies.
Modulating the amplitude, freque​ncy​/phase FSK Image
of a carrier signal sends bits in a (non-zero)
frequency range
8B/10B
Passband Transm​ission Image
Maps 8 bits input onto 80% efficient
10 bits output Phase Shift Keying - PSK

Achieves DC signal At most 2 bit Only Phase is to identify points

balance, never far from disparity modulated through on the plane
balanced time

8 bits of data are transm​itted as a 10-bit Amplitude stays constant, not modulated
entity called a symbol ASK, FSK, PSK
Each point corres​ponds to one of four
Low 5 bits are encoded 5b/6b portion symbols.
Regula​tin​g/m​odu​lating a carrier
into a 6 bit group 2 bits per symbol transm​itted
Amplitude -Two different amplitudes
Top 3 bits encoded into 3b/4b portion Example:
Shift Keying represent 0 and 1
a 4-bit group
(ASK
ASK)
These groups are concat​enated together to To indentify 4 vertic​es(​"​qua​dra​tur​e") of a
-More levels can represent
form a 10-bit symbol that is transm​itted. square centered plane. Each point corres​‐
more sumbols
Standards also define These indicate ponds to 4 symbols.
Frequency -Two or more tones used As there are 4 symbols, 2 bits per symbol
up to 12 symbols that start-​of-​frame,
Shift Keying are transm​itted.
can be sent in place of a end-of​-frame,
(FSK
FSK)
data symbol link idle, etc.
Phase Shift - Carrier wave system​‐ PSK
Helps clock recovery, never more than 5
Keying(PSK
PSK) aticaly shifted 0 or 180
consecuive 1s or 0s
dgrees at each symbol
period.
Passband Transm​ission
Schemes can be combined and more levels
Signals that are shifted to occupy a higher
used to transmit more bits per symbol. Conste​llation Diagrams
range of freque​ncies,
cies (all wireless transm​‐
However, only one of frequency and phase Shorthand to capture the amplitude and
iss​ions)
can be modulated as they are related. phase modula​tions symbols
Scheme that regulates the amplitude,
amplitude phase
or frequency of a carrier signal to convey The points give the legal amplitude and
ASK
bits. phase combin​ations of each symbol.

Occupies a band of freque​ncies around the The phase of a dot is indicated by the angle

frequency of the carrier signal. a line from it to the origin makes with the
positive x-axis
The amplitude of a dot is the distance from
the origin
 Networks - Physical Layer Cheat Sheet
by Bayan (Bayan.A) via cheatography.com/122738/cs/22931/
Conste​llation Diagram Image Frequency Division Multip​lex​ing​(​FDM)
Divides the spectrum into frequency bands.
e.g. AM radio
Shares the channel by placing users on
different freque​ncies
Freque​ncies are allocated different logical
channels, with interc​hannel separation
QAM-16 great enough to prevent interf​erence
QAM Quadrature Subcar​riers are coordi​nated to be tightly
Amplitude packed
Modulation Filters limit the useable bandwidth to
16 combin​ations of Can transmit 4 3100hz p/voic​e-grade channel.
amplitudes and phase bits per symbol
Many channels multip​lexed together,
used
4000hz allocated per channel
A denser modulation scheme with 64 Different freque​ncies encode different
different combin​ations is called QAM-64. values, while phase and amplitude remain
There are even higher​-order QAMs used. constant.
Higher frequency is associated to 1 bit, and
Gray-C​oding
a lower to 0
Assign​s(maps) bits to symbols so that
Separa​tio​ns(the excess) are called guard
adjacent symbols differ in only 1 bit position
bands.
bands Even though there is a large gap,
If a receiver decodes It will make only a some adjacent channels do overlap
the symbol in error single bit in error because filters do not have ideal 'sharp
edges', therefore a strong spike at the edge
Gray-c​oding Image of one channel will be felt in jacanet as
nonthermal noise
Frequency Division Multip​lexing Image
Gray-coded QAM-16 conste​llation
Multip​lexing
Channels shared by multiple signals
(a) The original bandwidths
More convenient than using a single wire to
(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency
carry several signals than to install a wire for
(c) The Multip​lexed channel
every signal.
Orthogonal FDM (OFDM)
OFDM (Ortho​gonal FDM) is an efficient
FDM technique used for 802.11, 4G cellular
and other commun​ica​tions that does not
use guard bands.
The channel is divided into many subcar​‐
riers that indepe​ndently send data.
Subcar​riers are tightly packed in the
frequency domain.
Frequency response of each subcar​rieris
zero at the center of adjacent subcar​riers,
therefore subcar​riersbe sampled at their
center freque​ncies without interf​erence
from neighbours
Guard time required to repeat ports of
symbol signals so that they have the
desired frequency
Time Division Multip​lexing
Shares a channel over time
Users take turns on a Not packet
fixed schedule switching
Each gets the entire badwidth for a little
burst of time
Bits from each input stream are taken in a
fixed time slot and output to the aggregate
stream.
This stream runs the sum rate of individual
streams.
Streams must be synchr​onized in time.
Widely used in teleph​one​/ce​llular systems
Small intervals of guard time analoguous to
a requency guard band may be added to
accomodate small timing variations
 Networks - Physical Layer Cheat Sheet
by Bayan (Bayan.A) via cheatography.com/122738/cs/22931/

Time Division Multip​lexing Image Code Division Multiple Access​(​CDMA)

(cont)

Each station can transmit over the entire

frequency spectrum all the time

Can also be called "Code Division Multip​‐

Three streams being multip​lexed with TDM.
lex​ing​", but because it is used mostly to
allow the same frequency band to be
Code Divison Multiple Access
shared by different users by multiple
Shares the channel by giving users a code signals, it was commonly called Code
Codes are Can be sent at the same Division Multiple Access
orthogonal time
Widely used as part of 3G networks
Scalar A ● B = (a₁, a₂, a₃) ● (b₁, b₂,
Product b₃) = a₁b₁ + a₂b₂ + a₃b₃
(example):

Walsh Codes (example):

A = (a₁ , a₂, a₃) A̅ = (-a₁ , -a₂, -a₃)
B =(b₁ , b₂, b₃) B̅ = (-b₁ , -b₂, -b₃)

Properties of CDMA codes:

For all A, B with A ≠ B
A ● A = +1
A ● A̅ = -1
A ● B =A B = 0

Transm​ission:
A, B and C transmit 1, 1 and 0 respec​tively
A, B and C send codes A, B and C̅ respec​‐
tively
The receiver sees A + B + C̅

Code Division Multiple Access​(​CDMA)

A form of spread Narrowband signal

spectrum spread out over a wider
commun​ication frequency band
Tolerant of interf​erence.
Allows multiple signals from different users
to share the same frequency band.
CDMA shares the channel by giving users a
code
Codes are Can be sent at the same
orthog​onal; time
Widely used as part of 3G networks