Modulation and Multiplexing for

Satellite Links
Dr. Ali Hussein Muqaibel
EE418 Satellite Communications
VER 1.232

1
 Agenda

Section Topic
5.1 Frequency Modulation •Waveform Equation for FM
Analog FM was •Bandwidth of FM signals (Carson’s Rule)
widely used for •Baseband S/N Ratio for FM
satellite •Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
Communications..
Not anymore 5.2 Analog FM Transmission S/N Ratios for FM Video Transmission (Example 5.2.1 & 5.2.2)
Other subsections are not included

5.3 Digital Transmission Baseband Digital Signals

Baseband Transmission of Digital Data
Bandpass Transmission of Digital Data (examples 5.3.1 & 5.3.2
Transmission of QPSK through bandlimited channel (Examples
5.3.3 & 5.3.4)

5.4 Digital Modulation and All subsections

Demodulation
5.5 Digital Transmission of We have covered in EE370 (Sampling , Quantization…)
Analog data
5.6 Time Division Multiplexing Review of EE370 linked to satellite communications

App. B FDM/FM/FDMA Analog Old Material (not covered here)

Telephone Transmission
2
Modulation – Basic Principles
• Modulation: the way information is encapsulated for transmission.
• Multiplexing: the way more than one link can be carried over a single communications channel

Modulated Signal carrying

the information of 𝑉(𝑡), Multiplexer
Action on carrier’s bandpass (𝑓𝐶 )
amplitude, frequency or
phase
Modulating Signal 𝑉(𝑡),
atbaseband(𝑓𝐵)

𝑓𝐶
Demultiplexer

𝑓𝐶
Carrier (𝑓𝐶 )

3
• Symbol rate, ISI, baseband, bandpass, baud symbols/sec (sps), NRZ
• FSK is replaced with PSK which gives lower BER for a given C/N

Digital Transmission

4
Advantages of Digital Communication over
Analog Communication
➢ Robustness: Immunity to Noise (possibility of regenerating the original digital signal if signal power to
noise power ratio (SNR) is relatively high by using of devices called repeaters along the path of
transmission).
• Generally, less susceptible to degradations
• But...when it does degrade tends to fail quickly

➢ Efficient use of communication bandwidth (through use of techniques like compression).

➢ Digital communication provides higher security (data encryption).
➢ Error Control Coding : the ability to detect errors and correct them if necessary.
➢ Design and manufacturing of electronics for digital communication systems is much easier and much
cheaper than the design and manufacturing of electronics for analog communication systems.
• Adaptiveness :Can easily combine a mix of signal information
• Data, voice, video, multiple user signals
What is the price for going digital ?

Dr. Ali Hussein Muqaibel 5

 • At baseband, send  V (volts) to represent a logical 1 and 0
• At RF - digitally modulate the carrier
Baseband vs. • ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
Bandpass Digital • FSK Frequency Shift Keying
• PSK Phase Shift Keying
Communications • QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
• Binary forms of these are OOK, BFSK, and BPSK, respectively

6
Analog to Digital Conversion
• Analog-to-Digital recap; we have:
• Sampled at 2 times highest frequency (Nyquist Rate)
• Stored the sampled value
• Compared stored value with a quantized level
• Selected the nearest quantized level
• Turned the selected quantized level into a digital value using the selected
number of bits
• We now need to generate a line code

Line Codes are serial bit streams that are used to drive the digital modulator
7
 Continuous-time vs. Discrete time signal.

Analog to Digital Conversion Digital vs. Analog

PCM: Pulse Coded Modulation

Source of
Low-pass 01101110101
continuous
Sampler Quantizer Encoder PCM signal applied
time message filter to channel input
signal

Distorted PCM signal Regenerated PCM

Regenerative Regenerative
produced at channel …… signal applied to the
repeater repeater
output receiver

Final channel Regeneration Reconstruction

Decoder Destination
output circuit filter

Dr. Ali Hussein Muqaibel 8

 Performance Criteria for Line codes
Usually used
• Zero DC value in digital
• Inherent Bit-Synchronization circuits
• Rich in transitions
• Transparency: a line code in which the bit pattern
does not affect the accuracy of the timing
information is said to be transparent

• Average Transmitted Power Always have

• For a given Bit Error Rate (BER) net zero
• Spectral Efficiency (Bandwidth) voltage
• Inversely proportional to pulse width.

• Error detection and correction 1.2 On-Off

(NRZ) Binary repetition code
1
• Hardware complexity Bipolar (NRZ)
0.8
• Number of voltage levels,..etc power density
0.6

• Insensitivity to signal inversion 0.4

Manchester
0.2

0
https://youtu.be/30rNnzogmn0?si=1U-58cLFB98DW02P
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2
-0.2
fT 9
 Please watch: Pulse Shaping the Big Picture
https://youtu.be/cDuNmKCMtpY?si=pbyWmaXuqRiMnJa2

Typical Spectra
A random train of ones and zeroes has a
spectrum (power spectral density) of
2
sin 𝜋𝑓𝑇𝑏 sin2 𝑋
𝐺 𝑓 = 𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏
𝜋𝑓𝑇𝑏 𝑋2
𝑋 = 𝜋𝑓𝑇𝑏, 𝑇𝑏 = bit period, and 𝑓
= frequency in Hz
• PSD has a max value of 𝑇𝑏 ,at 𝑓 = 0
• 𝐺 𝑓 extends to 𝑓 = 

10
 Illustration of the effect of low pass filtering on a NRZ pulse train.
(a) Random NRZ pulse train.
(b) Waveform output from an RC filter with 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑅𝐶 and cut off

Channel Filtering Effects

1
frequency 𝑓𝑜 = .
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
(c) RC filter with transfer function 𝐻(𝑓).
(d) Spectra of pulse trains before and after the RC filter

• Rectangular pulses (i.e. infinite rise and fall times

of the pulse edges) need an infinite bandwidth to
retain the rectangular shape
• Communications systems are always band-
limited, so send a SHAPED PULSE.
• Attempt to MATCH the filter to the spectrum of
the energy transmitted

Before FILTERS, let’s look at Inter-Symbol Interference

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ISI: Intersymbol Interference
• Sending pulses through a band-limited channel causes “smearing” of the pulse in time
• “Smearing” causes the tail of one pulse to extend into the next (later) pulse period
• Parts of two pulses existing in the same pulse period causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
• ISI reduces the amplitude of the wanted pulse and reduces noise immunity

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How to pulse shape for zero ISI At each sampling
interval, there is only
one pulse contribution
- the others being at
• To avoid ISI, you can SHAPE the zero level

pulse so that there is zero energy

in adjacent pulses
• Use NRZ; pulse lasts the full bit
period
• Use Polar Signaling (+V & -V);
average value is zero if equal number
of 1’s and 0’s
• Communications links are usually AC
coupled so you should avoid a DC
voltage component
• Then use a NYQUIST filter

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What are Nyquist Filters?
Sampling instant is CRITICAL
• Sampling of the signal is usually at intervals of the bit period, 𝑇𝑏 .
• Thus, if we could generate pulses that are at a one-time maximum at 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑏 and 1
zero at each succeeding interval of Tb (i.e. 𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑏 , 3𝑇𝑏 , ….. , 𝑁𝑇𝑏 then we would
have no ISI
• This is called a NYQUIST filter
0
• Networks which produce the required time waveforms are called “Nyquist Filters”.
None exist in practice, but you can get reasonably close. -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

• Nyquist criteria translate to frequency domain as:

∞

෍ 𝑃 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑅𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 -1
𝑛=−∞

t
0 𝑇𝑏 2𝑇𝑏 3𝑇𝑏 4𝑇𝑏

Impulse at
this point

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 Roll-off factor = 𝛼 = (𝑓∆ / 𝑓0 )

Square Root Raised Cosine Filter where 𝑓0 = 6 𝑑𝐵 bandwidth

𝐵 = absolute bandwidth (here shown for 𝛼 = 0.5) and
𝐵 = 𝑓∆ + 𝑓0
f1 = start of ‘roll-off’ of the filter characteristic

• Noise into receiver must be held to a minimum 𝑓∆ 𝑓∆

• Place half of Nyquist filter at transmit end of link, half at receive
end, so that the individual filter transfer function 𝐻(𝑓) is given by
𝑉𝑟 𝑓 𝑁𝑌𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑆𝑇 = 𝐻(𝑓) × 𝐻(𝑓)
6 dB
𝐻 𝑓 = 𝑉𝑟 (𝑓)𝑁𝑌𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑆𝑇

• Filter is a “Square Root Raised Cosine Filter”

• 𝐻(𝑓) matches pulse characteristic, hence it is called a “matched
filter”.
• A Raised Cosine Filter gives a Matched Filter response 𝑓1 𝑓0 𝐵
• The “Roll-Off Factor”, 𝛼, determines bandwidth of Raised Cosine
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
• Gives zero ISI when the output is sampled at correct time, with
sampling rate of 𝑅𝑏 (i.e. at a sampling interval of 𝑇𝑏)

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Matched Filter
• BUT how much bandwidth is required for a given transmission rate?
• Bandwidth required depends on whether the signal is at BASEBAND
or at PASSBAND
• Bandwidth needed to send baseband digital signal using a Nyquist LPF is
1
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 (1 + 𝛼)
2
• Bandwidth needed to send bandpass digital signal using a Nyquist Bandpass
filter is
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 (1 + 𝛼)

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 Bandpass digital signal

Bandwidth Required
• How much bandwidth is required for a given transmission rate?
• Bandwidth required depends on whether the signal is at BASEBAND or at PASSBAND
• Bandwidth needed to send baseband digital signal using a Nyquist LPF is
1
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑅 (1 + 𝛼)
2 𝑠
• Bandwidth needed to send bandpass digital signal using a Nyquist Bandpass filter is
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 (1 + 𝛼)
• The Symbol Rate, 𝑅𝑠, that is key to bandwidth, not the Bit Rate.
• Symbol Rate is the number of digital symbols sent per second (Baud)
• Bit Rate is the number of digital bits sent per second
• Different modulation schemes will “pack” different numbers of bits in a single Symbol:
• BPSK has 1 bit per symbol
• QPSK has 2 bits per symbol
• Occupied Bandwidth, 𝐵, for a bandpass signal is given by the above equations.
1
• Noise Bandwidth, BN, for a channel will not be affected by the roll-off factor of filter. Thus 𝐵𝑁 = 𝑅𝑠 or 𝑅𝑠 .
2

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Bandwidth Example
• GIVEN:
• Bit rate 512 𝑘𝑏𝑖𝑡/𝑠
• QPSK modulation
• Filter roll-off, 𝛼 , is 𝛼 = 0.3
• FIND: Occupied Bandwidth, 𝐵, and Noise Bandwidth, 𝐵𝑁
2 bits per symbol Number of bits/s
• Solution:
Symbol Rate = 𝑅𝑠 = (1/2)  (512  103 ) = 256  103

• Occupied bandwidth, 𝐵, is
𝐵 = 𝑅𝑠 (1 + 𝛼 ) = 256  103 ( 1 + 0.3) = 332.8 𝑘𝐻𝑧
• Noise bandwidth, 𝐵𝑁, is
𝐵𝑁 = 𝑅𝑠 = 256 𝑘𝐻𝑧
• High Modulation Index  More Bandwidth Efficient

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Practice Problems
• A satellite link has an RF channel with a bandwidth 1.0 𝑀𝐻𝑧. The transmitter and receiver have square root raised
cosine (SRRC) filters with 𝛼 = 0.35. What is correct symbol rate for this link?
• The relationship between symbol rate and bandwidth is given by
• 𝐵𝑜𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑠 1 + 𝛼 𝐻𝑧
• 106 = 𝑅𝑠 1 + 0.35 = 1.35𝑅𝑠
106
• 𝑅𝑠 = 1.35 = 740.7𝑘𝑠𝑝𝑠

• A 𝐾𝑢-band satellite uplink has a carrier frequency of 14.125 𝑀𝐻𝑧 and carries a symbol stream at 𝑅𝑠 = 16 𝑀𝑠𝑝𝑠.
The transmitter and receiver have SRRC filters with 𝛼 = 0.25. What is bandwidth occupied by the RF signal, and what
is the frequency range of the transmitted RF signal?
• 𝐵𝑜𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑠 1 + 0.25 = 1.25𝑅𝑠
• 20 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 1.25 × 16 × 106
• The RF signal occupies the frequency range (14.125 − 0.01) 𝑡𝑜 (14.125 + 0.01) = 14.115 𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 14.135 𝐺𝐻𝑧

19
Practice Problems
• A satellite transponder has a bandwidth of 36 𝑀𝐻𝑧. Earth stations use ideal SRRC filters with 𝛼 = 0.4.
What is the maximum bit rate that can be sent through this transponder with
• BPSK
• QPSK?

• The maximum symbol rate for an RF link is given by

𝑅𝑠 = 𝐵 Τ 1 + 𝛼 = 36 𝑀 Τ1.4 = 25.7 𝑀𝑠𝑝𝑠
• The corresponding bit rates for BPSK and QPSK are
• BPSK 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠 = 25.7 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
• QPSK 𝑅𝑏 = 2 × 𝑅𝑠 = 51.4 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

• A data stream at 240 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 is to be sent via a satellite using QPSK. The receiver IF frequency is 240 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
Find the RF bandwidth needed to transmit the QPSK signal when ideal SRRC filters with 𝛼 = 0.35 are used.
• Read Satellite Communications by Pratt and Bostian.

20
Digital Modulations

21
 Binary Modulations – Basic Types
Introduction Modulation could be done directly or differentially

• In digital communications, the modulating signal is binary or m-ary.

• The alphabet size (number of symbols is 𝑚).
• Number of bits per symbol 𝑁𝑏 = log 2 𝑚 .

• The carrier is modulated in different ways: ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM.
• Phase modulation is universally used for digital satellite.
• No more than 𝑚 = 4 (QPSK) is used for satellite.
• Why? Because of the high 𝐶/𝑁 value required for acceptable BER.

• Coding could be combined with modulation (Coded Modulation)

• There are two types of error control :
• FEC: Forward Error Control
• ARQ: Automatic Repeat Query (reQuest)

These two have constant envelope

(important for amplitude sensitive
channels)
22
Coherent and Non-
coherent Detection
• Coherent Detection (most PSK, some FSK):
• Exact replicas of the possible arriving signals are
available at the receiver.
• This means knowledge of the phase reference
(phased-locked).
• Detection by cross-correlating the received signal
with each one of the replicas, and then deciding
based on comparisons with pre-selected thresholds.

• Non-coherent Detection (some FSK, DPSK):

• Knowledge of the carrier’s wave phase not required.
• Less complexity.
• Inferior error performance.

23
Design Trade-offs

• Primary resources:
• Transmitted Power.
• Channel Bandwidth.
• Design goals:
• Maximum data rate.
• Minimum probability of symbol
error.
• Minimum transmitted power.
• Minimum channel bandwidth.
• Maximum resistance to
interfering signals.
• Minimum circuit complexity.

24
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
Coherent Binary PSK (BPSK=ASK)
• Two signals, one representing 0, the other 1.
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋 = −𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = −𝑠1 𝑡
• Each of the two signals represents a single bit of
information.
• Each signal persists for a single bit period (𝑇) and then
may be replaced by either state.
• Signal energy (𝐸𝑆) = Bit Energy (𝐸𝑏), given by: BPSK Physical Implementation
𝐴2 𝑇 2𝐸𝑏 +𝐴
𝐸𝑆 = 𝐸𝑏 = ➔𝐴 = 1 t t
2 𝑇
−𝐴 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
2
• Therefore, If energy is normalized ➔𝐴 =
𝑇
cos(2fct)

25
Orthonormal basis representation
• Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization: basis of signals that are both orthogonal between them and
normalized to have unit energy.
𝑇
1 if 𝑖 = 𝑗
න 𝜑𝑖 (𝑡) 𝜑𝑗 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ቊ
0
0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

• Allows representation of 𝑀 energy signals {𝑠𝑖(𝑡)} as linear combinations of 𝑁 orthonormal basis

functions, where 𝑁 ≤ 𝑀.
• Ex.: 𝑁 = 2

2
𝜑1 (𝑡) = cos( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤t≤T
𝑇

2
𝜑2 (𝑡) = sin( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤t≤T
𝑇

26
BPSK representation
Which can be graphically represented as:
Signal space diagram for coherent binary PSK system
• Let’s consider the uni-dimensional base (𝑁 = 1) where:

2
𝜑1 (𝑡) = cos( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤t≤T
𝑇𝑏

• Let’s also rewrite the signal amplitudes as a function of their energy:

2𝐸𝑏
𝑠1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇𝑏

2𝐸𝑏
𝑠2 𝑡 = − cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇𝑏

• Therefore, we can write the signals 𝑠1(𝑡) and 𝑠2(𝑡) in terms of ∅1 (𝑡):
𝑠1 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑏 𝜑1 (𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑠2 (𝑡) = − 𝐸𝑏 𝜑1 (𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏

27
A coherent BPSK detector and symbol recovery circuit.

Satellite Communications, 2/E by Timothy Pratt, Charles Bostian, & Jeremy Allnutt
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 5.11 (p. 189)
Detection of BPSK 𝜇 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝜎 =standard deviation
Area to the right of
this line represents
Probability (𝑥 > 𝑥0)

• Actual BPSK signal is received with noise

• Assume AWGN  x0 x
• Other noise properties are possible
• AWGN is a good approximation
𝑥0 − 𝜇b 1 𝑥0 − 𝜇b
• Other noise models are more complex Probabiliy (𝑥 > 𝑥0 ) = Q
𝜎
= 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2𝜎
• Constellation becomes a distribution ∞
because of noise variations to signal 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑦 =
2 2
න 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝜋
• How do we make optimal decision? 𝑦

• Matched filter/Correlator Approximation for large positive values of 𝑦

2
𝑒 −𝑦
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑦 ≅
𝑦 𝜋

Both 𝑄(. ) and 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐(. ) functions are integrals widely tabled

and available as functions in Excel and calculators

29
Calculating Error Probability Noise Spectral Density = 𝑁0
Noise Variance:
𝑁0
𝜎2 = 𝜎=
𝑁0
2 2

𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃 Detecting 𝑅1 ȁ𝑇2 was transmitted ⋅ 𝑃 𝑇2 was transmitted 𝑃(0ȁ1) = 𝑃(1ȁ0) = 𝑃 𝑥 > 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑄 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝜎 2 2𝜎
+𝑃 Detecting 𝑅2 ȁ𝑇1 was transmitted ⋅ 𝑃 𝑇1 was transmitted
1 𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏
If the bits are equiprobable and the channel is symmetric = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝑁0 2 𝑁0
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃 Detecting 𝑅1 ȁ𝑇2 was transmitted = 𝑃 Detecting 𝑅2 ȁ𝑇1 was transmitted 2 2
PDFs of a zero-mean
Gaussian RV
BPSK error probability

Prob(Bit received correctly)

r
30
x Prob(Bit Error)
Bit Error Rate (BER) for BPSK
• BER for coherent is therefore given by
1 𝐸𝑏
𝐵𝐸𝑅 = erfc
2 𝑁𝑜

• Approximation valid for 𝐸𝑏 /𝑁0 greater than ~4 𝑑𝐵

0.2821 −𝑁 𝐸𝑏
𝐵𝐸𝑅 ≈ 𝑒 𝑜
𝐸𝑏
𝑁𝑜
Eb/No
(dB) BER
0 0.08
2 0.04
4 0.014
6 0.0027
8 2 × 10−4
10 4 × 10−6
31
 𝐶𝐵𝑛 𝐶
Bit and Symbol Error Rates 𝐸𝑠 /𝑁0 = =
𝑁𝑅𝑠 𝑁

• BER: bit error probability (𝑃𝑏 )

• Indicator for quality, like SNR for analog signals

• SER: symbol error probability (𝑃𝑒 )

𝑃𝑏 ≤ 𝑃𝑒 (Show!)

• Gray coding can be used.

• SER depends on 𝐸𝑠/𝑁0 which depends on 𝐶/𝑁

𝐸𝑠 = 𝐶𝑇𝑠 = 𝐶/𝑅𝑠
𝑁0 = 𝑁/𝐵𝑛

• For RRC (Root Raised Cosine) Pulse ,

𝐵𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 => 𝐵𝑛𝑇𝑠 = 1

• Practical Filters are close to RRC

𝐶𝐵𝑛 𝐶
𝐸𝑠 /𝑁0 = =
𝑁𝑅𝑠 𝑁
32
Polarity Ambiguity
Resolution
• How to tell which signal state is a “1” and which
is a “0” .
• Because of variations in the signal path, its
impossible to tell a priori
• Two common approaches resolutions:
• Differential Encoding
• Unique Word (UW) (Training Sequence)
• Known sequence , known time.
• All bits after slip will be received
wrong!
• Problems until a new UW is RX if a
phase slip occurs.

33
Differential Encoding Ambiguity Resolution
• Data is not transmitted directly.
• Each bit is represented by:
• 0 => phase shift of 𝑝 radians
• 1 => no phase shift
• This results in ~ doubling the BER since any error will tend to corrupt 2 bits
• BER is then
𝐸𝑏 0.5642 −𝑁 𝐸𝑏
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝐷𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 ≈ 2𝐵𝐸𝑅𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc ≈ 𝑒 𝑜
𝑁𝑜 𝐸𝑏
𝑁𝑜
Approximation valid for 𝐵𝐸𝑅 < ~0.01

34
Coherent Quaternary PSK (QPSK)
QPSK Waveform

• Four signals are used to convey information

• Constant Modulus =>
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋/2
𝑠3 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋
𝑠4 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝜋/2

• This leads to a constellation of:

when shown as a phasor
referenced to the signal phase, 𝜃
• Each of the two states represents
a two bits of information
(a) Input binary sequence.
(b) Odd-numbered bits Of input sequence and associated binary PSK wave.
(c) Even-numbered bits Of input sequence and associated binary PSK wave.
(d) QPSK waveform.

35
QPSK Constellation Representation
• In this case we use the following orthonormal basis:
QPSK Constellation
2
𝜑1 (𝑡) = cos( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤t≤T
𝑇

2
𝜑2 (𝑡) = sin( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤t≤T
𝑇
• Which gives, after application of some trigonometric identities, the following
constellation representation.
• Bit Error Rate (BER) for QPSK
• The BER is still the probability of choosing the wrong signal state (symbol now)
• Because the signal is Gray coded (00 is next to 01 and 10 for instance but not 11)
the BER for QPSK is that for BPSK:
• BER (after a lot of derivation) is given by:

1 𝐸𝑏 0.2821 𝐸
− 𝑏
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑄𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc ≈ 𝑁
𝑒 𝑜
2 𝑁𝑜 𝐸𝑏
𝑁𝑜
𝐸𝑏
• Approximation valid for greater than ~4 𝑑𝐵
𝑁𝑜
• Note that 𝐸𝑏 is here, not 𝐸𝑠 !

36
QPSK Modulator and Demodulator

QPSK Physical Implementation

1/2 rate data

cos(2fct)
full rate QPSK symbols
Demux 
data, Rb Rs = Rb/2
90o

1/2 rate data

Note that the QPSK signal can be
seen to be two BPSK signals
in phase quadrature

The logic block outputs two bits for each received QPSK symbol., Figure 5.16 (p. 200)

Satellite Communications, 2/E by Timothy Pratt, Charles Bostian, & Jeremy Allnutt
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Notes about QPSK
• QPSK has the rate of two BPSK but needs 3dB extra power.
• Due to non ideality we have to add implementation margin of 0.5 dB
for low bit rate and 2dB for high data rate.
(𝐶/𝑁)𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (𝐶/𝑁)0 − 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
2𝐸𝑏 2𝐶
𝑃𝑒𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 = 𝑄 =𝑄
𝑁0 𝑁
Similar Different
2𝐸𝑏 𝐶
𝑃𝑒𝑄𝑃𝑆𝐾 = 𝑄 =𝑄
𝑁0 𝑁

Read Related material in the textbook 38

 Example
Find the BER in clear air and for 0.1% of the time.
• A satellite link uses a bandwidth of 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 in 52 𝑀𝐻𝑧 wide
Ku-band transponder. 1 𝐶 1 16−0.8
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc = erfc 10 10 = 2.5 × 10−15 ≈ 0
2 𝑁 2
• The transmitter and receiver have RRC band-pass filter with 𝑒𝑓𝑓

roll-off factor 𝛼 = 0.25. 1 𝐶 1 13−0.8

𝐶 𝐵𝐸𝑅𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc = erfc 10 10 = 5 × 10−9 ≈ 0
2 𝑁 2
• The overall in the receiver is 16.0 𝑑𝐵 in clear air, falling 𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑁 0
below 13.0 𝑑𝐵 for 0.1% of an average year. 1 𝐶 1 1 16−1.2
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑄𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc = erfc × 10 10 = 2 × 10−8 ≈ 0
• The implementation margin for BPSK is 0.8 𝑑𝐵 and 2 2𝑁 𝑒𝑓𝑓
2 2
1.02 𝑑𝐵 for QPSK.
1 𝐶 1 1 13−1.2
• Determine the Bit rate. (BPSK, QPSK) 𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑄𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc = erfc × 10 10 = 5 × 10−5 ≈ 0
2 2𝑁 𝑒𝑓𝑓
2 2
𝐵𝑊 10𝑀
• 𝑅𝑠 = = = 8.0 𝑀𝑠𝑝𝑠.
1+𝛼 1+.025 How long does it take on the average to do one error BPSK and QPSK?
• 𝑅𝑏 𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 = 𝑅𝑠 = 8.0 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠. 1.5 years, 25 Seconds
• 𝑅𝑏 𝑄𝑃𝑆𝐾 = log 2 4( 𝑅𝑠 ) = 16.0 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠. Which modulation do you prefer.
10−8 𝑡𝑜 10−6 are acceptable for general applications. Voice can
withstand 10−4
39
 𝑀-ary PSK
• PSK with 2𝑛 states where 𝑛 > 2
• Incr. spectral eff. - (More bits per Hertz)
• Degraded BER compared to BPSK or QPSK

In Matlab try the Demo in the Communication ToolBox ®\modulation Signal Constellation for octaphase-shift-keying (i.e. 𝑀 = 8).
Also Try provided File in Matlab The decision boundaries are shown as dashed lines

40
Frequency Shift Keying
• Two signals are used to convey information
• Constant Modulus =>
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝜃1
𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡 + 𝜃2
• Each of the two states represents
a single bit of information
• BER is:
• For Coherent: 2 × 𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 𝐵𝐸𝑅
• For non-coherent:
1 −𝐸
2𝑁
𝑏
𝐵𝐸𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑜
2
Signal space diagram for coherent binary FSK system

41
 M-ary QAM
• QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• Not constant envelope
• Allows higher spectral efficiency
• Degraded BER compared to BPSK or QPSK

Signal-constellation of 𝑀-ary QAM for 𝑀 = 16. (The message points

are identified with 4 − 𝑏𝑖𝑡 Gray codes for later discussion.)

42
 Other Modulations
• Offset QPSK (QPSK)
• QPSK
• One of the bit streams delayed by 𝑇𝑏/2
• Same BER performance as QPSK
• Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
• QPSK - also constant envelope, continuous phase FSK
• 1/2-cycle sine symbol rather than rectangular
• Same BER performance as QPSK

Not widely used in Satellite.

Why? Ans. P200 2ND EDITION
43
Time Division Multiplexing

• Important terms: word , frame , slot, synchronization bit, superframe

• The U.S. T1 carrier system 24 channels. FAW: Frame Alignment word
SOF: Start of Frame
• 1 + (8 × 24) = 193 bits PCM EOF: End of Frame
• 8 𝑘𝐻𝑧 sampling for voice, 125 micro seconds/frame …..rate =1.544 𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/sec
• 100011011100 for superframe (buffers)
• Trade-off between the number of frame alignment bits and the time required for framing.
• 0.4 − 0.6 𝑚𝑠 detect synchronization loss.
• 50𝑚𝑠 to reframe
https://youtu.be/JAkxNm279P0?si=SnwPXm9RKCMpwASl
 System designation Bit rate (Mbps) Voice channels Digital signals

Signaling T1
T1C
1.544
3.152
24
48
DS-1
DS-1C
T1D 3.152 48 DS-1C
T1G 6.443 96 DS-2

• Signaling, “robbing” frame 6 & 12 least T2

T3
6.443
44.736
96
672
DS-2
DS-3
significant bits. 1.333 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠 rate. T4 274.176 4,032 DS-4

• ITU use 30 channels T5 560.160 8,064 DS-5

• See Tables
• Very few satellites can carry T4 and T5.
• What is bit stuffing? p213

Fiber optics transmission standard