Viet Nam National University Ho Chi Minh City

University of Science
Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications

Chapter 5:
Digital Transmission and Multiplexing

Dang Le Khoa
Email: dlkhoa@hcmus.edu.vn
 Ouline
⚫ Digital transmission
– Pulse Code Modulation
⚫ Multiplexing
– Time-Division Multiplexing
– T1, E1
⚫ Signaling
⚫ TDM Hierarchy

Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications. HCMUS [2]

 Digital transmission

⚫ Digital transmission: the transmittal of digital signals between

2 or more points
⚫ Signals: binary or discrete-level digital pulses
⚫ Source: digital or analog forms
⚫ Media: metallic wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, wireless

3
 Digital transmission
⚫ Advantages: (review)
1. Relatively inexpensive digital circuits may be used;
2. Privacy is preserved by using data encryption;
3. Data from voice, video, and data sources may be merged and
transmitted over a common digital transmission system;
4. In long-distance systems, noise dose not accumulate from
repeater to repeater. Data regeneration is possible
5. Errors in detected data may be small, even when there is a large
amount of noise on the received signal;
6. Errors may often be corrected by the use of coding.

4
 Digital transmission
⚫ Disadvantages: (review)
1. Requiring more bandwidth
2. Requiring clock recovery circuits for time synchronization in
receivers
3. Need additional encoding and decoding circuit for A/D –D/A
conversion
4. Incompatible with older analog tranmission facilities

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 Pulse modulation

⚫ Methods of converting information into pulses for transmission

1. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): pulse width is proportional to
amplitude of analog signal
2. PPM (Pulse Position Modulation): position of a constant-width
pulse varied according to amplitude of analog signal in a time slot
3. PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation): amplitude of constant-width,
constant-position pulse vaied according to amplitude of analog
signal
4. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation): analog signal is sampled and
converted to fixed-length, binary series according to amplitude of
analog signal
⚫ PCM is popular method in communication systems, mainly in PSTN

Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications. HCMUS 6

 Pulse Modulation

Analog
signal
Sample
pulse
PWM

PPM

PAM

PCM

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 Pulse Code Modulation
⚫ PCM is not really a modulation form, but rather a form of
source coding
⚫ Pulses are of fixed length and fixed amplitude
– A pulse  logic 1
– Lack of puse logic 0
⚫ An integrated circuit performing PCM encoding and decoding is
called a codec

8
 Pulse Code Modulation
⚫ Block diagram of a single channel, simplex PCM

Parallel data

Bandpass Sample and PAM A/D P/S

filter hold converter converter
Analog
input
signal Sample Conversion Line speed
Serial PCM
pulse clock clock
code

Regenerative Regenerative
repeater Serial PCM repeater
code
Quantized
PAM signal
Serial PCM
code Quantizer Encoder

Parallel data

S/P D/A Hold PAM Low pass

converter converter circuit filter
Analog
output signal
Line speed Conversion
clock clock

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 Filtering
Amplitude

Filter

300 4000 Frequency [Hz]

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 Filtering
• Most of the energy of the spoken language is somewhere between
200 or 300 Hz and about 3300 or 3400 Hz:

B  3KHZ
• A general decision has been made to make:

B = 4 KHZ

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 Filtering
• This bandlimiting filter is used to prevent
ALIASING DISTORTION.
• This bandlimiting filter is thus called an
antialiasing filter
• The aliasing distortion might occur in the
sampling step of the PCM process. This distortion
occurs when:
fs  2 B

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 Encoding

⚫ Binary codes used for PCM are n-bit codes

⚫ 3-bit PCM code
Sign Magnitude Decimal
+3V 111
1 11 +3
+2V 110
1 10 +2
1 01 +1 +1V 101

100
1 00 0 0V
000
0 00 0 -1V 001

0 01 -1 -2V 010

0 10 -2 -3V 011

0 11 -3

⚫ Overload distortion
⚫ Resolution or minimum step size of ADC (Vlsb)
⚫ Quantizingquantization error (Qe) or quantization noise (Qn)
Qe=Vlsb/2
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 Encoding

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 Encoding

increase sampling
rate→PAM signal
more precisely, not
reducing
quantization error

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 Example

[16]
Tín hiệu analog->ADC 8 bit, có tần số cao nhất là không quá 4Khz
⚫ a. Xác định tần số cắt của lọc thông thấp chống biệt danh
⚫ b. Nếu tín hiệu analog là 1V, ADC sử dụng Vref-=-5V,
Vref+=5V, xác định tín hiệu (chuỗi bit sau PCM)

⚫ Hướng dẫn:
a) fcut=4Khz
b) Chuỗi bit: 8 bit (1 dấu, 7 data), bit dấu: 1, 7 bit data: 000 1101)
(1/5)x(2^7-1)=25=000 1101

Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications. HCMUS [17]

 Multiplexing

⚫ Multiplexing is the transmission of information (in

any form) from more than one source to more than
one destination over the same transmission medium
⚫ Transmission medium: metallic wire pair, coaxial
cable, terrestrial microwave radio system, satellite
microwave system, optical fiber cable
⚫ 4 popular methods:
– Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
– Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
– Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
– Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
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 FDM and TDM

⚫ Both methods divide the capacity of the

transmisison facility into slots

Slot Slot Slot Slot Slot Slot Slot Slot Slot

3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1

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 FDM
t

Guard Band
CHANNELS
(FREQUENCY SLOTS - CHANNELS)

….
ΔF1 ΔF2 ΔF3 ΔF4 ΔF5 ΔF6 …. F [Hz]

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 TDM
Bi
Guard Time
CHANNELS
(TIME SLOTS - CHANNELS)

….
Δt1 Δt2 Δt3 Δt4 Δt5 Δt6 …. t [sec]

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 Time-Division Multiplexing
⚫ Transmission from multiple sources are interleaved in the
time domain
⚫ PCM is the most common type of modulation used with
TDM(PCM-TDM System)
⚫ In PCM-TDM system, 2 or more voice-band channels are
sampled, converted to PCM codes and then time-division
multiplexed onto a single medium

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 Time-Division Multiplexing
⚫ In TDM, each source device occupies a subset of transmission
bandwidth for a slice of time (time slot)
⚫ At the end, returning to the 1st source device and the process
continues

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 Time-Division Multiplexing

Output value
B C
A
Input signal A A D
C B

Time
Output
Input signal B

Input signal C

Input signal D

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 Time-Division Multiplexing

⚫ The basic building block begins with a DS-0 channel

⚫ Output’s bit rate: 8000 samples x 8 bits = 64kbps

sec sample
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 Time-Division Multiplexing

⚫ PCM-TDM system made of 2 DS-0 channels

⚫ Channel 1 and 2 are alternately selected and connected to

multiplexer output
⚫ Frame time is the time taking to transmit one sample from each
channel 1 1
= = 125  s 26
9/24/2023 f s 8000
 Time-Division Multiplexing

⚫ PCM code for each channel occupies a fixed time slot

within TDM frame
⚫ A two-channel system:
⚫ Line speed (bandwidth) at the output of multiplexer is
2 channels 8000 samples 8 bits
x x = 128 kbps
frame sec sample
125s

PCM code PCM code

Channel 1 Channel 2

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 Time-Division Multiplexing

⚫ A n-channel system:
⚫ Line speed (bandwidth) at the output of multiplexer is
n channels 8000 samples 8 bits
x x = n * 64kbps
frame sec sample

125s

PCM code PCM code PCM code

…
Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel n

Ex: n = 32 → 256 Bits/frame, B = 2.048 Mbps, CLOCK = 2.048 MHz

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 Digital Carrier System

⚫ DSC is a communication system using digital pulses, rather

than analog signals, to encode information
⚫ The Bell system (AT&T) T1 carrier system is the North
American telephone standard and recognized by the CCITT
(ITU-T) - G.733
⚫ A T1 carrier uses PCM-TDM. It multiplexs 24 voice-band
channels (1 frame). Each frame is separated by a Framing
bit
⚫ The 24-channel multiplexed bits, now a 1st level digital
signal (DS-1), are processed by a T1 line driver

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 Digital Carrier System

1
Telephone

F 24 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
fax communication 2
Fax
3
D V V
4
5 Mux
Sample 1
6
D V V

7 Sample 2

digital data

24 8000
key: D = Data
V = Voice
F = Frame

A T1 time-division multiplexing scheme

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 T1 physical layout

⚫ A T1 is physically made up of two balanced pairs of copper wire

(commonly known as twisted pair). The pairs are used in a full duplex
configuration where one pair transmits information and the other pair
receives information. Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) typically
terminate a T1 with a RJ-48C jack

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 Digital Carrier System

⚫ Each channel contains 8-bit PCM code and is

sampled 8000 times /sec
⚫ Transmit line speed:

24 channels 8 bits
x = 192 bits per frame
frame sample
192 bits 8000 frames
x = 1536kbps = 1.536M bps
frame sec

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 Digital Carrier System

2
EACH CHANNEL IS SAMPLED ONCE PER FRAME
BUT NOT AT THE SAME TIME

24

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 Digital Carrier System

Bell system T1 digital carrier system

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 Frame synchronization

⚫ An additional bit (framing bit) is added in front of the

transmit signal of each frame
⚫ The framing bit occurs once per frame (8 Kbps rate)
and is recoverd at the receiver
⚫ The framing bits collected at the receiver (framing
channel) are used to maintain frame and sample
synchronization between the TDM transmitter and
receiver
⚫ The collection of the framing bits form a code that the
receiver understands (multiframe alignment-later)
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 Frame synchronization

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 Frame synchronization
⚫ A frame contains: 192+1=193 bits
⚫ There are 8000 framing bits per second
⚫ The line speed for a T1 digital carrier system is:

193 bits 8000 frames

x = 1.544 Mbps
frame sec ond

= 1.536 Mbps + 8000 bits = 1.544 Mbps

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 D1-type channel banks

⚫ D1 framing ( T1 early version)

⚫ For each channel use the LSB called the S-bit (signaling
bit → inband signaling) (7 bits for voice, 1 bit for
signaling)
⚫ The S-bit is used for: FLASH-HOOK, ON-HOOK,
OFF-HOOK, DIAL PULSING, RINGING, ….
⚫ Signaling channel rate = 8 Kbps (BW waste)
voice = 56 kbps (voice quality suffers) 128
quantization steps vs. 256 (with 8 bits)
⚫ Framing bit pattern = 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 …… (POOR)
(NO SF, NO ESF)
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 D1-type channel banks

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 E1 Carrier System
EUROPE 32 TIME SLOTS (CHANNELS)

B = n.64 Kbps
BITS = 8n
……
SYSTEM CLOCK:
n channels 8 bits 8000 frames
x x
frame channel sec ond
EXAMPLE: n = 32; B = 2.048 Mbps
BITS = 256 BITS, CLOCK = 2.048 MHz
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 E1 Carrier System

Does not support Bit Robbing as in T1 for

Signalling
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 E1 Carrier System
⚫ E1 frame

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 E1 Carrier System
⚫ 1 frame has 32 TS (0-31), a multiframe consists of 16 frames (0-
15)
⚫ TS0 is used for:
– Synchronization
– Alarm transport
– International carrier use
⚫ TS16 used to transmit CAS (Channel Associated Signaling)
information

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 What is Signaling?
⚫ Consider the procedure of connection setup
⚫ Local call:
A B
  7305315
Off hook

Dial tone

…
5
.
Ringback tone Ringing tone
Off hook

Conversation

On hook
On hook

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 What is Signaling?
⚫ Trunk call
  7305315
Off hook
Dial tone
7
… 5
. Seize
Seize ACK
Digits
…
Digits
Ringback tone . Ringing tone
Off hook

Conversation
On hook
Clear back

Clear forward
On hook
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 TDM Hierarchy
⚫ North America and Japan standards (AT&T)

24 4 DS-1 7 DS-2 6 DS-3 2 DS-4 DS-5

DS-0

1 1 1 1 1

1st level 2nd level 3rd level 4th level 5th level
…

…
multiplexer multiplexer multiplexer multiplexer multiplexer
24 4 7 6 2

560.160Mbps

1.544Mbps 6.312Mbps 44.736Mbps 274.176Mbps

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 TDM Hierarchy

⚫ TDM standards for North America

Digital Signal Bit rate, R No of Transmission media used
Number (Mbps) 64kbps
PCM
channels
DS-0 0.064 1 Wire pairs

DS-1 1.544 24 Wire pairs

DS-2 6.312 96 Wire pairs, fiber

DS-3 44.736 672 Coax., radio, fiber

DS-4 274.176 4032 Coax., fiber

DS-4E 139.264 2016 Coax., radio, fiber

DS-5 560.160 8064 Coax., fiber

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 TDM Hierarchy
⚫ Europe standards

30 E0 E1 E2 E3 E4 DS-5

1 1 1 1 1

1st level 2nd level 3rd level 4th level 5th level
…

…
multiplexer multiplexer multiplexer multiplexer multiplexer
30 4 4 4 4

565.148Mbps

2.048Mbps 8.448Mbps 34.368Mbps 139.264Mbps

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