Laboratory 1: Instrument Familiarization

Experiment:

This experiment is designed to demonstrate some of the limitations of the instruments

used in this lab, and the worth of some proper measurement techniques.

Oscilloscope Rise Time Measurements: Measure the rise time of the Sync output signal
from the HP 33120A Function Generator, using various, mostly improper, connections
between the instruments:

Theoretical:

Background:

All experiments in the laboratory will be performed at a test bench which has several
basic electronic instruments. They include: (1) A DC power supply. (2) A function
generator. (3) A digital multi-meter (DMM). (4) An oscilloscope (analog/DSO). On one
hand, DC power supplies and function generators are power sources. It means that they
generate power. In other words, they supply us with the power needed to perform
experiments and tests. On the other hand, digital voltmeters and oscilloscopes are
measuring devices that measure different electrical quantities such as voltage,
resistance, current, etc. DC Power Supply: The DC power supply output consists of two
independent units which can be connected in different configurations such as series,
parallel, or used independently. Some DC power supplies found in the lab have a third
unit which gives a fixed 5 Volts 3 Amperes that is not adjustable. This dedication of 5-
volts unit is important since it is frequently needed in electronic experiments.

Function Generator:

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to

generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some
of the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine,
square, triangular shapes (See Fig.1). These waveforms can be either repetitive or
single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger source). Integrated circuits
used to generate waveforms may also be described as function generator ICs.
Digital Multi-Meter:

A DMM is a universal meter which measure voltage and current (both DC and AC) and
resistance, with high precision. Some DMMs measure capacitance, inductance, frequency, and
temperature. A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an
electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multi-meter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current,
and resistance. Analog multi-meters use a micro-ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale
calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital multi-meters (DMM,
DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length
proportional to the quantity being measured. When a DMM is used to measure an AC quantity,
it actually measures the RMS value of it. Different waveforms have different RMS values. The
commonly encountered sinusoidal wave has an RMS value of Vp 2 where Vp is the peak
voltage of the sine wave.

Oscilloscope:

An oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly

varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function
of time. Non-electrical signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and
displayed. Some oscilloscopes can only display one signal at a time, while others can display up
to 2, 3, and 4 channels simultaneously. In our lab the oscilloscopes have two channels that
allow us to display two signals in order to compare them. Those signals are the input and output
voltages. The oscilloscope has vertical and horizontal scale adjustors that permit us to change
the time scale (the horizontal axis) and the voltage scale (the vertical axis) in order to show the
signals clearly so that the user can read the values displayed on the screen with ease.

STEP 1:

Set the function generator for a 5.000 MHz sine wave. For this part the amplitude is
immaterial. Connect the Sync output (upper BNC jack on function generator) to the
Analog Input 1 (A1) on the oscilloscope using BNC to Banana Plug adapters and two 3
foot Banana plug wires.

STEP 2 :

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 3:

Repeat the same measurement, but this time connect the Sync output to the A1 scope
input using a BNC cable
Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 4:

Repeat the same measurement, but this time with a 50  termination on the BNC cable
at the A1 input to the scope. (Use a BNC tee)

STEP 5:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 6:

Remove the BNC cable and connect the 10x probe to the A1 input on the HP54622D
scope. Remove the probe hook adapter (if it is installed) and place the center pin of the
probe into the function generator Sync output BNC, making contact with the BNC center
conductor. Do not connect the probe ground to anything for this measurement!
STEP 7:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.
What is the signal current return path for this measurement?

STEP 8:

Repeat the last measurement, but with the probe ground wire clipped onto the shell of
the function generator Output BNC (immediately below the Sync BNC).

STEP 9:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 10:

Repeat the last measurement, but with the probe ground wire clipped onto the shell of
the Sync BNC on the function generator.

STEP 11:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 12:

Finally, repeat the last measurement, but use the probe-tip-to-BNC adapter, which
grounds the probe ground ring directly to the BNC shell.

STEP 14:
Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

In what ways is an oscilloscope a voltmeter?

what does an oscilloscope offer which a voltmeter does not?

What is the function generator Sync output?

What is the scope rise?

For each of the other measurements, why is it less accurate?

 Laboratory 2: RMS Value of an A.C. Sinusoidal Waveform

Objective:

To investigate the RMS value of an A.C sinusoidal waveform and the power

consumed by the circuit.

Theory & Its Equation

In electronics circuits, the signal is associated with an AC (Alternating current) and DC (Direct
Current). The sinusoidal wave or sine wave represents the periodic AC signal that varies with
time and fluctuates between positive and negative cycles. While DC signal/waveform represents
the magnitude of voltage and current values easily and stable. But the magnitude of the
current and voltage values of the AC signal should be calculated by using its instantaneous
values, a peak value of the signal, peak to peak value, average value, and RMS voltage. This
article describes the RMS voltage theory and its methods.

What is the RMS Voltage?

The term RMS stands for “Root Mean Square value”. The RMS value represents the
voltage value of an AC signal equivalent to the DC voltage. The amount of power dissipated or
heating effect is the same in both AC and DC signals. The values of a sinusoidal signal vary with
time because the magnitude of the current and voltage values always change with time and it is
not applicable for DC circuits (magnitude constant).

In simple words, it can be defined as the square roots of the average values of the squares of all
the instantaneous values of an AC signal. It is denoted by Vrms or Irms

This can be obtained by squaring the input values and calculating the average value of an AC
signal. The square root of the average value obtained gives the root mean square voltage.

RMS Voltage Theory

In general AC and DC signals are represented in the form of voltage or current waveforms. We
knew that the magnitude of the DC signal is constant and it is very easy to calculate. But the AC
signal fluctuates between negative and positive half cycles and varies with time. So, it is difficult
to find the magnitude of the voltage and current values of the alternating waveform. This theory
can be explained from the alternating waveform as shown below.
 RMS Voltage Theory

The most effective method to find the magnitude of the voltage values of the sinusoidal
waveform is the calculation of RMS Voltage value. We can compare the amount of power of AC
and DC signals given to the load or circuit. This voltage refers to the DC equivalent voltage of an
AC signal because the amount of power dissipated or heating effect of both AC and DC
waveforms in the given circuit is the same.

That means the power delivered to the load of a DC is equivalent to the RMS voltages of a sine
wave (AC signal). This gives the effective voltage value and it is denoted by Veff or Ieff. If the
supply voltage is 220V-240V, then the RMS voltage values of an AC are also 220V-240V,
which is equivalent to the power of DC voltage.

If the RMS voltages of AC and DC signal are the same, then the amount of power dissipated in
the circuit is also the same. This is also known as an effective voltage which is equivalent to the
DC voltage in providing power to the circuit.

Materials:

Feedback training kit

Multimeter (V.O.M)

D.C. miliameter 0-1000mA

A.C miliameter 0-250mA

2- channel oscilloscope
Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to be main supply line. DO Not switch in yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.1

2. Set the potentiometer to its mid position.

3. Switch on the power supply unit and set the source voltage to 10 VDC, as shown

on the voltmeter.

4. Transfer the voltmeter across the potentiometer (mid position and one leg)

5. Get an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

6. Now vary the settings of the potentiometer decreasing and then increasing its

value. Notice the waveform on the oscilloscope and its reading or the voltmeter

reading.

7. Now change the source voltage to 10 VAC peak-to-peak at 60 Hz as shown on

the oscilloscope and then draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet

of paper

8. Switch off the power supply unit (both D.C and A.C source) connect the circuit

as shown in figure 1.2

9. Set the potentiometer to its mid position and initially set the slide to the left.

10. Switch on the power supply unit and set the D.C source voltage to 5v as shown

on the voltmeter. The lamp should be on, but dim. Notice the intensity of the

lamp.
11. Switch the slide to the right and adjust the potentiometer until the intensity of the

lamp is roughly the same as before.

12. To ensure that intensity of the lamp is same for both positions switch the slide

switch left and right adjusting the potentiometer at the same time, until the

intensity of the lamp is identical for both switch position.

13. On the table 1.1 record the readings of the D.C and A.C voltage and current as

shown on the voltmeter, ammeter and oscilloscope.

14. Switch off the power supply unit.

Table 1.1

Measured Value Calculated RMS(*

√ 2)
❑

DC Voltage (V) AC Voltage p-p AC voltage peak AC voltage peak

(V) (V)

Measured Value Calculated Value

RMS(* √ 2)*2
❑
RMS(* ❑√ 2)
DC current (mA) AC current (mA) AC current p-p AC current peak
(mA) (mA)
Table 1.2
❑
Angle Yn Yn2
∑
2
Yn =
❑

√
❑ 2
❑ Yn
∑
❑ n
=

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 3: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Circuits with a Sinusoidal

Excitation

Objective:

To investigate the characteristic of a resistive circuits with a sinusoidal excitation.

To investigate with character of an inductive circuits with an equivalent

impedance with a sinusoidal excitation.

To investigate the characteristics of a capacitive circuit and its equivalent

impedance with a sinusoidal excitation.

THEORY:

An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor

(C), connected in series or in parallel. The name of the circuit is derived from the letters that are

used to denote the constituent components of this circuit, where the sequence of the

components may vary from RLC. An important property of this circuit is its ability to resonate at

a specific frequency, the resonance frequency, f0. Frequencies are measured in units of hertz.

In this article, however, angular frequency, ω0, is used which is more mathematically

convenient. This is measured in radians per second. They are related to each other by a simple

proportion, Resonance occurs because energy is stored in two different ways: in an electric field

as the capacitor is charged and in a magnetic field as current flows through the inductor. Energy

can be transferred from one to the other within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A

mechanical analogy is a weight suspended on a spring which will oscillate up and down when

released. This is no passing metaphor; a weight on a spring is described by exactly the same

second order differential equation as an RLC circuit and for all the properties of the one system

there will be found an analogous property of the other. The mechanical property answering to

the resistor in the circuit is friction in the spring–weight system. Friction will slowly bring any

oscillation to a halt if there is no external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC
circuit will "damp" the oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no driving AC power source

in the circuit. The resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at which the impedance of

the circuit is at a minimum. Equivalently, it can be defined as the frequency at which the

impedance is purely real (that is, purely resistive). This occurs because the impedances of the

inductor and capacitor at resonance are equal but of opposite sign and cancel out. Circuits

where L and C are in parallel rather than series actually have a maximum impedance rather

than a minimum impedance. For this reason they are often described as antiresonators, it is still

usual, however, to name the frequency at which this occurs as the resonance frequency.

Materials:

Feedback training kit

Function generator

Multimeter (VOM)

2 – channel oscilloscope

Procedure:

A Resistive circuit

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.1

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 10 Vac peak-to-peak at 250 Hz as shown

in the oscilloscope

3. Set an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

What is the phase difference or phase shift of the two traves or waveform?

_____________________________________________________

What did you observe about the time in which the two waveforms started and

then reached their first peak value and so on?

 _______________________________________________________

4. Switch off the power supply.

B Inductive circuit

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.2

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 10 Vac peak-to-peak at 250 Hz as shown

in the oscilloscope

3. Set an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

Based on the trave or waveform you draw, what is the phase difference or phase

shoft of the two traces or waveform?

_________________________________________________________

Which of the two monitor reaches its positive peak value first?

_________________________________________________________

4. Switch off the power supply

C Capacitive circuit

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.3

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 10 Vac peak-to-peak at 250 Hz as shown

in the oscilloscope

3. Set an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

Based on the trave or waveform you draw, what is the phase difference or phase

shoft of the two traces or waveform?

__________________________________________________________
 Which waveform monitor is leading?

__________________________________________________________

What relationship can you established between the voltage and current

waveform for a capacitive circuit?

__________________________________________________________

4. Switch off the power supply.

Table 2.1 Resistive Circuit

Frequency (Hz) Voltage ( Vrms) Current (mArms) Impedance

Table 2.2 Inductive Circuit

Frequency (Hz) Voltage ( Vrms) Current (mArms) Impedance

Table 2.3

Frequency (Hz) Voltage ( Vrms) Current (mArms) Impedance

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 4: Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

Objective:

To investigate the impedance of a series RLC circuit and compare it with the

impedance of its constituent components.

Theory:

The behavior of a series circuit comprising all three kinds of circuits elements

(resistor, inductor and capacitor) will depend upon the relative magnitudes of the

reactances X L and X C . Remembering that inductive reactance and capacitive reactance

act opposite each other, it should be clear that the combination behaves (1) like a R-L

circuit or as an inductive circuit when X L is greater than X C , (2) like a R-C circuit or as a

capacitive circuit when X C is greater than X L and (3) like a pure resistance R circuit or

as a resistive circuit when X L equals X C . This latter condition has a special significance

and is said to produce resonance in the circuit.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

AC Miliameter 0 – 250mA
Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 100Hz, with constant output amplitude of

4Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

3. On the table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current,

voltage across the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively.

What did you observe about the magnitude of the current flowing to the resistor,

inductor and capacitor? What is the parameter in the system?

_____________________________________________________________

4. On another sheet of paper, draw to scale a phasor diagram showing V T , V R, V L

and V c set the current as reference.

What is the phase relationship between V L and V c ? How do you combine the

resultant value of V L and V c ?

_____________________________________________________________

From your phasor diagram, what is the phase relationship between the resultant

of V L and V c to V R?
 _____________________________________________________________

5. On the table 2, following the results table, calculate the required parameters.

6. Switch off the power supply.

Optional Activity:

Determination of internal resistance and inductance of a practical inductor (coil):

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 60Hz, with constant output amplitude of

4Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

3. On table 2a and table 2b, following the results table, record the readings of total

current, voltage across the resistor and then the voltage across the coil. And then

calculate the required parameters.

4. On another sheet of paper, solve the internal resistance (r) and inductance (L) of

a coil using an analytical solution.

5. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:

Figure 1

Preferred settings for figure 1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 100Ω

Inductor (L1) = 100mH

Capacitor (C1) = 2.2µF

 Figure 2

Preferred settings for figure 2:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 100Ω

Practical Inductor (coil) = 100 - 200mH

Table 1

Frequency Total Voltage ( Total Current ( Resistor Inductor Capacitor

V T) I T) Voltage (V R) Voltage (V L) Voltage (V C )
Hz
V RMS mA RMS V RMS V RMS V RMS

100

200

300

400

500
Table 2

Formula Frequency Hz

100 200 300 400 500

Ohm’s Law VR
(Measured Values) R=
IR

VL
X L=
IL

VC
XC=
IC

VT
¿ Z∨¿
IT

Equation R=R
Impedance
X L =2 πfL

1
XC=
2 πfC 1

Pythagorean X =X L− X C
Theorem
¿ Z∨¿ √ R + X
❑ 2 2
(Impedance
Triangle)
−1 X
θ Z =tan
R

Complex Number Z=R+ j ( X L −X C )

(rectangular form)

Z=|Z|∠ θ Z

(polar form)
Table 2a

Measured Values

Frequency Total Voltage (V T Total Current ( I T ) Resistor Voltage ( Coil’s Voltage (V coil
) V R) )
Hz mA RMS
V RMS V RMS V RMS

60

Table 2b

Calculated Values

Total Current ( Total Impedance Coil’s Impedance ( Coil’s Internal Coil’s Inductance
I T) ( ZT ) Z coil) Resistance (r) (L)

mA RMS Ω Ω Ω mH

Discussion:

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 5: Impedance and Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

Objective:

To investigate the impedance and admittance of parallel connected components

when driven by a sinusoidal alternating current.

Theory:

When resistance, inductance and capacitance are connected in parallel, the

characteristic of the equivalent circuit will depend on the relative magnitudes of the

inductive reactance X L and the capacitive reactance X C . Take note that X L is directly

proportional and X C is inversely proportional to the frequency. For a parallel connection

of R, L, and C, the circuit will be capacitive when X L is greater than X C . This latter case

gives rise to parallel or anti-resonant condition of the circuit.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function Generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

A.C. Miliameter 0 – 250mA

Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown un figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 300 Hz, with constant output amplitude of

4 V RMS as measured on the voltmeter.

3. On table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current, current

flowing in the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively. This can be done by

replacing each link with an ammeter one at a time.

What did you observe about the magnitude of the voltage across the resistor,

inductor and capacitor? What is the parameter in the system?

_______________________________________________________________

4. On another sheet of paper, draw to scale a phasor diagram showing showing I T ,

I R , I L and I c set the voltage as reference.

What is the phase relationship between I L and I c? How do you combine the

resultant value of I L and I c?

_______________________________________________________________

5. In table 2, following the result table, calculate the required parameters.

6. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:

Figure 1

Preferred settings for figure 1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 100Ω

Inductor (L1) = 100mH

Capacitor (C1) = 2.2µF

Table 1

Frequency Total Voltage ( Total Current ( Resistor Inductor Capacitor

V T) I T) Current ( I R ) Current ( I L) Current ( I C)
Hz
V RMS mA RMS mA RMS mA RMS mA RMS

300

400
 500

600

700

Table 2

Formula Frequency Hz

300 400 500 600 700

Ohm’s Law IR
(Measured G=
VR
Values)
IL −3
β L= ×10
VL

IC −3
β C= ×10
VC

VT
¿ Z∨¿
IT

1
|Y |=
IT −3
¿ Z∨¿= × 10 ¿
VT

Equation 1
Impedance
G=
R
(for purely resistive
branch only)

1 −3
β L= ×10
2 πfL
−3
β C =2 πfC × 10

Pythagorean −3
β=β L−β C ×10
Theorem
¿ Y ∨¿ √ G + β ×10
❑ 2 2 −3
(Impedance
 Triangle) −1 β
θY =tan
G

Complex Number 1 1 1 1
Y= = + +
Z R jX L − jX C

(rectangular form)

Y =¿Y ∨∠θY

(polar form)

1
Z=
Y
(polar form)

Discussion:

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 6: Series Resonance

Objectives:

To know the resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit.

To demonstrate the characteristic of the resonant frequency of a series RLC

circuit.

To verify the bandwidth and cut-off frequencies of the series RLC circuit.

Theory:

A resonant circuit consists of R, L, and C elements and whose frequency response

characteristic changes with changes in frequency. In this tutorial we will look at the frequency

response of a series resonance circuit and see how to calculate its resonant and cut-off

frequencies.

Thus far we have analyzed the behavior of a series RLC circuit whose source

voltage is a fixed frequency steady state sinusoidal supply. We have also seen in our

tutorial about series RLC circuits that two or more sinusoidal signals can be combined

using phasors providing that they have the same frequency supply.

But what would happen to the characteristics of the circuit if a supply voltage of

fixed amplitude but of different frequencies was applied to the circuit. Also what would

the circuits “frequency response” behavior be upon the two reactive components due to

this varying frequency.

 In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point where the inductive

reactance of the inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the

capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The point at which this occurs is called the Resonant

Frequency point, (ƒr) of the circuit, and as we are analyzing a series RLC circuit this

resonance frequency produces a Series Resonance.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function Generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

A.C. Miliameter 0 – 250mA

Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator initially to a minimum frequency (say 10Hz),

with constant output amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

3. Notice the ammeter reading, as you vary the source frequency from minimum

value (say 10Hz) to a maximum value (say 2000Hz). Find the frequency at which

the ammeter reading registered its maximum value.

4. In table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current, voltage

across the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively. Calculate the required

parameters.

5. In table 2, following the results table, calculate the required parameters.

In this circuit diagram, what do you call this frequency in which the circuit

experienced its maximum current?

_______________________________________________________________

At this frequency, how can you relate the magnitude of total impedance to the

current of the circuit?

_______________________________________________________________

At this frequency, based on table 1, what did you observe about the magnitude of

voltage across the inductor and the magnitude of voltage across the capacitor?

________________________________________________________________

At this frequency, based on table 1, what did you observe about the magnitude of

the total voltage and the magnitude of voltage across the resistor?

________________________________________________________________
 Based on table 2 or table 3, what did you observe about the magnitude of total

impedance?

________________________________________________________________

Based on table 2 or table 3, what did you observe about the magnitude of

inductive reactance and the magnitude of capacitive reactance?

________________________________________________________________

Based on table 2 and table 3, is the calculated value of the magnitude of total

impedance equal for both methods? If not, cite possible reason.

________________________________________________________________

6. Based on the given value of R, L and C, compute the resonant frequency using

the formula:

1
f o=
2 π √ LC
❑

7. Input the computed resonant frequency on table 3.

Does your calculated value agree with the frequency found previously for

maximum current of the circuit registered in the ammeter? If not, cite possible

reason.

________________________________________________________________

8. Based on the given values of R, L and C, compute the cut-off frequencies using

the formula:
 f 1=
2
RL [√
❑
1+
4L
CR 2
−1
] ;
f 2=
2
RL [√
❑
1+
4L
CR 2
+1
]
2π 2π

Note: this formula is intended only for the given circuit diagram of figure 1

9. Input the computed cut-off frequencies in table 1, following the results table,

record the readings of total current, voltage across the resistor, inductor and

capacitor respectively.

10. In table 1, with a suitable interval of frequency in between f1 and the frequency at

which the ammeter reading registered its maximum value and then to f2,

following the results table, record the readings of total current, voltage across the

resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively. Calculate the required parameters.

Based on table 1, what is the relationship of total current during cut-off

frequencies to that of the total current at resonant frequency?

________________________________________________________________

Based on table 1, maximum power occurs at what frequency?

________________________________________________________________

Based on table 1, what is the relationship of power absorbed by the resistor

during cut-off frequencies to that of the power absorbed by the resistor at

resonant frequency? From this, the cut-off frequencies are also known as

________________________________________________________________
 11. On another sheet of paper, at the same axes, draw the curves of V R, V L and V c

against frequency. Also draw the curves of I T against frequency.

12. Repeat the whole procedure for the next trial.

Based on the curves you draw (from the two trials), what is the relationship can

you identify between the bandwidth and quality factor?

________________________________________________________________

Based on the curves you draw (from the two trials), what is the relationship can

you identify on the effect of resistance used in the bandwidth?

________________________________________________________________

13. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:

Figure 1
Preferred settings for figure 1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4 Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 1 kΩ (at the first trial)

Resistor (R1) = 10 Ω (at the second trial)

Inductor (L1) = 100 mH

Capacitor (C1) = 2.2 uF

Table 1

TRIAL 1: Resistance =

Frequency Hz Total Total Resistor Inductor Capacitor Resistor

Voltage Current Voltage Voltage Voltage Power

Vrms mArms Vrms Vrms Vrms P=

Ir^2(R)

Frequency at which the ammeter

reading registered its maximum
value =
Table 2

TRIAL 1: Resistance =

Frequency Hz Total Total Resistor Inductor Capacitor Resistor

Voltage Current Voltage Voltage Voltage Power

Vrms mArms Vrms Vrms Vrms P=

Ir^2(R)
 Frequency at which the ammeter
reading registered its maximum
value =

Table 2:

Based on Measured Values at Resonant Frequency

Parameter Formula Resistance

Trial 1 Trial 2

Resistance VR
R=
IR

Inductive Reactance VL
X L=
IL
 Capacitive Reactance VC
XC=
IC

Total Impedance VT
¿ Z∨¿
IT

Quality Factor VL
Q=
VT

VC
Q=
VT

Table 2:

Calculated Values (based on the given values of R, L and C) at Resonant Frequency

Parameter Formula Resistance

Trial 1 Trial 2

Resistance R=R

Inductive Reactance X L =2 πfL

Capacitive Reactance 1
XC=
2 πfc

Total Impedance ¿ Z∨¿ ❑√ R2 + X 2

Resonant Frequency 1
f 0=
2 π √ LC
❑

f 0=❑√ f 1 f 2

[√ ]
Cut-off Frequencies (f1, f2)
2 ❑ 4L
1+ −1
RL CR 2
f 1=
2π

f 2=
2
RL [√❑
1+
4L
CR 2
+1
]
2π
 Bandwidth BW = f 2−f 1

R
BW =
2 πL

Quality Factor f0
Q=
BW

2 πf 0 L
Q=
R

1
Q=
2 πf 0 CR

Q=
√
1❑ L
R C

Discussion:

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 7: Parallel Resonance

Objectives:

To know the resonant frequency of a parallel RLC circuit.

To demonstrate the characteristics of the resonant frequency of a parallel RLC

circuit.

To verify the bandwidth and cut-off frequencies of the parallel RLC circuit.

Theory:

Parallel Resonance means when the circuit current is in phase with the applied

voltage of an AC circuit containing an inductor and a capacitor connected together in

parallel.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function Generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

A.C. Miliameter 0 – 250 mA

Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator initially to a minimum frequency (say

10Hz), with constant output amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

3. Notice the ammeter reading, as you vary the source frequency from the minimum

value (say 10Hz) to a maximum value (say 2000Hz). Find the frequency at which

the ammeter reading registered its minimum value.

4. In table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current and

voltage across capacitor respectively. calculate the required parameters.

5. Based on the given value of L and C, compute the resonant frequency and the

dynamic impedance using the formula:

√ ()
L
2
1 ❑ 1 r |Z 0|= C
f 0= − ;
2 π LC L r

6. Input the computed value on table 1.

7. Repeat the whole procedure for the next trial.

Based on the table 1 (from the two trials) and the relationship you establish

between the resistance and bandwidth, what must be done to the inductor

resistance to achieve high quality factor?

The longer the inductor resistance the higher quality factor.

 8. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:

Table 1:

Parallel LC Circuit with Increased Inductor Resistance

Measured Values Calculated Values

Frequency Total Total Capacitor Total Resonant Dynamic

Voltage Current Voltage Impedance Frequency Impedance
(Frequency
at which Vrms mArms Vrms Z=V/I Hz
the
ammeter
reading
registered
its
minimum
 value

Trial 1:

R2 =

Trial 2:

R2 =

Discussion:

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 8: Power in AC circuits

Objective:

To investigate the power dissipated by the resistive component and the power

associated with reactive components as well as the power associated with the

equivalent impedance of an AC circuits.

To investigate the power factor on non-linear loads and adjust its factor near

unity.

Theory:

Alternating Current and Voltages change their magnitude and direction with time.

This changes the way calculations for power and other quantities are done in circuits.

Furthermore, with the introduction of capacitors and inductances, many other effects

come into play which alters the power calculation in these circuits from the usual ways

of calculating power with DC sources. It becomes essential to know these workings and

concepts so that one can apply them in situations in real life where circuits are complex

and power calculation is required

Materials:

Feedback trainer kit

Function generator

Multimeter (VOM)

A.C milliammeter 0-100mA

Wattmeter
Initial settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO Not switch on yet.

Procedure:

i. Power measurement

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 8.1

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 250 Hz, with constant output

amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter

3. Record the result, record the readings of total current , the voltage across

the resistor , the voltage across the inductor and the total power absorbed

by the circuit.

4. Transfer the potential leads of the wattmeter across the resistor (nodes B

and C ) and record the reading of the power absorbed by the resistor.

5. Transfer the potential leads of the wattmeter across the inductor (nodes A

and B ) and record the reading of the power absorbed by the inductor.

6. From the given values and measured values in table 8.1 calculate the

required parameters in table 8.2

7. Switch off the power supply unit.

ii. Power factor correction

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 8.1

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 250 Hz, with constant output

amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter

 3. Record the result, record the readings of total current , the voltage across

the resistor , the voltage across the inductor and the total power absorbed

by the circuit.

4. Notice the two sinusoidal waveform seen on the oscilloscope, especially

their phase difference

5. Notice also the wattmeter reading.

6. Now connect the capacitor parallel with the inductor.

7. From the given values and measured values of table 8.3 calculate the

required parameter

8. Switch off the power supply unit.

iii. Maximum power transfer to a load impedance

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 8.3

2. Let Zth be the internal impedance or thevenin’s impedance of the given

power. And ZL is load impedance to be varied so that it will absorb

maximum power.

3. Set the sine wave function generator to 259 Hz with constant outpur

amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

4. Record the result, record the readings of total current , the voltage across

the resistor , the voltage across the inductor and the total power absorbed

by the circuit.

5. Calculate the required parameters.

6. Switch off the power supply

Final Date

Table 8.1

Power Measurement
Parameter Given value Parameter Given value
Frequency (Hz) Total voltage (Vr)
(Vrms)
Resistance (R) Resistor voltage
(Vr)
(Vrms)
Inductance (L) Inductor Voltage
(VL)
(Vrms)
Reactance (X) Total current
IXI = 2πfL(Ω) Total power
Impedance (Z) Resistor power
IZI = ❑√ R2 +¿ X 2 ¿ (Ω) Inductor power

Table 8.2

Power measurement
Parameter Calculated values
Impedance angle
Power factor
Reactive power
Real power
Reactive power
Apparent power
Table 8.3

Power factor correction

Parameter Given values
Frequency
Resistance
Inductance
Capacitance
Inductive reactance
Capacitive reactance
Total reactance
impedance
Total voltage
Resistor voltage
Indector voltage
Total current
Total power

Table 8.4

Power factor correction

Parameter Calculated values
Impedance angle
Power factor
Reactive power
Real power
Reactive power
Apparent power
Table 8.5

Maximum power transfer to a load impedance

Parameter Inductance
60 120 180 240 300 360
Total
voltage
Total
current
Total power
Resistance
R1
Resistance
R2
Total
resistance
Capacitance
Capacitive
reactance
Inductive
reactance
Total
reactance
Impedance
angle
Power
factor
Real power

Interpretation:

Conclusion:
 Laboratory 9: Three-phase Circuits

OBJECTIVE

 To study the relationship between voltage and current in three-phase circuits.

 To learn how to make delta and wye connections.

 To calculate the power in three-phase circuits.

There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in
single phase minimum amount of power can be transported. Here the generating station and
load station will also be single phase. This is an old system using from previous time.
In 1882, new invention has been done on polyphase system, that more than one phase can be
used for generating, transmitting and for load system. Three phase circuit is the polyphase
system where three phases are send together from the generator to the load.
Each phase are having a phase difference of 120o, i.e 120o angle electrically. So from the total
of 360o, three phases are equally divided into 120o each. The power in three phase system is
continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating the total power. The sinusoidal
waves for 3 phase system is shown below-
The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one
phase can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to
complete the circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
 Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the list of
equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

CAUTION!

High voltages are present in this Experiment! Do not make or

modify any banana jack connections with the power on unless
otherwise specified!

G 1. a. Using your Power Supply and AC Voltmeter connect the circuit shown
in Figure 45-1

Figure 45-1.
 b. Turn on the power supply and adjust the line-to-neutral voltage (as
indicated by the power supply voltmeter) to exactly 120 V ac.

c. Measure and record each line-to-line voltage.

E
4 to 5 = V ac
E
5 to 6 = V ac
E
4 to 6 = V ac
d. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

e. Calculate the average value of the line-to-line voltage.

E = V ac
line-to-line

G 2. a. Reconnect your three voltmeters in order to measure the voltage from

each line-to-neutral.

b. Turn on the power supply and adjust the line-to-neutral voltage (as
indicated by the power supply voltmeter) to exactly 120 V ac.

E =
4 to N V ac
E =
5 to N V ac
E =
V ac
6 to N

d. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

e. Calculate the average value of the line-to-neutral voltage.

E = V ac
line-to-neutral

G 3. a. Calculate the ratio of the average line-to-line voltage to the average

line-to-neutral voltage.

E /E =
line-to-line line-to-neutral

b. Is this ratio approximately equal to the

G 4. a. Repeat procedures 1 and 2 but this time measure the voltages from
the fixed output terminals of your power supply.

E E
1 to 2 1 to N

= =
V ac V ac
E E
2 to 3 2 to N

= =
V ac V ac
E E
1 to 3 3 to N

= =
V ac V ac
b. Are the fixed line-to-line and the line-to-neutral voltages reasonably
equal?

G Yes G No

c. Is the voltage between any two terminals a single-phase voltage or a

three-phase voltage?

G 5. a. Using your Resistive Load, AC Ammeter and AC Voltmeter connect the

WYE circuit shown in Figure 45-2. Use a separate resistance section
for each of the loads R1, R2 and R3. Do not connect the neutral of the
resistance module to the neutral of the power supply.

b. Set each resistance section to 400 ȍ.

c. Turn on the power supply and adjust for 208 V ac.

d. Measure and record the voltages across, and the currents through,
the three load resistances R1, R2 and R3.

I
E1 = V ac =1 A ac
E2 = V ac I2 = A ac

E3 = V ac I3 = A ac

e. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

f. Are the currents and voltages reasonably well balanced?

G Yes G No

g. Calculate the average value of load voltage.

Eload = V ac
 h. What is the average value of the line-to-line voltage (from procedure
1 (e)):

E = ac
line-to-line

i. Calculate the ratio of the average line-to-line voltage to the average

load voltage.

E /E =
line-to-line load

j. Is this ratio approximately equal to

k. Calculate the power dissipated by each load resistance.

P1 = W

P2 = W

P3 = W

l. Calculate the total three-phase power PT.

PT= W

G 6. a. Connect the DELTA circuit shown in Figure 45-3.

 Figure 45-3.

b. Set each resistance section to 400 ȍ.

c. Turn on the power supply and adjust for 120 V ac line-to-line.

d. Measure and record the voltages across, and the currents through,
the three load resistances R1, R2 and R3.

E1 = V ac I1 = A ac

E2 = V ac I2 = A ac

E3 = V ac I3 = A ac

e. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

f. Are the currents and voltages reasonably well balanced?

G Yes G No

g. Calculate the average value of load current.

Iload = A ac

h. Disconnect the three current meters and insert them in series with
power supply terminals 4, 5 and 6. Replace the removed current
meters with connection leads as shown in Figure 45-4.

Figure 45-4
i. Turn on he power supply and adjust for 120 V ac.
j. Measure and record the three line currents.

I
4 = A ac
I
=5 A ac
I6 = A ac

k. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

l. Calculate the average value of line current.

Iline = ac

m. Calculate the ratio of the average line current to the average

load current.

I /I =
line load

n. Is this ratio approximately equal to

G Yes G No

o. Calculate the power dissipated by each load resistance.

P1 = W

P2 = W
P3 = W
 Laboratory 10: Maximum power transfer and superposition

Objective:
To apply Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems in finding the current flowing in a particular resistor
(variable load) in a particular network.
To verify the theorems by comparing the simulated values to those obtained by measurement.

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid to
system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load
resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network
supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance
of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than the maximum.
This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or
transmission line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum radio
frequency power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar
to resistance and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be
transferred to the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load
impedance that is too low will not only result in low power output but possibly overheating of the
amplifier due to the power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem does not: Maximum power transfer does not coincide
with maximum efficiency. Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem to AC power
distribution will not result in maximum or even high efficiency. The goal of high efficiency is more
important for AC power distribution, which dictates a relatively low generator impedance
compared to the load impedance.
Similar to AC power distribution, high fidelity audio amplifiers are designed for a relatively low
output impedance and a relatively high speaker load impedance. As a ratio, “output impedance”:
“load impedance” is known as damping factor, typically in the range of 100 to 1000.
Maximum power transfer does not coincide with the goal of the lowest noise. For example, the
low-level radio frequency amplifier between the antenna and a radio receiver is often designed
for the lowest possible noise. This often requires a mismatch of the amplifier input impedance to
the antenna as compared with that dictated by the maximum power transfer theorem.

Materials:
DC supply (VS = 15V)
Digital multimeters
Resistors R1=1.8kΩ; R2=3.6kΩ; R3=820Ω; R4=R5=100Ω; RL=180Ω
Procedure:

Thevenin’s Theorem

1. The supply voltage and resistance of each resistor is measured.

These values are recorded in Table 3-1. RL is selected as the resistor
where it is proposed to determine the current value.
2. The circuit in Figure 3-1 is constructed. The supply does not turn on.
3. Resistor RL is removed from the network.
4. The supply is turn on. The voltage between the points A and D of
the network is measured. This is the Thevenin’s voltage. The value is
recorded in Table 3-2.
5. The power supply is switched off. The power supply V1 is replaced
with a short circuit.
6. The resistance between terminals A and D is measured. This is
the Thevenin’s resistance. The value is recorded in Table 3-2.
7. The resistor RL is placed back in the circuit with an ammeter is
connected between terminals C and D.
8. 1aThe short circuit connection is removed and the power supply is
placed back in the circuit.
9. The supply is turn on. The current value flowing in the resistor RL is
read and recorded

Norton’s Theorem

1. The circuit is constructed as shown in Figure 3-1. The supply does

not turn on.
2. Resistor RL is removed from the network. RL is selected as the
resistor where it is proposed to determine the current value.
3. The supply is turn on. The current shown by the ammeter between
terminals A and D is read. This is Norton’s current, IN. The value is
recorded in Table 3-3.
4. The power supply is switched off. The supply is replaced with a
short circuit.
5. The resistance between terminals A and D is measured. This is
Norton’s resistance. The value is recorded in Table 3-3.
6. The resistor RL is placed back in the circuit with an ammeter is
connected between terminals C and D.
7. The power supply is placed back in the circuit and the short
circuit connection is removed.
8. The current value flowing in the resistor RL is read and recorded.
Table of Results

Measured
values
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RL

Table 3-1

Measured values Theoretical values

Thevenin’s r Thevenin’s v Current in Thevenin’s r Thevenin’s v Current in
esistance oltage RL esistance oltage RL

Table 3-2

Measured values Theoretical values

Norton’s res Norton’s cur Current in Norton’s res Norton’s cur Current in
istance rent RL istance rent RL

Table 3-3

Calculations

Thevenin’s resistance

By using wye-delta transformation:

= 2.63Ω
= 94.73Ω
= 94.73Ω

RTH = [(Rb + R3) || (Rc + R1)] + Ra

Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of RTH

Thevenin’s voltage
Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of VTH =

Norton’s Resistance
RN = RTH =
Norton’s Current

Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of IN =

Current in RL

IL = 5.058/(616.91 + 180)
= 6.13mA

Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of IL =

Conclusion: