G407 Virtual Instrument Design for HVAC

Instrumentation System

Introduction to instrumentation &

its applications

Department of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, and Energy Engineering

National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taiwan (R.O.C)
Terminology
Instrumentation is a technology of measurement
which serves sciences, engineering, medicine and
etc.

Measurement is the process of determining the

amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used.

Measurement is the experimental process of

acquiring any quantitative information. When doing a
measurement, we compare the measurable quantity
– measurand - with another same type of quantity.
This other quantity is called measurement unit

Measurand – a physical quantity, property, or

condition which is measured
 Cont…
 Measurement means, to monitor a process or a operation and
using an instrument, express the parameter, quantity or a
variable in terms of meaningful numbers.

 Measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act or

result of a quantitative comparison between a predefined
standard and an unknown quantity to be measured.

 There are 2 basic requirements:

 The comparison standard is accurately defined and
commonly accepted , and
 The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the
comparison must be provable.
 Cont…
Measurements
Can be divided into direct or indirect measurements
Direct measurement – measured quantity is registered
directly from the instruments display.
◼ Measuring voltage with voltmeter

◼ Measuring length with ruler

Indirect measurement – result is calculated (using formula)

from the values obtained from direct measurements
◼ Finding work done by current:

 U – voltmeter
 I – ammeter
 t – clock
 A=U*I*t
FUNCTIONS
The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
◼ Indicating – visualize the process/operation

Speed
Temperature

◼ Recording – observe and save the

measurement reading

◼ Controlling – to control measurement and

process
Classification of physical quantites

Can be divided for quantities which value

◼ is determined uniquely and does not depend on the
zero level
 mass
◼ can only be determined as a reference to some
fixed zero level
 potential energy (zero level can be ground floor
or 3d floor and result depends on that)
 Time
but time interval and change in potential energy
belong to the upper class
Measurements main equation
The value of the measured quantity can be
expressed as

Y = y [Y ]

where [Y] is the measurement unit and y is

the number, which shows how many times the
measurable quantity differs from the unit
Instrument
Instrument is a device that transforms a physical
variable of interest (the measurand ) into a form that is
suitable for recording (the measurement)
Instrument is a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.
❑ An example is ruler
• the measurand is the length
of some object
• the measurement is the
number of units (meters,
inches, etc.) that represent
the length
Evolution of Instruments
1. Mechanical
2. Electrical
3. Electronic Instruments.

MECHANICAL
These instruments are very reliable for static
and stable conditions. But their disadvantage is
that they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.
 Cont…

ELECTRICAL
It is faster than mechanical, indicating the
output are rapid than mechanical methods. But
it depends on the mechanical movement of the
meters. The response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

ELECTRONIC
It is more reliable than other system. It uses
semiconductor devices and weak signal can
also be detected.
Advantages of electronic measurement
 Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the
electrical or electronic signals.

 Electronic signals can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled

and measured.

 Measured signals can be transmitted over long distance through

cables or radio links, without any loss of information.

 Many measurements can be done simultaneously or in rapid

succession.

 Electronic circuits can measure the events of very short duration

 Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of

reliability are the important features of electronic instruments and
measurements.
 Functional elements of an instrument

Data Storage
&playback
element

Primary Variable Variable Data Data observer

Sensing Conversion manipulation Transmission presentation
element element element element element
Quantity
To be measured

Data conditioning element

 Cont…
Primary Sensing Element:
An element of an instrument which makes first contact
with the quantity to be measured. In most cases a
Transducer follows primary sensing element which
converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical
signal.

Variable Conversion Element:

Output of the primary sensing element is in electrical
form such as Voltage, Frequency….such an output may
not be suitable for the actual measurement system.
(Ex: A/D converter)
 Cont…
Variable Manipulation Element
The level of the output from the previous stage may not be
enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable manipulation
element manipulates the signal, preserving the original nature
of the signal.

Data Transmission Element

When the elements of the system are physically separated, it is
necessary to transmit the data from one stage to other. This is
achieved by the data transmission element.

Data Presentation Element

The data is monitored, for analyzing purpose using data
presentation element.(Ex: Visual display)
Simple Instrument Model
Physical
Signal
Measurement Measurement
Variable
Variable
Measurand SENSOR
X S M

Physical Process Display

The key functional element of the instrument model is the sensor,

which has the function of converting the physical variable input into
a signal variable output
Due to the property that signal variables can be manipulated in a
transmission system, such as an electrical or mechanical circuit,
they can be transmitted to a remote output or recording device
In electrical circuits, voltage is a common signal variable
Simple Instrument Model
If the signal from Sensor output is small, it is needed
to be amplified. In many cases it is also necessary for
the instrument to provide a digital signal output for
connection with a computer-based data acquisition
systems.

Physical Analog Signal Analog Signal Digital Signal

Measurement Variable Variable Variable
Variable

Measurand SENSOR AMPLIFIER A/D Computer

Converter

X S
Memory
Physical Process Output
 Cont…

Example

Moving coil senses current

Magnets & coil convert current in coil to force
Force is transmitted to pointer through mechanical
links
Pointer and scale presents the current value
 Cont…

Ammeter
 Operational Modes of Instrumentation

Null Instrument –
A measuring device that
balances the measurand
against a known value,
thus achieving a null
condition. Two inputs are
essential to the null
instrument.
Null measurement devices usually consist of
1. automatic or manual feedback system that allows the comparison of
known standard value,
2. an iterative balancing operation using some type of comparator
3. and a null deflection at parity
 Cont…

Advantages:
◼ Minimizes measurement loading errors
(i.e. alter the value of the measured
signal). Effective when the measurand is
a very small value.
◼ minimizes interaction between the
measuring system and the measurand,
by balancing the unknown input against a
known standard input
◼ Achieving perfect parity (zero condition)
is limited only by the state of the art of
the circuit or scheme being employed
Disatvantages:
◼ Slow - an iterative balancing operation
requires more time to execute than
simply measuring sensor input. Not
suitable for fast measurements i.e. only
for static measurements
 Cont…
example
An equal arm balance scale
with manual balance
feedback
Potetntiometer

AB is the potentiometer wire with resistance R1.

The EMF of a standard DC source is e volts.
The rheostat resistance is R . If the null point
is obtained at point C, then the EMF of e and e1
are equal
 cont…
Deflection instrument
Deflection instrument - a measuring device whose output
deflects (deviates) proportional to the magnitude of the
measurand
Deflection instruments are the most common measuring
instruments
Advantages:
◼ high dynamic response i.e. can be used for fast
measurements
◼ can be designed for either static or dynamic measurements
or both
Disadvantages:
◼ by deriving its energy from the measurand, the act of
measurement will influence the measurand and change the
value of the variable being measured. This change is called a
loading error.
 Cont…
example

Spring scale as a deflection instrument. Scale has to be

calibrated.
 Cont…
Diagram block of a deflection instrument

The logic flow chart for a deflection instrument is

straightforward

Examples of signal conditioning are to multiply the

deflection signal by some scaler magnitude, such as in
amplification or filtering, or to transform the signal by
some arithmetic function
Analog and Digital Sensors
Analog sensors - provide a signal that is
continuous in both its magnitude and its
temporal (time) or spatial (space) content
Digital sensors - provide a signal that is a
direct digital representation of the
measurand. Digital sensors are basically
binary (“on” or “off ”) devices. Essentially, a
digital signal exists at only discrete values of
time (or space)
Analog sensor
The defining word for analog is “continuous” i.e. if a
sensor provides a continuous output signal that is
directly proportional to the input signal, then it is analog

Thermocouple as an analog sensor

Digital sensor
A common representation of digital signal is the discrete
sampled signal, which represents a sensor output in a
form that is discrete both in time or space and in
magnitude.

Data can be sent

either in serial or
parallel format

A rotating shaft with a revolution counter. Each revolution generates a spike.In

this example, the continuous rotation of the shaft is analog but the revolution
count is digital. The amplitude of the voltage spike is set to activate the counter
and isnot related to the shaft rotational speed.
Analog Readout Instruments
An analog readout
instrument provides an
output indication that is
continuous and directly
analogous to the behavior of
the measurand
For example
◼ deflection of a pointer or

an ink trace on a
graduated scale
◼ the intensity of a light
beam or a sound wave
Digital Readout Instruments
A digital readout instrument provides an output indication that is
discrete
Many digital devices combine features of an analog sensor with a
digital readout or, in general, convert an analog signal to a discrete
signal. In such situations, an analog to digital converter (ADC) is
required.

☺ HP3458A digital multimeter, most widely used device in MRI

ERRORS
sources of errors
1. Faulty design of instrument
2. Insufficient knowledge of quantity and
design conditions
3. Improper maintenance of the
instrument.
4. Sudden change in the parameter to be
measured.
5. Unskilled operator
6. Effects of environmental conditions.
Types of errors
static errors are classified as,
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error
 Cont…

Gross error: (personal errors)

Occurs due to carelessness of human while
reading, recording and calculating results.
Due to incorrect adjustments of instruments.

❖To eliminate error:

Take care while reading, recording and
calculating results.
Take 3 or more readings with 3 or more
persons.
 Cont…

Systematic error
A constant uniform deviation of operation in
instruments known as systematic error.
Due to short comings and characteristics of the material
used in instrument like worn parts, ageing effects etc;

❖ Types:
a) Instrumental error
b) Environmental error
c) Observational error
 Cont…

Instrumental error
shortcomings of instrument:
Due to mechanical structure of the instruments.
Ex: Friction in bearings,
Irregular spring tension,
variation in air gap.

To eliminate error:
1. select proper instrument and select proper procedure.
2. Identify effect of errors and correct it.
3. Calibrate the instrument.
 Cont…
➢Misuse of instruments:
Ex: poor initial adjustments
improper zero setting
using leads of high resistance

➢Loading effects:
Ex: connecting a well calibrated voltmeter
across the 2 points of high resistance circuit.
 Cont…
Environmental error

They are due to

temperature changes
pressure changes
thermal e.m.f
stray capacitance
cross capacitance
➢To eliminate error:
1. proper correction factors given by the manufacturer.
2. make arrangements to keep surrounding constant
like using A.C.
3. sealing the components to avoid dust, humidity.
4. providing magnetic or electrostatic shields.
 Cont…
Observational error
errors made by observers
Ex: parallax error while reading a meter,
wrong scale selection

➢To eliminate error:

1. use instruments with mirrors.
2. knife edged pointers.
 Cont…

Random error
Causes of errors which are unknown are
random errors.

Due to accumulation of large number of

small effects
They cannot be corrected by any method.
use statistical methods to obtain best
approximation of reading.
ERROR ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis
Arithmetic mean and median:
mean:

Median:
 Cont…

Deviation from mean:

Average deviation (mean deviation):

 Cont…

Standard deviation:
 Cont…

Variance:
mean square deviation
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Selection, care and use of the instrument :-

✓ Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly

familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully

✓ Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy

required (accuracy + resolution + cost)

✓ Before using any selected instrument, do the inspection for

any physical problem

✓ Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make

sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’

has been set-up at the proper function or range
Selecting Suitable Instruments for Measurement

We use different instruments depending on the size, weight,

speed, temperature, . . . of the object being measured.

1. We may use a 12” ruler to measure the distance

between two points on a small map.

2. We may use a 10’ tape measure to determine the

dimensions of a desk or the size of a room.

3. We may use a 50’ tape measure or a special laser device

to determine the outside dimensions of a building.

Challenge question A: Suggest quick and easy ways of measuring

the dimensions of your school campus or of a shopping mall.

Challenge question B: What instrument is used to measure small

items (e.g., thickness of a nail or diameter of a copper wire)?
Simple Instrument Model
Common physical variables Typical signal variables
• Force • Voltage
• Length • Current
• Temperature • Displacement – spring of newtonmeter
• Acceleration • Light – change in intensity
• Velocity
• Pressure
• Frequency
• Capacity
• Resistance
• Time
•…
 Cont…
Example applications

Length
Temperature

Weight
Speed
 Cont…
Instrumentation- Devices & Parameters

Voltage, Resistance Frequency

Temperature
Pressure
Temperature Measurement

Materials expand when heated

Idea: Connect a reservoir to 100

a very thin tube to make the 90
expansion more noticeable 80
70
Put tick marks and numbers 60
next to the tube by exposing 50
the thermometer to known 40
temperatures (0 C for melting 30
ice, 100 C for boiling water) 20
10
0 C
0
32 F
100 C
212 F
A Second Way for Measuring Temperature

Different materials expand by

different amounts when heated

Idea: Connect two different

metals together to form a strip.
Different expansions will cause
the strip to bend when heated.

Bimetal strip Use spiral shape

to convert the
shifting motion
into rotation
Measuring Speed
Goleta

But how do you

How fast the car is moving measure electricity?
is proportional to how fast
the wheels are spinning

Idea: Convert the spinning

motion to electricity (as in a
hand-crank flashlight that
gives off more light the
faster you turn the crank)
Measuring Electrical Voltage

When there is no electricity

in the circuit, the spring keeps
the needle at 0
needle’s
rest
Electricity in the circuit turns position
the wire coil into a magnet spring
that pulls the iron vane

The higher the electrical

voltage, the stronger the
magnetic pull of the wire coil
and the greater the rightward
movement of the needle
Any question?