Unit 1 Mechanical Measurement

Generalized Measurement
System
UNIT I
Syllabus
• Introduction - Introduction to measurement and
measuring instruments.
• Generalized measuring system and functional
elements
• static and dynamic performance characteristics of
measurement devices, calibration, error- concept and
sources, statistical analysis of errors sensors and
Transducers
• Types of sensors, type of transducers and their
characteristics.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
• Differentiate precision and accuracy
• Explain any two types of sensors with neat
diagrams.
• Discuss the characteristics of a mechanical
transducer with diagram mention the
applications.
• What is meant by calibration explain the
procedure to calibrate the pressure gauge of a
mechanical type.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
• What do you mean by calibration
• Mention the static performance characteristics of
measurement devices explain any two static performance
characteristics
• Explain the characteristics of transducer with suitable
example
• Differentiate precision and accuracy
• Explain static and dynamic performance characteristics of
measuring devices
• What is the need of tolerances differentiate Unilateral and
bilateral tolerance with suitable examples
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
• What is transducer explain its types
• What is measurement what is the generalized measurement system.
• Define the term calibration of a measuring instrument
• describe elements of generalized measurement system with the help of suitable
diagram
• Describe in brief following characteristics of instruments
1. accuracy
2. sensitivity
3. Drift
4. fidelity
5. sensitivity
6. true value
7. Drift
8. measuring lag
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
• What do you mean by calibration
• Explain the functional elements of generalized
measurement system
• What is sensor
• Describe primary secondary tertiary
measurement with examples
• Write short notes on threshold ,
reproducibility
Introduction
All inductive investigation consists in the marriage of hypothesis and
experiment
Research is studious enquiry or examination critical and exhaustive investigation
or experimentation having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their
correct interpretation".
Experiment is an act or operation carried out under conditions determined by
the experimenter in order to discover some unknown principle and effect or to
test establish and illustrate some suggested or known truth".
research and experiment go together.
Experimentation is vital for progress in any fieldwhere information is lacking.
There would thus be a need to measure the physical entitiessuch as
displacement, velocity, pressure, force, elapsed time etc. in the operating
devicesand machines.
.
Introduction
Experimentation Is considered to be the
cornerstone in the field of engineering design,
research and development projects.
In industry to there is need for the measurement
and control of the physical conditions required
for mass production and high quality products .
Similarly in commercial organisations, the
measurement of water and electricity supplied
consumer is a must.
Introduction
As an engineer, we must have a sound and a thorough
knowledge of:
1. object of measurement, ie., why a measurement is
being made and what information it would yield?
2. operational features limitations and difficulties
inherent in the instruments, ie. how a thermocouple
or a bourdon tube pressure gauge or an oscilloscope
operates
3. factors which are likely to influence the measuring
process or technique.
Introduction
The division of engineering science which deals with
measuring techniques, devices and their associated
problems in called instrumentation
Instrumentation is the technology of making measurements
and it implies the application of instruments for sensing.
measurement, control and monitoring of physical
variables.
Instrumentation is a multidisciplinary subject, its different
aspects are based in the subject areas of physics ,system
dynamics, thermo-fluid mechanics and electrical
principles.
Where as the input to a measuring system is
known as measurand, the output is called
measurement.
Measurement
The word measurement is used to tell us the length; the weight, the
temperature, the colour of change in one of these physical entities of
material.
Measurement provides us with means for describing the various physical and
chemical parameters of materials in quantitative terms.
Measurement is the result of an opinion formed by one or more observers
about the relative size or intensity of some physical quantity. The opinion is
formed by the observer after comparing the object with a quantity of same
kind chosen as a unit, called standard.
The result of measurement is expressed by a number representing the ratio of
the unknown quantity to the adopted standard. This number gives the value
of the measured quantity For example 10 cm length of and object implies
that the object is 10 times as large as 1 cm the: unit employed in expressing
length.
Measurement
Measurement
The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the object
of measurement in an instrumentation system is variously termed as
measurand , measurement variable, instrumentation variable and
process variable.
The measurand may be a fundamental quantity (length mass and
time) ,a derived quantity (speed, velcocity acceleration, power, etc.) or
a quality like pressure, temperature etc.
• Pervariables or through variables which can be specified and
measured at one point in space. Examples are force, momentum,
current and charge
• Transvariables or across variables which need two points (usually one
point reference) to specify or measure them. Examples are
displacement, velocity, temperature and voltage
Measurement
Measurement: The measurement of given quantity is defined as:
The result comparison between a quantity whose magnitude is
unknown, with a similar quantity of know magnitude, called as
the predefined standard. The result of comparison is
expressed in terms of numerical value. For the obtained result
to be meaningful the following to condition should b satisfied:
(a) The standard used for companison must be accurately
defined and commonly accepted.
(b) The procedure and apparatus employed for obtain the
comparison must be provable
Measurement
Applications of measurement system:
1.Monitoring of processes and operations :e.g Thermometer, pressure gauge to

indicate tcondition of environment, water electric meters to indicate the
quantity of commodity used, compute the cost to be realized from the met
odometer, tachometer to monitor usage and speel
2. Control of process and operations :eg Home heating system, refrigeration system
etewhich a thermostatic control tike a bimetallic element or a thermocouple give
necessary informationfor the proper functioning of the control system
3. Experimental engineering analysis:
(a) To test the validity of theoretical predictions
(b) To determine system parameters, variables and performance indices
(c) To solve mathematical relationship with the help of analytics
Instrument
The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative
information about the know of events occurring in
our environments.
The stringent requirements of precise and accurate
measurements in the technological fields have,
therefore, led to the development of mechanical aids
called instruments.
Scientific instruments allow the human to observe and
measure aspects of the physical universe beyond the
range and precision of the unaided human senses.
Instrument
The man-made instruments are not only
accurate and sensitive in their response but
also retain their characteristics for extended
periods of time.
Instruments may be simple, such as liquid-in-
glass thermometer or extremely complex such
as the device to sense the physiological
reactions of a man during space flight.
Measurement methods
Direct and indirect measurements:

Measurement is a process of comparison of the physical
quantity with a reference standard. Depending upon the
requirement based upon the standards employed, there are
two basic methods of measurement
1. Direct measurement: The value of the physical parameters
(measurand) is determined by comparing it directly with
reference standards. The physical quantities like mass, length
and time are measured by direct comparison.
Direct measurements are not to be preferred because
they involve factors, are less accurate and also less sensitive.
Further, the direct methods may always be possible, feasible
and practicable.
Measurement methods
Direct and indirect measurements:
2. Indirect measurement: The value of the physical

parameters (measurand) is generally determined by
indirect comparison with secondary standards
through calibration
The measurand is converted into an analogous signal
which is subsequently processed and fed to the end
device that presents the result of measurement.
The indirect technique saves the primary or secondary
standards from a frequent and direct handling.
Primary, secondary and tertiary
measurements.
The complexity of an instrument system depends
upon the measurement being made and upon
the accuracy level to which the measurement is
needed. Based upon complexity of the
measurement system, the measurements are
generally grouped into three categories namely
• primary.
• secondary
• tertiary measurements.
measurements.
In the Primary mode, the sought value of a physical parameter is determined by
comparing it directly with reference standards.
The requisite information is obtainable through senses of sight and touch.
Examples are:
(1) matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler
(2) matching of two colours when judging the temperature of red hot steel
(3) estimating the temperature difference between the contents of containers by
inserting fingers
(4) use of beam balance to measure (actually compare) masses
(5) measurement of time by counting the number of strokes of a clock.
The primary measurements provide subjective information only. That is, the
observer can indicate only that the contents of one container are hotter than the
contents of the other: one rod is longer than the other rod; one object contains
more or less mass than the other.
measurements.
Secondary Measurements
The indirect methods make comparison with a standard through use of a
calibrated system, i.e., an empirical relation is established between the
measurement actually made and the results that are desired.
For example, an indirect method may consist of developing an electrical

voltage proportional to a physical variable to be measured, measuring that
voltage and then coverting the measured voltage back to the corresponding
value of the original measurand.
Electrical methods are preferred in the indirect methods due to their high
speed of operation and simple processing of the measured variable.
The indirect measurements involving one translation are called secondary
measurements and those involving two conversions are called tertiary
measurements.
The conversion of pressure into displacement by means of bellows (Fig. 1.1 a)

and the conversion of force into displacement by means of springs (Fig. 1.1 b)
are simple example of secondary measurements.
measurements.
The pressure measurement by manometers and the temperature

measurement by mercury-in-glass thermometers are other
examples of secondary measurements.
In these instruments, the primary signal (pressure or temperature)
is first transmitted to a transducer where its effect is translated
into a length change. The secondary signal of length change is
then transmitted to the observer's eye. The observed length
change is subsequently converted into equivalent pressure or
temperature change through a calibration process
measurements.
Tertiary Measurement
The measurement of the speed of a rotating shaft by
means of an electric tachometer is another typical
example of tertiary measurement. The angular speed of
the rotating shaft is first translated into an electrical
voltage which is transmitted by a pair of wires to a
voltmeter. In the voltmeter, the voltage moves a pointer
on a scale, i.e., voltage is translated into a length change.
The tertiary signal of length change is a measure of the
speed of the shaft and is transmitted to the observer.
Tertiary Measurement
Contact and non-contact type measurements
Measurements may also by described as

Contact Type where the sensing element of the
measuring device has acontact with the medium
whose characteristics are being measured
Non-contact Type where the sensor does not
communicate physically with the medium. The
optical radioactive and some of the electrical
electronic measurements belong to this category
Generalised measurement system and its
functional elements
The principal function of an instrument is the acquisition
of information by sensing and perception, the
processing of that information and its final
presentation to a human observer For the purpose of
analysis and synthesis the instruments are considered
as systems, ie, assemblies of interconnected
components organised to perform a specified function.
The different components are called elements and they
perform certain definite and required steps in the act
of measurement.
functional elements
functional elements
Detector transduser stage-
1)Primary sensing elements an element that is sensitive to the
measured variable.
The sensing elements sense the condition, state or value of the
process variable by extracting a small part of energy from the
measurand, and then produce an output which reflects this
condition, state or value of the measurand, Because of this
energy extraction or utilization, the measured quantity is
always disturbed by the act of measurement and that makes
a perfect measurement theoretically impossible. Good
instruments are designed to minimise this loading effect.
functional elements
2) Variable conversion or transducer element :
An element that converts the signal from one physical form into another
without changing the information content of the signal. The signal after
transduction is more suitable for purpose of measurement and control.
The transduction may be from mechanical, electrical or optical to any other
related form.
Some examples of transducers and the conversions associated with them are:
(1) bourdon tube and bellows which transform pressure into displacement
(2) proving ring and other elastic members which convert force to displacement
(3) rack and pinion which convert the linear to rotary motion and vice versa
(4) obstruction flow meters which transform flow to pressure
(5) thermocouples which convert information about temperature difference to
information in the form of emf.
functional elements
Intermediate modifying stage-
1) Manipulation element An element that
operates on the signal according to some
mathematical rule without changing the physical
nature of the variable.
(input) x constant= output
For the odometer of an automobile, the above
mathematical operation takes the form:
Revolution x(kilometer /revolution)=kilometer
functional elements
2) Data transmission element An element that transmits the
signal form one location to another without changing its
information content. Data may by transmitted over long distance
(from one location to another) or short distances (from a test
centre to a nearby computer). Further, the transmission element
may be as simple as a shaft and gear assembly or as complicated
as a telemetry system for transmitting signals from missiles
ground equipment.
Direct transmission via cables, called landline telemetry, generally
employs either current, voltage, frequency, position or impulses
to convey the information.
functional elements
Data processing element: an element that modifies the data before it is displayed
or finally recorded.
Data processing may be used for such purposes as:
(1) corrections to the measured physical variables to compensate for scaling non-
linearity, zero offset, temperature error etc
(2) perform repeated calculations that involve addition, subtraction, multiplication
or division of two or more physical variables and their associated constants
(3) collect information regarding average, statistical and logarithmic values
(4) convert the data into useful form, e.g., calculation of engine efficiency from
speed. power input and torque developed
(5) separate out signals burried in noise, generate information for displays, and a
variety of other goals
functional elements
3) Terminating stage
Data presentation element : an element that provides a record or indication of the
output from the data processing element. In a measuring system using electrical
instrumentation, an exciter and an amplifier are also incorporated into the circuit
The exciter is a source of electrical energy for the transducer. The amplifier serves to
amplify the voltage from the transducer if this voltage is small.
The display unit may be required to serve the following functions:
(1) Transmitting to convey the information concerning the measured quantity over some
distance to a remote point
(2) Signalling: to give a signal that the desired value has been reached
(3) Registering to indicate by numbers or by some other symbol the value of some
quantity
(4) Indicating to indicate the specific value with an indicating hand over a suit calibrated
scale
(5) Recording to produce a written continuous record of the measurand against time.
functional elements
Definition Of Basic And Supplementary SI
Units
• Metre: The metre is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 second.
• Kilogram: The kilogram is the unit of mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of kilogram.
• Second: The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levers (F=4, mF=0 to F=3, mF=0) of the ground state of the cesium
133 atom.
• Ampere: The ampere is the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to 2x10-7 Newton per meter of length
• Kelvin: The Kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
• Mole: The mole is the mount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in .012 kg of carbon 12 (about 6.022x1023 atoms). When the mole is used, the elementary
entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified
groups of such particles.
• Candela: The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540x1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of
1/683 watt per steradian.
Characteristics of Instruments
There are Two types of characteristics of
instruments:- 1.Static characteristics of
instruments 2.Dynamic Characteristics of
instruments.
1.Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of an instrument are
required to be considered for the instruments
which measure unvarying process conditions.
The static characteristics are defined for the
instruments which measure quantities which
do not vary with time.
The main static characteristics are :-
1. Accuracy
2. Sensitivity
3. Reproducibility
4. Drift
5. Static error
6. Dead zone
7. Precision
8. Threshold
9. Linearity
10. Stability
11. Range or Span
12. Bais
13. Tolerance
14. Hysteresis
1. Accuracy
It is the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
The accuracy of a measurement indicates the nearness to the actual/true value of
the quantity.
2.Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output of an
instrument to the change in input.
The manufactures specify sensitivity as the ratio
of magnitude of the measured quantity to the
magnitude of the response.
This ratio is called as Inverse sensitivity or
deflection factor.
2.Sensitivity
3.Reproducibility
Reproducibility is defined as the degree of
closeness by which a given value can be
repeatedly measured.
The reproducibility is specified for a period of time.
Perfect reproducibility signifies that the given
readings that are taken for an input, do not vary
with time..
4. Drift
The drift is defined as the gradual shift in the indication over a
period of time where in the input variable does not change.
Drift may be caused because of environment factors like stray
electric fields, stray magnetic fields, thermal e.m.fs, changes
in temperature, mechanical vibrations etc.
Drift is classified into three categories:
1. Zero drift
2. Span drift or sensitivity drift
3. Zonal drift
• Zero Drift:- if the whole calibration is shifted by the same
amount due to slippage or due to undue warming up of tube of
electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in. zero setting can
prevent this. The input output characteristics with zero drift is
shown in figure above
• Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift: - If there is proportional change in
the indication all along upward scale, the drift is called span drift
or sensitivity drift. Hence higher calibrations get shifted more
than lower calibrations.
• Zonal Drift: - In case the drift occur over a portion of span of
instrument, while remaining portion of the scale remains
unaffected, it is called zonal drift.
5. Static error .
It is the deviation from the true value of the measured
variable.
It involves the comparison of an unknown quantity with
an accepted standard quantity.
The degree to which an instrument approaches to its
excepted value is expressed terms of error of
measurement
“The 'true' value of a measurement is the value that would be obtained by a
perfect measurement, i.e. in an ideal world. As the true value is not known,
accuracy is a qualitative term only. Many measured quantities have a range of
values rather than one 'true' value.”
6.Dead zone
It is the largest changes of input quantity for
which there is no output.
For e.g. the input that is applied to an
instrument may not be sufficient to overcome
friction. It will only respond when it
overcomes the friction forces.
7.Precision
It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement that is given a
fixed value of variable.
Precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements
differ from each other.
For example consider an instrument on which readings can be taken upto
1∕100th of unit.
The instrument has zero adjustment error. So, when we take a readings,
the instrument is highly precise. However as the instrument has a zero
adjustment error the readings obtained are precise, but they are not
accurate.
Thus, when a set of readings show precision, the results agree among
themselves. However, it is not essential that the results are accurate.
8.Threshsold
Threshold is the smallest measurable input,
below which no output change can be
identified.
While specifying threshold, manufactures give
the first detectable output change
9.Linearity
Linearity is defined as the ability of an instrument
to reproduce its input linearly.
Linearity is simply a measure of the maximum
deviation of the calibration points from the ideal
straight line.
Linearity is defined as, linearity=Maximum
deviation of o/p from idealized straight line ∕
Actual readings
10.Stability
The ability of an instrument to retain its
performance throughout its specified storage
life and operating life is called as Stability.
11.Range or Span
The minimum and maximum values of a
quantity for which an instrument is designed
to measure is called its range or span.
Sometimes the accuracy is specified interms of
range or span of an instrument.
12.Bais
The constant error which exists over the full
range of measurement of an instrument is
called bias. Such a bais can be completely
eliminated by calibration. The zero error is an
example of bais which can be removed by
calibration.
13.Tolerance
It is the maximum allowable error that is
specified in terms of certain value while
measurement, it is called as tolerance.
It specifies the maximum allowable deviation of
a manufactured device from a mentioned
value.
14.Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output
effects while loading and unloading.
Hysteresis takes place due to the fact that all the energy put
into the stressed parts when loading is not recoverable
while unloading.
When the input of an instrument is varied from zero to its full
scale and then if the input is decreased from its full scale
value to zero, the output varies. The output at the
particular input while increasing and decreasing varies
because of internal friction or hysteric damping.
2.Dynamic Characteristics
When the instruments are required to measure an input which is
varying with time, the dynamic or transient behaviour of the
instrument becomes as important as the static behaviour.
The signals cannot be impressed upon instantaneously and the
mass and capacitances (thermal, electrical, or fluid) introduce
slowness or sluggishness in the measurement system.
A pure time delay may also be encountered when the instrument
has to wait' for some reactions to take place.
Consequently the system does not settle to its equilibrium steady
state condition immediately after the application of input
signal; it does so only after passing through a transient period.
Instruments rarely respond to the instantaneous changes in the
measured variables.
Their response is slow or sluggish due to mass, thermal capacitance,
electrical capacitance, inductance etc. sometimes, even the
instrument has to wait for some time till, the response occurs.
These type of instruments are normally used for the measurement of
quantities that fluctuate with time.
The behaviour of such a system, where as the input varies from
instant to instant, the output also varies from instant to instant is
called as dynamic response of the system.
Hence, the dynamic behaviour of the system is also important as the
static behaviour.
The dynamic inputs are of two types:
1. Transient
2. Steady state periodic.
Transient response is defined as that part of the
response which goes to zero as the time
becomes large.
The steady state response is the response that
has a definite periodic cycle.
Speed of response and measuring lag: In a
measuring instrument the speed of response or
responsiveness is defined as the rapidity with
which an instrument responds to a change in
the value of the quantity being measured.
Measuring lag refers to retardation or delay in
the response of an instrument to a change in
the input signal. The lag is caused by conditions
such as capacitance, inertia, or resistance
Fidelity and dynamic error Fidelity of an instrumentation
system is defined as the degree of closeness with which the
system indicates or record the signal which is impressed
upon it.
it refers to the ability of the system to reproduce the output
in the same form as the input.
If the input is a sine wave then for 100 percent fidelity, the
output should also be a sine wave
The difference between the indicated quantity and the true
value of the time varying quantity is the dynamic error;
here static error of the instrument is assumed to be zero
Overshoot Because of mass and inertia, a moving
part, i.e., the pointer of the instruments does
not immediately come to rest in the final
deflected position.
The pointer goes beyond the steady state,i.e., it
overshoots
The overshoot is defined as the maximum amount
by which the pointer moves beyond the steady
state.
Dead time and dead zone: Dead time is defined as the
time required for an instrument to begin to respond
to a change in the measured quantity.
It represents the time before the instrument begins to
respond after the measured quantity has been
altered.
Dead zone defines the largest change of the
measurand to which the instrument does not
respond. Dead zone is the result of friction, backlash
or hysteresis in the instrument
Frequency response : Maximum frequency of
the measured variable that an instrument is
capable of following without error.
The usual requirement is that the frequency of
measurand should not exceed 60 percent of
the natural frequency of the measuring
instrument.
Calibration
The magnitude of the error and consequently the correction to
be applied is determined by making a periodic comparison of
the instrument with standards which are known to be constant.
The entire procedure laid down for making, adjusting or checking
a scale so that readings of an instrument or measurement
system conform to an accepted standard is called the
calibration.
The graphical representation of the calibration record is called
calibration curve and this curve relates standard values of
input or measurand to actual values of output through out the
operating range of the instrument.
Calibration
ABC represents the readings

obtained while ascending
the scale; DEF represents
the readings during
descent; KLM represents
the median and is
commonly accepted as
the calibration curve. The
term median refers to the
mean of a series of up and
down readings.
Calibration
The indicated values are plotted
as abscissa and the ordinate
represents the variation of the
median from the true values.
This type of deviation
presentation facilitates a rapid
visual assessment of the
instrument. The user looks
along the abscissa for the
value indicated by the
instrument and then reads the
correction to be applied.
Calibration
A comparison of the instrument reading may be made with
(1) a primary standard,
(2) a secondary standard of accuracy greater than the instrument to
be calibrated
(3) a known input source.
For example, we may calibrate a flow meter by comparing it with a
standard measurement facility at the National Bureau of
Standards, by comparing it with an flow meter (a secondary
standard) which has already been compared with a standard; or
by direct comparison with a primary measurement such as
weighing a amount of water in a tank and recording the time
elapsed for this quantity to flow through meter.
Calibration
The following points and observations need consideration while calibrating
instrument
• Calibration of the instrument is carried out with the instrument in the same
position (upright, horizontal etc.) and subjected to the same temperature
and other environ mental conditions under which it is to operate while in
service.
• The instrument is calibrated with values of the measurand impressed both
in the increasing and in the decreasing order. The results are then expressed
graphically, typically the output is plotted as the ordinate and the input or
measurand as the abscissa.
• Output readings for a series of impressed values going up the scale may not
agree with the output readings for the same input values when going down.
• Lines or curves plotted in the graphs may not close to form a loop.
Calibration example
Calibration example
Classification of errors
• Errors and uncertainties are inherent in the
process of making any measurement and in
the instrument with which the measurements
are made.
• A study of errors is important as a step in
finding ways of reducing them, and also as
means of estimating the reliability of final
results.
Instrument errors:
There are many factors in the design and
construction of instruments that limit the
accuracy attainable.
Instruments and standards possess inherent
inaccuracies and certain additional
inaccuracies develop with use and time.
Instrument errors:
Examples are:
• Improper selection and poor maintenance of the instrument.
• Faults of construction resulting from finite width of knife edges: lost motion due to
necessary clearance in gear tech and bearings: excessive friction at the mating parts etc.
• Mechanical friction and wear, backlash, yielding of supports, pen or pointer drag. and
hysteresis of elastic members due to aging.
• Unavoidable physical phenomenon due to friction, capillary attraction and imperfect
rarefaction.
• Assembly errors resulting from incorrect fitting of the scale zero with respect to the
actual zero position of the pointer, non-uniform division of the scale, and bent or
distorted pointers
Environmental errors:
The instrument location and the environment errors
introduced by using an instrument in conditions different for
which it has been designed , assembled and calibrated.
The different conditions of use may be temperature, pressure,
humidity and altitude etc., the effect of temperature being
more predominant.
A change in e temperature may alter the elastic constant of a
spring, may change the dimensions of a measuring element
or linkage in the system, may alter the resistance values and
flux densities of magnetic elements
Translation and signal transmission errors:
The instrument may not sense translate the measured effect with complete
fidelity.
The error also includes the non capability of the instrument to follow rapid
changes in the measured quantity due to inertia and hysteresis affects.
The transmission errors creep in when the transmitted signal is rendered
faulty due to its distortion by resonance, attenuation, loss leakage, or on
being absorbed or otherwise consumed within the communication
channel. The error may also result unwanted disturbances such as noise,
line pick-up, hum, ripple etc.
The errors remedied by calibration and by monitoring the signal at one or
more points along its transmission path
Observation errors:
There goes a saying that “instruments are better than the
People who use them”.
Even when an instrument has been properly selected,
carefully allied and faithfully calibrated, shortcomings in
the measurement occur due to certain failings on the part
of the observer.
The poor mistakes resulting from the inexperience and
carelessness of the observer obviously remedied with
careful training, and by taking independent readings of
each item by two or more observers
Operational errors
A pre-requisite to precise and meticulous measurements is that the instruments
should be properly used.
Quite often, errors are caused by poor operational technique
Examples are
• A differential type of flow meter will read inaccurately if it is placed
immediately after a valve or a bend.
• A thermometer will not read accurately if the sensitive portion is insufficiently
immersed or is radiating heat to a colder portion of the installation.
• A pressure gauge will correctly indicate pressure only when it is exposed only
to the pressure which is to be measured.
• A steam calorimeter will not give true indication of the dryness fraction of
steam unless the sample drawn correctly represents the condition of steam.
System interaction errors
The act of measurement may affect the condition of the measurand and thus lead to
uncertainties in measurements.
Example are:
- Introduction of a thermometer alters the thermal capacity of the system and provides body an
extra path for heat leakage.
- A ruler pressed against a body results in a differential deformation of the body relative to ruler.
- - An obstruction type flowmeter may partially block or disturb the flow conditions.
Consequently the flow rate shown by the meter may not be same as before thermometer
installation
- Reading shown by a hand tachometer would vary with the pressure with which it is pressed
against the shaft.
- - A milliammeter would introduce additional resistance in the circuit and thereby alter the flow
current by a significant amount.
The job of an instrument designer is to see that the alteration due to system interference is
minimal.
Random errors are accidental, small and
independent, and are mainly due to inconstant
factors such as spring hysteresis, stickiness,
friction, noise and threshold limitations.
The magnitude and direction of these errors
cannot be predicted from a knowledge of the
measurement system ; however, these errors
are assumed to follow the law of probabilities.
Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the
repetition of the experiment and are caused by such
effects as sensitivity shifts, zero off-set and known non-
linearity.
Systematic errors can not be determined by direct and
repetitive observations of the measurand made each time
with same technique.
The only way to locate these errors is to have repeated
measurements under different conditions or with different
equipment and where possible by an entirely different
method.
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are used to describe quality
characteristics and relationships.
92
Descriptive Statistics
– The Mean- measure of central tendency
– The Range- difference between largest/smallest

observations in a set of data
– Standard Deviation measures the amount of data

dispersion around mean
93
The Mean
• To compute the mean we simply sum all the observations and divide by the total
no. of observations.
94
The Range
• Range, which is the difference between the largest and
smallest observations.
95
Standard Deviation
• Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion
of a curve.
• It measures the extent to which these values

are scattered around the central mean.
96
numerical
Q1
Q2
Sensors and Transducers
A generalised measurement system consists of two components,
(i) sensing element which responds directly by reacting to the
measurand, and (ii) transducing element which is responsible
for conversion of the measurand into analogous driving signal.
The sensing element may also serve to transduce the measurand
and put it into a more convenient form. The unit is then called
as detector-transducer.
The function of the bourdon tube of a pressure gauge is two
fold: firstly to sense the pressure and secondly to give the
resulting effect or the output in the form of displacement.
The tube then works as a detector transducer.
Bourdon Tube
Classification of transducer
Electromagnetic Transducers
• In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand
is converted to voltage induced in conductor by
change in the magnetic flux in absence of
excitation.
• The electromagnetic transducers are self
generating trasduser
• The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in
flux
Electromagnetic Transducers
Photo-electric transducers
These transducer operate on the principle that when light strikes special
combination of materials, a voltage may be generated, a resistance
change may take place, or electrons may flow.
Photoelectric cells are used for a wide variety of purposes in control
engineering for precision measuring devices, in exposure meters used in
photography.
They are also used in solar batteries as sources of electrical power.
Photo-electric transducers for rockets and satellites used in space research.
Photo electric transducers offer the advantage that they do not involve any
contact being made with the system being measured; just interruption of
a beam of light. Further, the light does not have to be visible; they can be
selected to operate with infrared radiation.
Transducer sensitivity
The relationship between the measurand and
the transducer output signal is referred to as
the transducer sensitivity.
Transducer sensitivity k=
(output signal increment/ measurand
increment)
Transducer sensitivity
• Sensitivity has a wide range of units, and these
depend upon the instrument or measurement
system being investigated.
• Sensitivity of a transducer is usually required
to be as high as possible because then it
becomes easier to take the measurement
Characteristics of Transducers
• Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading
approaches an accepted standard value or ideal value or true value
• Repeatability: The o/p of the transducers must be exactly the same,
under same environmental condition, when the same quantity is
applied at the i/p repeatedly
• Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce
detectable output
• Size: The transducers should have smallest possible size and shape
with minimal weight and volume. This will make the measurement
system very compact
• Dynamic Range: For a transducer the operating range should be wide
so that it can be used over a wide range of measurement conditions
Transducer Selection Factors
• Loading Effects: The transducer should have a
high input impedance and low output
impedance to avoid loading effects.
Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured

that the transducer selected to work under
specified environmental conditions maintains
its input-output relationship and does not break
down.
Transducer Selection Factors
Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer
should be minimally sensitive to unwanted
signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
Operating Principle: The transducer are many
times selected on the basis of operating
principle used by them. The operating
principle used may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.

Unit 1 Mechanical Measurement

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Unit 1 Mechanical Measurement

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Generalized Measurement

1.Monitoring of processes and operations :e.g Thermometer, pressure gauge to

Direct and indirect measurements:

2. Indirect measurement: The value of the physical

For example, an indirect method may consist of developing an electrical

The conversion of pressure into displacement by means of bellows (Fig. 1.1 a)

The pressure measurement by manometers and the temperature

Measurements may also by described as

ABC represents the readings

– The Mean- measure of central tendency

– The Range- difference between largest/smallest

– Standard Deviation measures the amount of data

• It measures the extent to which these values

Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured

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