Assignment part 2

Lecture 1

Introduction of measurements.
In first lecture we have discussed about measuring instruments and their
applications. We use different kind of instruments to measure all kind of parameters
such as pressure, temperature, moisture, current, voltage for various purposes. We
do take measurement of some quantities by using some set of instruments.

Why Measurements.?

 For research analysis purposes

 For operation monitoring purposes
 For controlling some operations

The concept of measurement is to deliver something which is use for above

functions. That means we do collect some information or some parameters and we
do convert it into some useful data. For example, we do use thermometer to
measure the temperature of a medium or something else. We are not directly
measuring the temperature. First, we do take some measurements indirectly then it
will be converted into some readable values. Here first we are considering the
quantity of heat transfer then it will be converted into temperature. Which means that
we don’t directly measure the quantity rather we collect data through indirect way
and finally converted to direct value with the help of measuring instruments.

The instruments which are used to monitor some process or operations will be
measure some quantities and we can use that measurements output to sense some
present conditions.

The second application is that we can measure some quantities and can give some
feedback so that we can measure some operation parameters and control the
process and operation. In this we will be collecting some input data's and analysing
then we can give some feedback to control the system.

The third application is that research analysis which can be used for analysing very
complex operations and functions. For examples in some situation we must take
measurements of the operating systems and need to analyse it deeply to understand
the performance and nature of the operation system.

Displacement Measurement

In displacement measurement, everything we are measuring we must converting it

into displacement. In every instrument we can see displacement, which means
whatever measurements we have taken which is converted into displacement.
Because it is the only parameter that we can understand. In basic we do connect
instrument to collect some data then it must have converted into displacement form.

The next thing we have discussed is about accuracy of measuring value. Which is
depends on how much money that we are spending to purchase the measuring
instrument. The fundamental requirement is to get high accuracy in measuring
values. So, we must consider the quality of the measuring device which is connected
to the cost of the device. For example, when we measure some gas content in the
air, first we must consider the accuracy in the measuring instrument. That means our
priority is the accuracy so that we must buy high quality and high-performance
instrument which will obviously cost high purchase value.

Error analysis

In error analysis we do analyse random signals by doing random analysis for which
we can find accurate value. Error analysis has a very high significant in measuring
systems. Whatever measurements we are taking should have to do with accuracy.
For example, in some situation we want to measure temperature of room or
temperature of hospital refrigerator. In first case we can take temperature as 2
degrees centigrade but in second condition we must take temperature reading very
accurately such as 2.0006 centigrade. In such situation we should use measurement
system with appropriate accuracy. So main point is that what accuracy that we are
looking for is very important. In another scenario when we are constructing a building
which has error of 5 cm is negligible. But when we consider Nano material
construction we are considering Nano distance in which mm has very big role. So,
when we do measurement accuracy is very important. To get high accuracy we
should have to do device calibration.
 Device calibration.

To measure accurate value first we must calibrate the measuring instrument. Each
measuring device has a certain characteristic. It has a time constant which we must
find using calibration. For example, when we do thermometer calibration it has a time
constant and it has a certain characteristics.so we must do calibration to measure
the appropriate quantity and for getting accuracy.

Functional elements of measuring instrument.

Most of the measurement systems contains three fundamental practical

components. They are

 Primary sensing component

 Variable conversion component
 Data introduction component

Primary sensing Element

Variable conversion element

Variable manipulation elements

Data transmission element

Data presentation element

Primary sensing component

The main function of primary sensing element is to collect data or information

from quantity that we are going to measure. Which is an unknown quantity is
detecting this sensing unit that produces some output signals which we can
convert into electrical signal with the help of transducer. Transducer converting
one form of energy into another form.

Variable conversion element

The purpose of this unit is to convert the output signal of sensing unit which is
could be voltage, current, etc into some appropriate form.

Variable manipulation element

functionality of this unit is to control1the signal represented and can be save the
original1nature of the signal. It is not1necessary that a variable1manipulation
element should follow the variable conversion element Some non –linear
processes1like modulation, detection,1sampling ,1filtering, chopping etc are
performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next
stage of measurement system This process of1conversion is called µ signal
conditioning. The term signal1conditioning includes many other functions in addition
to Variable conversion & Variable1manipulation in fact the element that follows the
primary sensing1element in any instrument or measurement system is called
conditioning element.

Data presentation element

The information about the quantity under1measurement must be 1conveyed to the

personnel handling the1instrument or the system1for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes. This function is1done by data presentation element.

In case data is to1be monitored, visual display1devices are needed1These devices

may be analog1or digital indicating1instruments like ammeters,1voltmeters etc. In
case data is to be recorded, recorders1like magnetic tapes,1high speed camera &
TV equipment,1CRT, printers may be used. For1control & analysis is1purpose
microprocessor or1computers may be used. The final1stage in1a measurement
system is known as terminating stage.
Passive elements

A component whose output energy is supplied entirely or almost entirely by its input
signal is commonly called a passive transducer. The output and input form may be
energy conversion from one form to another or can be a same form.

Active elements
An active transducer has an auxiliary source of power which supplies a major part of
the output power while the input signal supplies only an insignificant portion. There
may or may not be a conversion of energy from one form to another.