Subject: SEC

Semester: 5th
Paper Title: Electronic Instrumentation Fundamentals
Unit I: Measurements
Topic: Errors and their reduction

Errors and their reduction:

In actual practice, the output of an instrument is affected by the non-ideal behaviour of the device which
causes the indicated measured value to deviate from the true value. The algebraic difference between the indicated
value and the true value of the measurand is termed the error of the device.

The above mentioned error is contributed by the existence of a large number of individual errors. In actual
measurement the effect of these errors on the instrument behaviour should be known clearly. The knowledge of
these individual errors can be often used to correct the final result and thereby increase the overall accuracy of the
measurement

Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under three main headings:

1. Gross errors 2. Systematic errors and 3. Random errors

1. Gross Errors. This class of errors covers human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in recording and
calculating measurement results. One common gross error involves the improper use of an instrument. For example,
a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading reading when connected across two points in a high resistance
circuit. The same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give a more dependable reading. The
following example proves this point.

Suppose, a voltmeter having a resistance of 150 Kohms is connected across an unknown resistor in series
with a milliammeter (fig.1). If the milliammeter reads 5 mA and voltmeter reading is 100 V, then

Total circuit resistance, Rt = Vin/I = 100 V / 5 mA = 20 Kohms

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of unknown resistor is Rx = 20 Kohms. Since the
voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistor, we can write

Rx = (RtRv)/(Rv - Rt) = (20 x 150) / 130 = 23.05 Kohms

Therefore, percentage error = {(Actual - Apparent) / Actual } x 100%

= {(23.05 - 20) / 23.05} x 100% = 13.23 %

If the milliammeter reads 800 mA and the voltmeter reads 40 V, then

Rt = Vin / I = 40 V / 800 mA = 50 ohms

Rv = 150 kohms

Rx = (RtRv) / (Rv – Rt) = (50 x 150) / 149.95 = 50.1 ohms

Therefore, percentage error = {(50.1 - 50) / 149.95 ) x 100% = 0.2%

 Thus, to avoid the error caused by a low-resistance voltmeter, always use a high resistance voltmeter. This
can be proved by using a voltmeter having high resistance (say 300 Kohms) in the above example (keeping other
parameters unchanged).

2. Systematic errors. Systematic errors can be divided into two categories: (i) Instrumental errors and (ii)
Environmental errors.

Instrumental errors are errors inherent in measuring instruments. For example, in the d'Arsonval galvanometer
friction in bearings in various moving components may cause incorrect readings. Irregular spring tension, stretching
of the spring, or reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of the instrument will result in errors.
Other instrumental errors are calibration errors and the error caused by the instruments not responding fast enough to
follow the changes in a measured variable.

Instrumental errors may be avoided by (i) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
application; (ii) applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error; (iii) calibrating the
instrument against a standard.

3. Random errors. These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all gross and systematic errors
have been accounted for. In well-designed experiments, few random errors usually occur, but they become
important in a high-accuracy work. Suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at half-hour
intervals. Although the instrument is operated under ideal environmental conditions and has been accurately
calibrated before the measurement, it will be found that the readings vary slightly over the period of observation.
This variation cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or other known method of control and it cannot be
explained without minute investigation. The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the number of readings
and using statistical means to obtain the best approximation of the true value of the quantity under measurement

Limiting Error:

In most indicating instruments, the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage of full-scale reading. Circuit
components (resistors, capacitors, etc.) are guaranteed within a certain percentage of their rated value. The limits of
these deviations from the specified values are known as limiting errors. For example, if the resistance of a resistor is
given as 500 ohms ± 10%, the manufacturer guarantees that the resistance falls between the limits 450 ohms and 550
ohms.