MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

In practice, it is impossible to measure the exact value of the measurand. There is always some
difference between the measured value and the absolute or true value of the unknown quantity
(measurand), which may be very small or may be large. The difference between the true or exact
value and the measured value of the unknown quantity is known as the absolute error of the
measurement.

If δA be the absolute error of the measurement, Am and A be the measured and absolute value of
the unknown equantity then δA may be expressed as

Sometimes, δA is denoted by ε0.

The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity to be
measured,

When the absolute error ε0 (=δA) is negligible, i.e., when the difference between the true value
A and the measured value A m of the unknown quantity is very small or negligible then the
relative error may be expressed as,

The relative error is generally expressed as a fraction, i.e., 5 parts in 1000 or in percentage

value.

The measured value of the unknown quantity may be more than or less than the true value of the
measurand. So the manufacturers have to specify the deviations from the specified value of a
particular quantity in order to enable the purchaser to make proper selection according to his
requirements. The limits of these deviations from specified values are defined as limiting or
guarantee errors. The magnitude of a given quantity having a specified magnitude Am and a
maximum or a limiting error ±δA must have a magnitude between the limits.

For example, the measured value of a resistance of 100 Ω has a limiting error of ±0.5 Ω. Then
the true value of the resistance is between the limits 100 ± 0.5, i.e., 100.5 and 99.5 Ω.

Example 1.2
A 0-25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of full scale reading. The current
measured by this instrument is 10 A. Determine the limiting error in percentage. Solution
The magnitude of limiting error of the instrument from Eq. (1.1),

δA = εr × A = 0.01 × 25 = 0.25 A

The magnitude of the current being measured is 10 A. The relative error at this
current is

Therefore, the current being measured is between the limit of

A = Am(1 ± εr) = 10(1 ± 0.025) = 10 ± 0.25 A

Example 1.3
The inductance of an inductor is specified as 20 H ± 5 percent by a manufacturer. Determine the
limits of inductance between which it is guaranteed.

Solution

Limiting value of inductance, A = Am ± δA

= Am ± εrAm = Am (1±εr)
= 20(1 ± 0.05) = 20 ± 1 H

Example 1.4
A 0-250 V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2% of full-scale reading. The voltage
measured by the voltmeter is 150 volts. Determine the limiting error in percentage.
Solution The magnitude of the limiting error of the instrument,

The magnitude of the voltage being measured is 150 V.

The percentage limiting error at this voltage

Types of Errors

The origination of error may be in a variety of ways. They are categorised in three main
types. • Gross error
• Systematic error
• Random error

1. Gross Error

The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings, or using instruments and in recording
and calculating measurement results. These errors usually occur because of human mistakes and
these may be of any magnitude and cannot be subjected to mathematical treatment. One common
gross error is frequently committed during improper use of the measuring instrument. Any
indicating instrument changes conditions to some extent when connected in a complete circuit so
that the reading of measurand quantity is altered by the method used.

A multirange instrument has a different scale for each range. During measurements, the operator
may use a scale which does not correspond to the setting of the range selector of the instrument.
Gross error may also be there because of improper setting of zero before the measurement and
this will affect all the readings taken during measurements. The gross error cannot be treated
mathematically, so great care should be taken during measurement o avoid this error. Pictorial
illustration of different types of gross error is shown in Figure 1.10.

In general, to avoid gross error, at least two, three or more readings of the measurand quantity
should be taken by different observers. Then if the readings differ by an unacceptably large
amount, the situation can be investigated and the more erroneous readings eliminated.
2. Systematic Error

These are the errors that remain constant or change according to a definite law on repeated
measurement of the given quantity. These errors can be evaluated and their influence on the
results of measurement can be eliminated by the introduction of proper correction.

There are two types of systematic errors:

• Instrumental error
• Environmental error

Instrumental errors are inherent in the measuring instruments because of their mechanical
structure and calibration or operation of the apparatus used. For example, in D’Arsonval
movement, friction in bearings of various components may cause incorrect readings. Improper
zero adjustment has a similar effect. Poor construction, irregular spring tensions, variations in the
air gap may also cause instrumental errors. Calibration error may also result in the instrument
reading either being too low or too high.

Such instrumental errors may be avoided by

• Selecting a proper measuring device for the particular application
• Calibrating the measuring device or instrument against a standard
• Applying correction factors after determining the magnitude of instrumental errors

Environmental errors are much more troublesome as the errors change with time in an
unpredictable manner. These errors are introduced due to using an instrument in different
conditions than in which it was assembled and calibrated. Change in temperature is the major
cause of such errors as temperature affects the properties of materials in different ways,
including dimensions, resistivity, spring effect and many more. Other environmental changes
also effect the
results given by the instruments such as humidity, altitude, earth’s magnetic field, gravity, stray
electric and magnetic field, etc.

3.Random Errors

These errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not maintain any known law. The
presence of random errors become evident when different results are obtained on repeated
measurements of one and the same quantity. The effect of random errors is minimised by
measuring the given quantity many times under the same conditions and calculating the
arithmetical mean of the results obtained. The mean value can justly be considered as the most
probable value of the measured quantity since random errors of equal magnitude but opposite
sign are of approximately equal occurrence when making a great number of measurements.

LOADING EFFECTS

Under ideal conditions, an element used for signal sensing, conditioning, transmission and
detection should not change/distort the original signal. The sensing element should not use any
energy or take least energy from the process so as not to change the parameter being measured.
However, under practical conditions, it has been observed that the introduction of any element in
a system results invariably in extraction of the energy from the system, thereby distorting the
original signal. This distortion may take the form of attenuation, waveform distortion, phase
shift, etc., and consequently, the ideal measurements become impossible.

The incapability of the system to faithfully measure the input signal in undistorted form is called
loading effect. This results in loading error.

The loading effects, in a measurement system, not only occur in the detector–transducer stage but
also occur in signal conditioning and signal presentation stages as well. The loading problem is
carried right down to the basic elements themselves. The loading effect may occur on account of
both electrical and mechanical elements. These are due to impedances of the various elements
connected in a system. The mechanical impedances may be treated similar to electrical
impedances.