Basically there are three types of measuring instruments and they are

(a) Electrical measuring instruments

(b) Mechanical measuring instruments.
(c) Electronic measuring instruments.
Here we are interested in electrical measuring instruments so we will discuss about them in detail. Electrical
instruments measure the various electrical quantities like electrical power factor, power, voltage and current etc. All analog
electrical instruments use mechanical system for the measurement of various electrical quantities but as we know the all
mechanical system has some inertia therefore electrical instruments have a limited time response. Now there are various
ways of classifying the instruments. On broad scale we can categorize them as:
Absolute Measuring Instruments
These instruments give output in terms of physical constant of the instruments. For example Rayleigh’s current balance and
Tangent galvanometer are absolute instruments.
Secondary Measuring Instruments
These instruments are constructed with the help of absolute instruments. Secondary instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instruments. These are more frequently used in measurement of the quantities as compared
to absolute instruments, as working with absolute instruments is time consuming. Another way of classifying the electrical
measuring instruments depends on the way they produce the result of measurements. On this basis they can be of two
types:
Deflection Type Instruments
In these types of instruments, pointer of the electrical measuring instrument deflects to measure the quantity. The value of
the quantity can be measured by measuring the net deflection of the pointer from its initial position. In order to understand
these types of instruments let us take an example of deflection type permanent magnet moving coil ammeter which is

shown below: The diagram shown above has two permanent magnets which
are called the stationary part of the instrument and the moving part which is between the two permanent magnets that
consists of pointer. The deflection of the moving coil is directly proportion to the current. Thus the torque is proportional to
the current which is given by the expression Td = K.I, where Td is the deflecting torque. K is proportionality constant which
depends upon the strength of the magnetic field and the number of turns in the coil. The pointer deflects between the two
opposite forces produced by the spring and the magnets. And the resulting direction of the pointer is in the direction of the
resultant force. The value of current is measured by the deflection angle θ, and the value of K.
Null Type Instruments
In opposite to deflection type of instruments, the null or zero type electrical measuring instruments tend to maintain the
position of pointer stationary. They maintain the position of the pointer stationary by producing opposing effect. Thus for the
operation of null type instruments following steps are required: (1) Value of opposite effect should be known in order to
calculate the value of unknown quantity. (2) Detector shows accurately the balance and the unbalance condition
accurately. The detector should also have the means for restoring force. Let us look at the advantages and disadvantages
of deflection and null type of measuring instruments: (1) Deflection type of instruments is less accurate than the null type
of instruments. It is because, in the null deflecting instruments the opposing effect is calibrated with the high degree of
accuracy while the calibration of the deflection type instruments depends on the value of instrument constant hence
usually not having high degree of accuracy. (2) Null point type instruments are more sensitive than the Deflection type
instruments. (3) Deflection type instruments are more suitable under dynamic conditions than null type of instruments as
the intrinsic responses of the null type instruments are slower than deflection type instruments. Following are the important
three functions of the electrical measuring instruments.
Indicating Function
These instruments provide information regarding the variable quantity under measurement and most of the time this
information are provided by the deflection of the pointer. This kind of function is known as the indicating function of the
instruments.
Recording Function
These instruments usually use the paper in order to record the output. This type of function is known as the recording
function of the instruments.
Controlling Function
This is function is widely used in industrial world. In this these instruments controls the processes. Now there are two
characteristics of electrical measuring instruments and measurement systems. They are written below:
Static Characteristics
In these type of characteristics measurement of quantities are either constant or vary slowly with the time. Few main static
characteristics are written below: (1) Accuracy: It is desirable quality in measurement. It is defined as the degree of the
closeness with which instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being measured. Accuracy can be
expressed in three ways (a) Point accuracy (b) Accuracy as the percentage of scale of range. (c) Accuracy as percentage
of true value. (2) Sensitivity: It is also desirable quality in the measurement. It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude
response of the output signal to the magnitude response of the input signal. (3) Reproducibility: It is again a desirable
quality. It is defined as the degree of the closeness with which a given quantity may be repeatedly measured. High value of
reproducibility means low value of drift. Drift are of three types (a) Zero drift (b) Span drift (c) Zonal drift.
Dynamic Characteristics
These characteristics are related with the rapidly changing quantities therefore in order to understand these types of
characteristics we are required to study the dynamic relations between the input and the output.

In order to understand the concept of errors in measurement, we should know the two terms that defines the error and
these two terms are written below:
True Value
It is not possible to determine the true of quantity by experiment means. True value may be defined as the average value of
an infinite number of measured values when average deviation due to various contributing factor will approach to zero.
Measured Value
It may be defined as the approximated value of true value. It can be found out by taking means of several measured
readings during an experiment, by applying suitable approximations on physical conditions. Now we are in a position to
define static error. Static error is defined as the difference of the measured value and the true value of the quantity.
Mathematically we can write an expression of error as, dA = Am - At where dA is the static error Am is measured value and At
is true value. It may be noted that the absolute value of error cannot be determined as due to the fact that the true
value of quantity cannot be determined accurately. Let us consider few terms related to errors.
Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors
The concept of guarantee errors can better clear if we study this kind of error by considering one example. Suppose there
is a manufacturer who manufacture an ammeter, now he should promises that the error in the ammeter he is selling not
greater the limit he sets. This limit of error is known as limiting errors or guarantee error.
Relative Error or Fractional Error
It is defined as the ratio of the error and the specified magnitude of the quantity. Mathematically we write as,

Where dA is the error and A is the magnitude. Now here we are interested in computing resultant limiting error under the
following cases: (a) By taking the sum of two quantities: Let us consider two measured quantities a 1 and a2. The sum of
these two quantities can be represented by A. Thus we can write A = a 1 + a2. Now the relative incremental value of this
function can be calculated as

Separating the each term as shown below and by multiplying and dividing a 1 with the first term and a2 with the second
term we have
From the above equation we can see that the resultant limiting error is equal to the sum of products formed by multiplying
the individual relative limiting errors by the ratio of each term to the function. Same procedure can be applied to calculate
the resultant limiting error due to summation of more than two quantities. In order to calculate the resultant limiting error
due to difference of the two quantities just change the addition sign with subtraction and rest procedure is same. (b) By
taking the product of two quantities: Let us consider two quantities a 1 and a2. In this case the product of the two quantities
are expressed as A = a1.a2. Now taking log both sides and differentiating with respect to A we have resultant limiting errors
as

From this equation we can see that the resultant error is summation of relative errors in measurement of terms. Similarly
we can calculate the resultant limiting error for power of factor. Hence the relative error would be n times in this case.
Types of Errors
Basically there are three types of errors on the basis; they may arise from the source.
Gross Errors
This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while reading, recording and the readings. Mistakes in calculating
the errors also come under this category. For example while taking the reading from the meter of the instrument he may
read 21 as 31. All these types of error are come under this category. Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable
measures and they are written below: (i) A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also calculation of
error should be done accurately. (ii) By increasing the number of experimenters we can reduce the gross errors. If each
experimenter takes different reading at different points, then by taking average of more readings we can reduce the gross
errors.
Systematic Errors
In order to understand these kinds of errors, let us categorize the systematic errors as
(i) Instrumental Errors
These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the measuring instruments. These types of error may be
arises due to friction or may be due to hysteresis. These types of errors also include the loading effect and misuse of the
instruments. Misuse of the instruments results in the failure to the adjust the zero of instruments. In order to minimize the
gross errors in measurement various correction factors must be applied and in extreme condition instrument must be re-
calibrated carefully.
(ii) Environmental Errors
This type of error arises due to conditions external to instrument. External condition includes temperature, pressure,
humidity or it may include external magnetic field. Following are the steps that one must follow in order to minimize the
environmental errors: (A)Try to maintain the temperature and humidity of the laboratory constant by making some
arrangements. (B)Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or electrostatic field around the instrument.
Observational Errors
As the name suggests these types of errors are due wrong observations. The wrong observations may be due to
PARALLAX. In order to minimize the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are required, provided with mirrored scales.
Random Errors
After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors in measurement are left. These errors are
known as random errors. Some of the reasons of the appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons are
unknown. Hence we cannot fully eliminate these kinds of error.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument
The permanent magnet moving coil instrument or PMMC type instrument uses two permanent magnets in order to
create stationary magnetic field. These types of instruments are only used for measuring the dc quantities as if we apply ac
current to these type of instruments the direction of current will be reversed during negative half cycle and hence the
direction of torque will also be reversed which gives average value of torque zero. The pointer will not deflect due to high
frequency from its mean position showing zero reading. However it can measure the direct current very accurately. Let us
move towards the constructions of permanent magnet moving coil instruments. We will see the construction of these
types o f instruments in five parts and they are described below: (a) Stationary part or magnet
system: In the present time we use magnets of high field intensities, high coercive force instead of using U shaped
permanent magnet having soft iron pole pieces. The magnets which we are using nowadays are made up of materials like
alcomax and alnico which provide high field strength. (b) Moving coil: The moving coil can freely moves between the two
permanent magnets as shown in the figure given below. The coil is wound with many turns of copper wire and is placed
on rectangular aluminium which is pivoted on jeweled bearings. (c) Control system: The spring generally acts as control
system for PMMC instruments. The spring also serves another important function by providing the path to lead current in
and out of the coil. (d) Damping system: The damping force hence torque is provided by movement of aluminium former
in the magnetic field created by the permanent magnets. (e) Meter: Meter of these instruments consists of light weight
pointer to have free movement and scale which is linear or uniform and varies with angle. Let us derive a general
expression for torque in permanent magnet moving coil instruments or PMMC instruments. We know that in moving coil
instruments the deflecting torque is given by the expression: Td = NBldI where N is number of turns, B is magnetic flux
density in air gap, l is the length of moving coil, d is the width of the moving coil, And I is the electric current. Now for a
moving coil instruments deflecting torque should be proportional to current, mathematically we can write T d = GI. Thus on
comparing we say G = NBIdl. At steady state we have both the controlling and deflecting torques are equal. T c is controlling
torque, on equating controlling torque with deflection torque we have GI = K.x where x is deflection thus current is given by

Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current therefore we need a uniform scale on the meter for measurement
of current. Now we are going to discuss about the basic circuit diagram of the ammeter. Let us consider a circuit as shown

below: The current I is shown which breaks into two components at the point A. The two
components are Is and Im. Before I comment on the magnitude values of these currents, let us know more about the
construction of shunt resistance. The basic properties of shunt resistance are written below, The electrical resistance of
these shunts should not differ at higher temperature, it they should posses very low value of temperature coefficient. Also
the resistance should be time independent. Last and the most important property they should posses is that they should be
able to carry high value of current without much rise in temperature. Usually manganin is used for making dc resistance.
Thus we can say that the value of Is much greater than the value of Im as resistance of shunt is low. From the we have,

Where Rs is resistance of shunt and Rm is the electrical resistance of the coil.

From the above two equations we can write,

Where m is the magnifying power of the shunt.

Errors in Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
There are three main types of errors: (a) Errors due to permanent magnets: Due to temperature effects and aging of the
magnets the magnet may lose their magnetism to some extent. The magnets are generally aged by the heat and vibration
treatment. (b) Error may appear in PMMC Instrument due to the aging of the spring. However the error caused by the aging
of the spring and the errors caused due to permanent magnet are opposite to each other, hence both the errors are
compensated with each other. (c) Change in the resistance of the moving coil with the temperature: Generally the
temperature coefficients of the value of coefficient of copper wire in moving coil is 0.04 per degree celsius rise in
temperature. Due to lower value of temperature coefficient the temperature rises at faster rate and hence the resistance
increases. Due to this significant amount of error is caused.
Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
(1)The scale is uniformly divided as the current is directly proportional to deflection of the pointer. Hence it is very easy to
measure quantities from these instruments. (2)Power consumption is also very low in these types of instruments. (3)Higher
value of torque is to weight ratio. (4)These are having multiple advantages, a single instrument can be used for measuring
various quantities by using different values of shunts and multipliers. Instead of various advantages the permanent magnet
moving coil instruments or PMMC Instrument posses few disadvantages.
Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
These instruments cannot measure ac quantities. (2) Cost of these instruments is high as compared to moving iron
instruments.
This instrument is one of the most primitive forms of measuring and relay instrument. Moving iron type instruments are of
mainly two types. Attraction type and repulsion type instrument. Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it
would be attracted by the magnet. The force of this attraction depends upon the strength said magnetic field. If the magnet
is electromagnet is electromagnet then the magnetic field strength can easily be increased or decreased by increasing or
decreasing current through its coil. Accordingly the attraction force acting on the piece of iron would also be increased and
decreased. Depending upon this simple phenomenon attraction type moving iron instrument was developed. Whenever
two pieces of iron are kept side by side and a magnet is brought nearer to them the iron pieces will repulse each other.
This repulsion force is due to same magnetic poles induced in same sides the iron pieces due external magnetic field. This
repulsion force increases if field strength of the magnet is increased. Like case if the magnet is electromagnet, then
magnetic field strength can easily be controlled by controlling input current to the magnet. Hence if the current increases
the repulsion force between the pieces of iron is increased and it the current decreases the repulsion force between them
is decreased. Depending upon this phenomenon repulsion type moving iron instrument was constructed.
Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

The basic construction of attraction type moving iron instrument is illustrated bellow
A thin disc of soft iron is eccentrically pivoted in front of a coil. This iron tends to move inward that is from weaker magnetic
field to stronger magnetic field when current flowing through the coil. In attraction moving instrument gravity control was
used previously but now gravity control method is replaced by spring control in relatively modern instrument. By adjusting
balance weight null deflection of the pointer is achieved. The required damping force is provided in this instrument by air
friction. The figure shows a typical type of damping system provided in the instrument, where damping is achieved by a
moving piston in an air syringe.
Theory of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
Suppose when there is no current through the coil, the pointer is at zero, the angle made by the axis of the iron disc with
the line perpendicular to the field is φ. Now due current I and corresponding magnetic field strength, the iron piece is
deflected to an angle θ. Now component of H in the direction of defected iron disc axis is Hcos{90 - (θ + φ) or Hsin(θ + φ).
Now force F acting on the disc inward to the coil is thus proportional to H 2sin(θ + φ) hence the force is also proportional to
I2sin(θ + φ) for constant permeability. If this force is acting on the disc at a distance l from the pivot, then deflection torque,
 Since l is

constant. Where k is constant. Now, as the instrument is gravity controlled, controlling torque will be

Where k' is constant. At steady state condition, Where K

is constant.
Working Principle of Electrostatic Type Instruments
As the name suggests the electrostatic type instrument use static electrical field to produce the deflecting torque. These
types of instrument are generally used for the measurement of high voltages but in some cases they can be used in
measuring the lower voltages and powers of a given circuit. Now there are two possible ways in which the electrostatic
force can act. The two possible conditions are written below,
Construction of Electrostatic Type Instruments
(a) When one of the plates is fixed and other plate is free to move, plates are oppositely charged in order to have attractive
force between them. Now due this attractive force movable plate will move towards the stationary or fixed plate till the
moving plate stored maximum electrostatic energy. (b) In other arrangement there may be force of attraction or repulsion
or both, due to some rotary of plate.
Force & Torque Equation of Electrostatic Type Instrument
Now let us derive force equation for the linear electrostatic type instruments. Let us consider two plates as shown in the

diagram given below. Plate A is positively charged and plate B is negatively charged.
As mentioned above as per the possible condition (a) we have linear motion between the plates. The plate A is fixed and
plate B is free to move. Let us assume there exists some force F between the two plates at equilibrium when electrostatic
force becomes equal to spring force. At this point, the electrostatic energy stored in the plates is

Now suppose we increase the applied voltage by an amount dV, due to this the plate B moves towards the plate A by a
distance dx. The work done against the spring force due to displacement of the plate B be F.dx. The applied voltage is
related to current as

From this value of electric current the input energy can be calculated as

From this we can calculate the change in the stored energy and that comes out to be
By neglecting the higher order terms that appears in the expression. Now applying the principle of energy conservation we
have input energy to the system = increase in the stored energy of the system + mechanical work done by the system.
From this we can write,

From the above equation the force can be calculated as

Now let us derive force and torque equation for the rotary electrostatic type instruments. Diagram is shown below,

In order to find out the expression for deflecting torque in case of rotary type
electrostatic instruments, just replace the in the equation (1) F by T d and dx by dA. Now rewriting the modified equation we
have deflecting torque is equals to

Now at steady state we have controlling torque is given by the expression T c = K*A. The deflection A can be written as

From this expression we conclude that the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the square of the voltage to be
measured hence the scale will be non uniform. Let us now discuss about Quadrant electrometer. This instrument is
generally used in measuring the voltage ranging from 100V to 20 kilo volts. Again the deflecting torque obtained in the
Quadrant electrometer is directly proportional to the square of the applied voltage; one advantage of this is that this
instrument can used to measure both the ac and dc voltages. One advantage of using the electrostatic type instruments as
voltmeters is that we can extend the range of voltage to be measured. Now there are two ways of extending the range of
this instrument. We will discuss them one by one. (a) By using resistance potential dividers: Given below is the circuit

diagram of this type of configuration. The voltage which we want to measure is applied
across the total resistance r and the electrostatic capacitor is connected across the portion of the total resistance which is
marked as r. Now suppose the applied voltage is dc, then we should make one assumption that the capacitor which is
connected is having infinite leakage resistance. In this case the multiplying factor is given by the ratio of electrical
resistance r/R. The ac operation on this circuit can also be analyzed easily again in case of ac operation we multiplying
factor equal to r/R. (b) By using capacitor multiplier technique: We can increase the range of voltage to be measured by

placing a series of capacitors as shown in the given circuit. Let us derive the
expression for multiplying factor for the circuit diagram 1. Let us mark the capacitance of the voltmeter be C1 and series
capacitor be C2 as shown in the given circuit diagram. Now the series combination of these capacitor be equal to
Which is the total capacitance of the circuit. Now the impedance of the voltmeter is equal to Z1 = 1/jωC1 and thus total
impedance will be equal to

Now the multiplying factor can be defined as the ratio of Z/Z 1 which is equal to 1 + C2 / C1. Similarly the multiplying factor
can also be calculated. Hence by this way we can increase the range of voltage to be measure.
Advantages of Electrostatic Type Instruments
Now let us look at some advantages of electrostatic type instruments. (a) The first and the most important advantage is
that we can measure both ac and dc voltage and the reason is very obvious the deflecting torque is directly proportional to
the square of the voltage. (b) Power consumption is quite low in these types of instruments as the current drawn by these
instruments is quite low. (c) We can measure high value of voltage.
Disadvantages of Electrostatic Type Instruments
Instead of various advantages, electrostatic instruments posses few disadvantages and these are written below. (a) These
are quite costly as compared to other instruments and also these have large size. (b) The scale is not uniform. (c) The
various operating forces involved are small in magnitude.

Rectifier type instrument measures the alternating voltage and current with the help of rectifying elements and permanent
magnet moving coil type of instruments. However the primary function of rectifier type of instruments work as voltmeter.
Now one question must arises in our mind why we use rectifier type of instruments widely in the industrial world though we
have various other ac voltmeter like electrodynamometer type instruments, thermocouple type instruments etc? The
answer to this question is very simple and is written as follows. (a) Cost of electrodynamometer type of instruments is quite
high than rectifier type of instruments. However rectifier type of instruments as much accurate as electrodynamometer type
of instruments. So rectifier type of instruments are preferred over electrodynamometer type instruments. (b) The
thermocouple instruments are more delicate than the rectifier type of instruments. However thermocouple type of
instruments is more widely used at very high frequencies. Before we look at the construction principle and working of
rectifier type instruments, there is need to discuss in detail about the voltage current characteristics of ideal and practical
rectifier element called diode. Let us first discuss the ideal characteristics of rectifying element. Now what is an ideal
rectifying element? A rectifying element is one which offers zero resistance if it is forward biased and offers infinite
resistance if it is reversed biased. This property is used to rectify the voltages (rectification means to convert an alternating

quantity into direct quantity i.e. ac to dc). Consider the circuit diagram given below. In the
given circuit diagram the ideal diode is connected in series with the voltage source and load resistance. Now when we
make the diode forward biased it conducts perfectly offering zero electrical resistance path. Thus behaves as short
circuited. We can make the diode forward biased by connecting the positive terminal of the battery with anode and
negative terminal with cathode. The forward characteristic of rectifying element or diode is shown in the voltage current
characteristic. Now when we apply negative voltage i.e. connecting the negative terminal of the battery with the anode
terminal of the diode and positive terminal of the battery to the cathode terminal of the diode. Due to reverse biased it offers
infinite electrical resistance and thus it behaves as open circuit. The complete voltage current characteristics are shown

below. Let us again consider the same circuit but the difference is here we are using the
practical rectifying element instead of ideal one. Practical rectifying element is having some finite forward blocking voltage
and high reverse blocking voltage. We will apply the same procedure in order to obtain the voltage current characteristics
of practical rectifying element. Now when we make the practical rectifying element forward biased it does not conduct till
the applied voltage is not greater the forward breakdown voltage or we can say knee voltage. When the applied voltage
becomes greater than the knee voltage then diode or rectifying element will come under conduction mode. Thus behaves
as short circuited but due to some electrical resistance there is voltage drop across this practical diode. We can make the
rectifying element forward biased by connecting the positive terminal of the battery with anode and negative terminal with
cathode. The forward characteristic of practical rectifying element or diode is shown in the voltage current characteristic.
Now when we apply negative voltage i.e. connecting the negative terminal of the battery with the anode terminal of the
diode and positive terminal of the battery to the cathode terminal of the rectifying element. Due to reverse biased it offers
finite resistance and the negative voltage till the applied voltage becomes equal to reverse break down voltage and thus it
behaves as open circuit. The complete characteristics are shown below

Now rectifier type of instruments uses two types of rectifier circuits:

Half Wave Rectifier Circuits of Rectifier Type Instruments
Let us consider a circuit given below in which the rectifying element is connected in series with sinusoidal voltage source,
permanent magnet moving coil instrument and the multiplier resistor.

The function of this multiplier electrical resistance is to limit the

current drawn by the permanent magnet moving coil type of instrument. It is very essential to limit the current drawn by the
permanent magnet moving coil instrument because if the current exceeds the current rating of PMMC then it destructs the
instrument. Now here we divide our operation in two parts. In first part we apply constant dc voltage to the above circuit. In
the circuit diagram we are assuming the rectifying element as ideal one. Let us mark the resistance of multiplier be R, and
that of permanent magnet moving coil instrument be R1.The dc voltage produces a full scale deflection of magnitude
I=V/(R+R1) where V is root mean square value of voltage. Now let us consider second case, in this case we will apply ac
sinusoidal ac voltage to the circuit v=Vm*sin(wt) and we will get the output waveform as shown. In the positive half cycle
the rectifying element will conduct and in the negative half cycle it does not conduct. So we will get a pulse of voltage at
moving coil instrument which produces pulsating current thus pulsating current will produce pulsating torque. The
deflection produced will corresponds to the average value of voltage. So let us calculate the average value of electric
current, in order to calculate the average value of voltage we have integrate the instantaneous expression of the voltage
from 0 to 2 pi. So the calculated average value of voltage comes out to be 0.45V.Again we have V is root mean square
value of current. Thus we conclude that the sensitivity of the ac input is 0.45 times the sensitivity of dc input in case of half

wave rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuits of Rectifier Type Instruments

Let us consider a circuit given below. We have used here a bridge rectifier circuit as
shown. Again we divide our operation into two parts. In the first we analyze the output by applying the dc voltage and in
another we will apply ac voltage to the circuit. A series multiplier resistance is connected in series with the voltage source
which has the same function as described above. Let us consider first case here we applying dc voltage source to the
circuit. Now the value of full scale deflection current in this case is again V/(R+R1), where V is the root mean square value
of the applied voltage, R is the resistance of the resistance multiplier and R1 which is the electrical resistance of the
instrument. The R and R1 are marked in the circuit diagram. Now let us consider second case, in this case we will apply ac
sinusoidal voltage to the circuit which is given v=Vmsin(wt) where Vm is the peak value of the applied voltage again if we
calculate the value of full scale deflection current in this case by applying the similar procedure then we will get an
expression of full scale current as .9V/(R+R1).Remember in order to obtain the average value of voltage we should integrate
the instantaneous expression of voltage from zero to pi . Thus comparing it dc output we conclude that the sensitivity with
ac input voltage source is 0.9 times the as in the case of dc input voltage source .

The output wave is shown below. Now we are going to discuss the
factors which affect the performance of Rectifier type instruments: (a) Effect of input waveforms: Rectifier type of
instruments is calibrated in terms of root mean square values of sinusoidal wave of voltages and current. The problem is
that the input waveform may or may not have same form factor on which the scale of these meter is calibrated. (b) There
may be some error due to the rectifier circuit as we not included the resistance of the rectifier bridge circuits in both the
case. The non linear characteristics of bridge may distort the current and voltage waveform. (c) There may variation in the
temperature due to which the electrical resistance of the bridge changes hence in order to compensate this kind of errors
we should apply multiplier resistor with high temperature coefficient . (d) Effect of capacitance of the bridge rectifier: Bridge
rectifier has imperfect capacitance thus due to this it byp asses the high frequency currents. Hence there is decrement in
the reading. (e) The sensitivity of Rectifier type instruments is low in case of ac input voltage.
Advantages of Rectifier Type Instruments
Following are the advantages of the rectifier type of instruments: (a) The accuracy of rectifier type instrument is about 5
percent under normal operating condition. (b) The frequency range of operation can be extended to high value. (c) They
have uniform scale on the meter. (d) They have low operating value of current and voltages. The loading effect of an ac
rectifier voltmeter in both the cases (i.e. half wave diode rectifier and full wave diode rectifier) is high as compared to the
loading effects of dc voltmeters as the sensitivity of the voltmeter either using in half wave or full wave rectification is less
than the sensitivity of dc voltmeters.
Before We introduce you about thermocouple type instrument in detail. We should first know the meaning of term
thermocouple. Basically thermocouple consists of two different metals which are placed in contact with each other as

shown in the diagram. First part is called the heater element because when the current
will flow through this, a heat is produced and thus the temperature will increased at the junction. At this junction an emf is
produced which is approximately proportional to the temperature difference of hot and cold junctions. The emf produced is
a dc voltage which is directly proportional to root mean square value of electric current. A permanent magnet moving coil
instrument is connected with the second part to read the current passing through the heater. One question must be arise in
our mind that why we have used only a permanent magnet coil instrument? Answer to this question is very easy it is
because PMMC instrument has greater accuracy and sensitivity towards the measurement of dc value. The thermocouple
type instruments employ thermocouple in their construction. Thermocouple type instruments can be used for both ac and
dc applications. Also thermocouple type of instruments has greater accuracy in measuring the current and voltages at very
high frequency accurately. Now we will look how the temperature difference is mathematically related to generated emf at
the junction in thermocouple type of instruments. Let us consider temperature of the heater element be T a and the
temperature of cold metal be Tb. Now it is found that the generated emf at the junction is related to temperature difference
as:

Where a and b are constant whose values completely depends upon the type of metal we are using. The above equation
represents parabolic function. The approximated value of a is from 40 to 50 micro volts or more per degree Celsius rise in
temperature and value of constant b is very small and can be neglected if the air gap field of permanent magnet moving
coil is uniform. Thus we can approximate the above temperature emf relation as e = a(T a - Tb), here we have assume b = 0.
The current flowing through the heater coil produces heat as I2R where I is the root mean square value of current, if we
assume the temperature of cold junction is maintained at room temperature then the rise in the temperature of the hot
junction will be equal to temperature rise at the junction. Hence we can write (Ta-Tb)is directly proportional to I 2R or we can
say (Ta - Tb) = kI2R. Now the deflection angle x in moving coil instrument is equal to; x = Ke or x = K[a(T a - Tb)] hence we can
write k.K.a.I2R = k1I2, where k1 is some constant. From the above equation we see that the instrument shows the square law
response.
Construction of Thermocouple Type Instrument
Now let us look at the construction of Thermocouple type Instruments. Broadly speaking the thermocouple type of
instruments consists of two major parts which are written below: (a) Thermo electric elements: The thermocouple type of
instruments consists of thermo electric elements which can be of four types: (1) Contact type: It has a separate heater
which is shown in the diagram.
The action of thermocouple type instruments can be explained briefly as, (A) At the junction the electrical energy is being
converted to thermal energy in the heater element. A portion of the heat is transferred to the hot junction while most of the
heat energy is dissipated away. (B) The heat energy which is transferred to hot junction is again converted to electrical due
to Seebeck effect. Only a portion of electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy which is used to produce a
deflecting torque. The overall efficiency of the system is low thus the instrument consumes high power. So there is a
requirement of highly accurate and sensitive dc instrument. (2) Non contact type: In non contact type there is insulation
between the heating element and the thermocouple i.e. there no direct contact between two. Due to this these instruments
are not much sensitive as compared contact type. (3) Vacuum thermo-elements: These types of instruments are mostly
employed for the measurement of electric current at very high frequency of the order of 100 Mega hertz or more as these
instruments retain their accuracy even at such high frequency. (4)Bridge type: These bridges are manufactured on the ac
ratings usually from 100 mili amperes to 1 amperes. In this two thermocouple are connected to form a bridge which is

shown in the figure given below: There is no requirement of heating element,

the electric current which directly passing through the thermocouple raises the temperature which is directly proportional
to the I2R losses. The bridge works on balanced condition at which there will be no current in the arm ab. The connected
meter will show the potential difference between the junctions a and b.
Advantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Following are advantages of Thermocouple type of instruments, (1) The thermocouple type of instruments accurately
indicates the root mean square value of current and voltages irrespective of the waveform. There is a wide varieties of
range of thermocouple instruments are available in the market. (2) Thermocouple type of instruments give very accurate
reading even at high frequency, thus these types of instruments are completely free from frequency errors. (3) The
measurement of quantity under these instruments is not affected by stray magnetic fields. (4) These instruments are known
for their high sensitivity. (5) Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge type of arrangement is used i.e. ranging
from 0.5 amperes to 20 amperes while for measuring the higher value of current heater element is required to retain
accuracy.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Instead of many advantages these type of instruments posses one disadvantage, The over load capacity of thermocouple
type of instrument is small, even fuse is not able to the heater wire because heater wire may burn out before the fuse blows
out.