Design Guide (NO. TCE.M6-EL-TL-G-750-6801 FOR: Tata Consulting Engineers

TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS SECTION: TITLE
TCE.-M6-EL-TL-G SHEET i OF v
750-6801
DESIGN GUIDE
(NO. TCE.M6-EL-TL-G-750-6801
FOR
TRANSMISSION LINES
TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS

CARNAC
MUMBAI 400 009
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DATE 94/4/25 1999-07-21
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TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS SECTION: .Contents
TCE. M6-EL-TL-G-
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CONTENTS
ITEM NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
1.0 SCOPE 1
2.0 TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES 1
TABLE 1 FORMAT FOR PRELIMINARY STUDY 2
3.0 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL 3
4.0 TYPE OF CONDUCTOR 4
TABLE 2 TECHNICAL DATA OF ACSR CONDUCTOR 5
5.0 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 6
6.0 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 11
7.0 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR SIZE 14
8.0 CORORNA EFFECTS 18
TABLE 3 CORONA LOSS IN RAIN 19
9.0 OPTIMISATION OF CONDUCTOR 23
10.0 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTOR SELECTION 24
11.0 EARTH WIRE 27
12.0 EARTHING 30
13.0 PARALLELISM WITH COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS 32
14.0 LINE INSULATION 33
FIG.1 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE BETWEEN TWO EARTH RETURN 34

CIRCUITS
FIG.2 SWITCHING SURGE FLASHOVER VOLTAGE CURVES 37
FIG.3 POWER FREQUENCY AND LIGHTING FLASHOVER 38

VOLTAGE CURVES
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15.0 INSULATION DESIGN APPROACH 42
TABLE 4 INSULATION LEVELS AND MINIMUM AIR CLEARANCES 43
FIG.4 LIGHTNING TRIP-OUT CURVES 49
16.0 INSULATORS 53
TABLE 5 TECHNICAL DETAILS OF DISC INSULATORS 54
TABLE 6 STRING INSULATOR CHARACTERISTICS 56
17.0 LINE HARDWARE 60
FIG.5 SUSPENSION STRING COMPONENTS 61
FIG.6 TENSION STRING COMPONENTS 62
FIG.7 CLAMPS 63
18.0 OTHER HARDWARE 68
FIG.8 SPACERS 69
19.0 TOWERS 71
FIG.9 110 kV SUSPENSION TOWER OUTLINE (S.C.) 74
FIG.10 110 kV ANGLE TOWER OUTLINE (D.C) 75
FIG.11 110 kV ANGLE TOWER OUTLINE (S.C) 76
FIG.12 110 kV SUSPENSION, RIVER CROSSING TOWER (D.C) 77
FIG.13 220 kV ANGLE TOWER OUTLINE (D.C) 78
FIG.14 220 kV SUSPENSION TOWER OUTLINE (D.C) 79
FIG.15 400 kV SUSPENSION TOWER OUTLINE (S.C) 80
TABLE 7 SPECIMEN STRINGING CHART 84
FIG.16 TOWER CLEARANCES 88
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FIG.17 CONDUCTOR ARRANGEMENT (S.C) 92
FIG.18 CONDUCTOR ARRANGEMENT (D.C) 93
FIG 19 WIND MAP OF INDIA 97
FIG.20 WEIGHT SPANS 100
20.0 RIGHT OF WAY (R.O.W) 101
FIG.21 LINE CLEARANCE (R.O.W) 102
21.0 TOWER SPOTTING 103
TABLE 8 TYPICAL TOWER SPOTTING REQUIREMENT 106
FIG.22 SAG TEMPLATE AND ITS APPLICATION REFERENCES 109
22.0 REFERENCE 113
23.0 INDIAN STANDARD 114
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1.0 SCOPE
This guide covers the salient design features of overhead power lines of 66
kV to 400 kV on steel towers. The scope does not include protection and
switching equipment.
2.0 TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES
2.1 The standard nominal system voltages are 66, (110), 132, 220 and 400 kV
(rms). The 110 kV system is existing but not preferred. It is recommended
that limits of voltage tolerance be + 10% for voltages upto 220 kV and + 5%
for 400 kV based on allowable limits of the voltage ratings for which the
equipment is designed. The IS 12360 and IE Rules allows a voltage at the
consumers terminal for EHV upto 400 kV.
2.2 Selection of appreciate voltage for transmission depends on various factors

like quantum of power to be evacuated, length of the line, voltage regulation,
power loss in transmission, initial and annual operating costs. If the proposed
transmission is remote from any existing system the choice of voltage should
result from a complete study of all factors involved. The performance of
higher voltage regulated lines, with almost equal voltages at the sending and
receiving end lines, is determined primarily by the line loss. Usually not
more than two voltages will be necessary for the study because for
preliminary choice, charts/curves are available in transmission line
handbooks showing power which can be transmitted based on assumed
percentage regulation together with corresponding percent line loss for
various voltages and conductors. A representative format of tabulation for
preliminary study is given in Table-1.
In the likelyhood of load growth, higher voltage and larger conductor may be
selected when the annual operating costs do not vary widely.
2.3 When selecting the transmission voltage, the present and future voltages in
the vicinity and neighbouring regions should be considered. The choice in
tying with a common voltage at the receiving end or neighbouring region
often has advantages over the choice of voltage based on lowest present cost.
Matching with existing transmission voltage will avoid additional step-
up/step-down transformers and associated switchgear.
2.4 An approximate empirical formula, in American practice, for the economic

voltage of transmission of power by a single circuit line is given below. This
could also be used as a preliminary check.
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KV
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__________
E = 5.5 / L + KVA
√ 1.6 150
Where -
E = Transmission voltage kV (Line to Line)
L = Distance of transmission in Km
KVA = Power to be transmitted
3.0 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL

3.1 Copper
3.1.1 Copper conductors (hard drawn) were extensively used earlier as overhead
line conductors because of high conductivity, long life due to high resistance
to fatigue, corrosion, creep and a high scrap value. Their relatively small
diameters make them unsuitable for high voltage lines where corona effects
are serious. Also the very high cost of copper prohibits its use for overhead
line conductors.
3.2 Aluminium
3.2.1 Aluminium conductor has 60% conductivity, 50% tensile strength and 30%
weight that of same size of hard drawn copper conductor. The size of
aluminium conductor has to be 1.6 times that of copper for the same
conductivity and therefore the actual breaking strength will be about the
same as copper. The weight, even with twice the size will be only 60% that
of copper.
3.2.2 The cost of aluminium is about 30% of copper and its other features which
make it suitable for transmission line are (a) lighter weight giving small sags
permitting longer spans to be used thereby reducing the number of supports
and insulators and (b) larger diameter gives a much higher corona limit
which is a big advantage on high voltage lines. Hence because of the cost and
other advantages aluminium has replaced copper for transmission line
conductors.
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4.0 TYPE OF CONDUCTOR

4.1 ACSR Conductor
4.1.1 Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) conductor consists of a
galvanised steel wire core (which is either a single wire or group of
concentric - lay strands) surrounded by one or more layers of concentric lay
of standard aluminium wires. ACSR has become the most universally used
conductor for EHV lines. The principal advantage of this type of conductor is
high tensile strength. Tensile strength of ACSR is decided on aluminium to
steel (AL/St) area ratio. The breaking load of ACSR is taken as 98% that of
all the aluminium wires plus 85% that of all the galvanised steel wires before
stranding or 89% after stranding.
Conductors with smaller aluminium to steel area ratio can be designed for
higher tension to reduce the sag in long spans. For smaller spans, larger Al/St
area ratio would be more economical. The Moose conductor having Al/St
area ratio of 7.7 has been adopted in India and also by several other countries
for 400 kV lines.
4.1.2 ACSR conductor with equal diameter of aluminium and steel strands gives a
close and compact finish. More compact conductors have less tendency for
galloping or dancing under certain wind conditions or light ice loading
conditions.
4.1.3 The electro-chemical action between the galvanised steel core and aluminium
results in corrosion of ACSR conductors. A coating of grease given to steel
core before stranding the aluminium wires over it gives the necessary
protection.
4.1.4 Technical data pertaining to various sizes of ACSR conductors given in IS
398 (Part II). The data of some of the more commonly used ACSR
conductors are given in Table 2. The IS 398 (Part V) has been prepared to
cover the requirements of ACSR conductors for use on 400 kV and above
with special attention to the finish of the conductor and tests to ascertain
conformity to the stipulations for corona and radio interference.
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4.2 AAC and AAAC Conductor
4.2.1 The all aluminium conductor (AAC) is used for low and medium voltage
lines. (Tarantula AAC conductor is some time used for HV lines).
4.2.2 The all aluminium alloy conductor (AAAC) has not yet found wide
application in India but is extensively used in many foreign countries because
of its following advantages and also much lesser cost than copper. (The
present cost in India is 30% more than that of ACSR).
a) Since there is no steel core, galvanic corrosion is eliminated. In coastal

saline atmosphere and industrial environment the AAAC is predicted to
have double the life expectancy of 60 to 75 years compared to ACSR.
b) The AC resistance of AAAC is atleast less by 5% that of ACSR. This

gives a substantial saving of I2 R (power loss in transmission).
c) Good tensile strength, comparable to ACSR and lighter in weight by 20

to 25%. Hence lines with lower sags or longer spans can be used, thus
reducing the tower costs.
d) Higher resistance to fatigue and creep than ACSR.
e) AAAC is about twice as hard as ACSR and hence less prone to

abrasions/scratches thus reducing corona.
5.0 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Impedance of transmission circuits vary with the type, size and configuration
of the conductors. Impedance and susceptance parameters of phase
conductors to be considered in transmission line design are as given below.
Since the data tables in all reference handbooks is in miles/feet units, this has
been retained here also for easy application of the reference tables when
required.
5.1 Impedance
Z1 = Z2 = ra + j XL
Z1 and Z2 are positive and negative sequence impedances respectively, ohms

per phase per mile.
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ra = a.c resistance, ohms per phase per mile

XL = Inductive reactance, ohms per phase per mile
(a) Resistance
The tables in handbooks of overhead conductors and IS 398 give the

d.c. resistance at 20o C. The d.c. resistance at any other conductor
temperature toC is :
T+t
rdct = rdct20 x ---------
T + 20
Where T = 230 for aluminium
The a.c. resistance at any frequency f will vary from the d.c. resistance
due to skin effect as follows :
ra = Krdc ohms per mile
K is a value given in handbooks’ tables as function of X
Where X = 0.063598 √f/rdc
f = frequency
rdc = the dc resistance in ohms per mile
For rdc at 20oC, f=50Hz, largest ACSR conductor (Moose), K will be

1.0258. For smaller sizes, K may be taken as unity.
The resistance of a bundled phase is the parallel combination of the

resistance of each sub-conductor in the bundle.
(b) Inductance
The inductive reactance of transmission line is given by -
XL = 0.2328 log10 (GMD/GMR) ohms per conductor per mile at 50 Hz
This can be expressed as -
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XL = 0.2328 log10 ( 1 ) + 0.2328 log10 (GMD)

(GMR)
= Xa + Xd
Xa = inductive reactance at 1 foot spacing in ohms per mile
Xd = inductive reactance spacing factor in ohms per mile
GMR = conductor geometric mean radius in feet
GMR = 0.8r for self inductance, for stranded round conductor,
(r = radius of conductor in feet)
For a bundled conductor

1/N
GMRB = R [ N(GMR)]
[ R ]
N = No. of sub-conductors in a bundle
R = bundle radius = B/2 Sin π, feet

N
B = spacing between sub-conductors, feet
GMD is the geometric mean of the distances between the phase

conductors/ conductor bundles and is defined as -
______________
GMD = 3 / D12 x D23 x D31 feet
√
(for phases, 1, 2 & 3)
The reactance values may therefore be calculated as above or referred

from transmission line handbooks. Typical reactance value of
transmission lines is of the order of 0.66 ohms per mile (0.4 ohms per
km).
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5.2 Zero Sequence Impedance
The zero sequence impedance Zo of a 3 phase circuit is to be considered

during unbalanced conditions like ground faults. The presence of overhead
ground wires divides the zero sequence return current between the ground
wire and the ground path in a ratio such as to provide equal voltage drops.
The zero sequence resistance and inductance are dependent upon the
resistivity of the earth and the distribution of the current returning in the
earth. Earth resistivity value used in practice is 100 ohm. metre. Typical
average zero - sequence factors are given by which the positive sequence
reactance is to be multiplied to obtain the zero sequence reactance.
Factor
i. S.C line with magnetic ground wire 3
ii. S.C line with non-magnetic ground wire 2
iii. D.C line with magnetic ground wire 5.5
iv. D.C line with non-magnetic ground wire 3
5.3 Susceptance
The positive and negative sequence shunt capacitive reactance of a

transmission line in given by :
Xcl = Xc2 = 0.0683 x 60 log 10 (GMD) Megohm per phase per mile
f ( r )
= 0.082 log10 (GMD) at 50 Hz

( r )
= 0.082 log10 (1) + 0.082 log 10 (GMD)

(r )
/ /
=Xa + Xd
= capacitive reactance at 1 foot spacing Megohms per mile +

capacitance reactance spacing factor, Megohms per mile.
GMD is the geometric mean distance in feat

(same value as for inductive reactance)
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r = radius of the phase conductor in feet or the equivalent radius, rB

in
case of bundled conductors
rB = R [NR] 1/N
[R ]
The symbols are same as stated in 5.1 (b).

_____
For a twin bundle conductor rB = √ 2 Rr
The shunt capacitive reactance may therefore be calculated a s above or

referred from transmission line handbooks. A typical average capacitance
reactance value is 0.2 megohm per mile (0.32 per km). It may be noted that,
say, for a 10 mile line the capacitive reactance Xc will be 0.2/10 = 0.02
megohms for 10 miles.
5.4 Surge Impedance
The surge impedance of a line is given as :
__
Zs = / L ohms , where L is series inductance.
√ C
and C is the shunt capacitance per unit length of line. Thus, surge impedance
loading
SIL = (V2 / Zs) MW
It is that loading where the loss in reactive power due to load current (I2 XL)
is equal to the reactive power generated by the line capacitance (V2 / Xc).
5.4.2 With increased inter phase spacing and reduced bundle spacing the SIL
capacity of the line is reduced. The I2 R losses will get affected by change in
SIL.
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5.4.3 The concept of SIL gives a general idea of the load capability of a line and
allows comparing the approximate load capability of lines of different
voltages. Approximate values of surge impedance for single, double, triple
and quadruple bundle conductors used on EHV lines are 380, 300, 280 and
260 ohms.
5.4.4 It is usual to load short lines of low inductive reactance appreciably above
the SIL, and, because of stability limitations, to load long lines at lower than
SIL, unless series capacitor compensated. For stability reasons it is
recommended that the phase angle across the line including a voltage
transformation if it is part of the line) should not normally exceed 30o . For
example, line load in SIL for 230 kV line is 140 MVA for 300 miles, for the
same line of lengths 200 and 400 miles, the line loads would be
approximately 200 MVA (1.5 SIL) and 100 MVA (0.8 x SIL) respectively.
5.4.5 From reliability considerations, the line loading should be such that the
outage of a major line or generator will not cause over loading beyond the
short time capability of any of the paralleling lines or transformers, more
than 5% reduction of system voltage, or instability.
6.0 MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE
6.1 In EHV lines, because of relatively high tensions and large conductor sizes,
the wind pressure on the conductors and its effect on conductor vibrations
becomes significant. A tensioned conductor has several closely spaced
natural mechanical frequencies of oscillation and when certain frequencies of
wind induced forces corresponds to any of the natural frequencies of the
conductor, resonant vibration will occur.
6.2 Aeolian Vibrations
These wind induced vertical vibrations are more or less always present but
most of the time they are harmless. Low and very high wind velocities do not
cause harmful vibrations. Excessive vibrations occurs only at wind velocities
which are less than and upto 25 km/hour in flat terrain. Turbulence helps to
reduce the vibrations and hence lines passing through hilly or irregular
terrain are less prone to vibrations. The frequency of the wind induced
vertical forces on the conductor is given by :
f = 2.065 V/d Hz
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where V = Component of wind velocity normal to the conductor in

Km/hour
d = diameter of the conductor in cm
The resulting oscillations, which cause conductor strand strain and is

responsible for conductor fatigue damage, are known as Aeolian vibrations.
If this frequency is synchronised with one of the natural frequencies, of the
span, which if not damped properly, can build up and destroy conductor
strands at supporting suspension clamps, dead-end clamps or at bundle
spacers. Conductor Aeolian vibrations are characterised by high frequency (5
to 100 Hz, low amplitude (< 5 cm) travelling wave formation in a
predominantly vertical plane. The amplitudes and bending strains can be
computed from wind power input, self damping characteristics and the
dynamic response of the conductor.
In a twin conductor bundle arranged in a horizontal plane, the amplitude of

vibration is less than for a single conductor due to the coupling effect of the
bundle spacer.
Conductors have a self damping capacity due to interstrand friction.

However, additional damping facilities are required in the critical range of
wind velocity in normal transmission line systems. The frequency of
vibration is usually limited to 20 Hz and the amplitude is less than 2.5 cm.
Safe value of dynamic strain is established as + 150 microns for aluminium.
6.2.1 Vibration Control
The most favoured method for vibration control, to ensure that amplitude of
vibration is kept low so as to keep the dynamic strain induced in the
conductor to a permissible safe value, is by providing Stockbridge type
dampers. The damper consists of two hollow weights joined together with a
length of flexible steel cable which has a suitable attachment at its mid-point.
There are other variations to this type of dampers with adjustable type
weights.
The number of dampers required per span depends on damping

characteristics of dampers, length of span, tension in conductor and the
critical range of wind velocity that causes the dynamic strain higher than the
allowable. Usually two dampers are fitted, one on each side of the suspension
clamp, so that each span has minimum two dampers, one at each end.
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From experiments conducted on 400 kV lines in India, with twin-bundle

conductors per phase, it is suggested to provide four Stockbridge dampers
per phase in spans of 350 m and double the number of dampers for longer
spans. With this arrangement the conductor strains are expected to reduce
below 150 Micro strain which is within the fatigue limit of the conductor.
Bundle conductors can be provided with combined spacer-damper which

have the dual function of maintaining bundle geometry and damping the
conductor vibrations.
6.3 Galloping
Another form of conductor oscillation in vertical plane is called Galloping.

The conductor oscillates at frequencies between 0.1 and 1 Hz with very large
amplitudes (+ several metres). This type of vibration occurs mainly under
icing conditions with wind speeds ranging from 25 to 50 km/hour and in
areas of relatively flat terrain. Similar form of oscillation also occurs when
ice loosens and is being shed by the conductor. Occurrence of galloping is
significantly greater with large diameter (40 mm) single conductors and
bundle conductors than with small diameter single conductors.
Galloping causes large dynamic forces which could damage insulator strings,
conductors, fittings, spacers and cross-arms. It may also result in conductor
clashing, but the adoption of horizontal conductor formation greatly reduces
this danger. Some of the methods used in controlling galloping are (a) aero
dynamic stabilisers attached to the conductor in the form of narrow plastic
plates and (b) by insulated spacers interconnecting adjacent phases at the 1/3
points of the span.
6.4 Sub-Conductor Vibrations
In a bundle conductor, the subconductor oscillations in a horizontal plane

with nodes formed at spacer locations are termed as sub-conductor or wake-
induced oscillations. These oscillations are caused when one conductor on
the windward side aerodynamically shields the leeward conductor.
Conditions favourable to wake -induced oscillations are mainly flat treeless
terrain or marine littorals, conductors of diameters more than 25 mm and
steady cross wind speeds in the range of 25-65 Km/hr. The frequency of
oscillation is less than 3 Hz and amplitude may be sufficient to cause
clashing of sub-conductors which are separated by about 50 cm. This can
cause damage to spacers, conductor hardware and insulator strings.
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The amplitude of sub-conductor oscillations is reduced by increasing the sub-

conductor spacing and decreasing the sub-span length. The ratio of sub-
conductor spacing to diameter should be not less than 14 to keep the
oscillation under control. Experiments on 400 kV lines have shown that the
oscillation amplitude was 10 to 12 cm for sub-span of 117 m, 5 to 8 cm for
sub-span of 67 m and 2 to 4 cm for sub-span of 35.5 m. Also, irregular
subspan spacing produce additional improvement without adding to cost.
There is therefore a growing trend towards shorter and asymmetric sub-spans
in areas of high risk. It has been suggested to adopt asymmetric sub-spans
with a maximum sub-span of 80 m and minimum 40 m for a normal span of
350 m of twin bundle, 400 kV line.
6.5 Corona Oscillations
Corona induced oscillations occur only during rain and fog. These
oscillations and relatively small and normal damping for wind induced
conductor movements is adequate to control this type of oscillation.
7.0 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR SIZE
7.1 The choice of conductor size will depend on factors like continuous and short
time current carrying capacity, length of the line to be considered for voltage
drop and power loss in transmission and the minimum conductor diameter
required to avoid corona. In addition, for higher voltages and long lines
(greater than 50 km) the charging current of the line will increase. This may
increase the current in the circuit depending on the power factor of that load
and consequently the corresponding change in I2 R and voltage regulation
should be checked. The charging KVA of a transmission line is
approximately = (KVL-L)2 x 3.13 x 10-3 per km.
7.2 Current Rating
7.2.1 The selection of conductor size from thermal consideration will be based on
maximum continuous current rating which is determined by the maximum
operating temperature of the conductor. For design purpose copper or ACSR
conductor total maximum temperature is usually restricted to 75oC as use of
this value has given good conductor performance from an annealing
standpoint. The annealing of copper and aluminium starts at 100oC. The
approximate maximum continuous current ratings of Cu and A1 conductors
are given in transmission line hand books. These are based on the formula
that the heat developed by I2 R loss is dissipated by convection and radiation.
Manufacturer’s test data should also be consulted. Rating of some of the
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ACSR conductors is given in Table 2 for a temperature rise of 30oC and 35oC
in an ambient of 40oC with a wind velocity of 2 feet per second. (2.16
Km/hrs)
7.2.2 Continuous Rating
For finding current rating of a conductor at an ambient temperature other

than specified in handbook tables, following formula can be used :
__________
I2 = I1 / ∆ t 2 x R1 Amps
√ ∆ t 1 x R2
Where I1 = Current rating for temperature rise ∆ t1
I2 = Current required to produce temperature rise ∆ t2
R1 = Conductor resistance at conductor total temperature T1

(Say 75o C)
R2 = Conductor resistance at required conductor total

temperature T2
If T1 = T2 (i.e. 75oC)
_____
Then I2 = I1 / ∆ t 2
√ ∆ t1
7.2.3 Short - time Rating
The short term current carrying capacity is calculated with a basic

assumption that the heat loss during the short time is negligible. The size of
the conductor for thermal withstand of fault current, based on an ultimate
temperature of 200oC with an initial temperature of 75oC, can be obtained by
the following formula :
A = sq. m (copper equivalent ) = 7.58 x IF x √t
Where IF = Fault Current in kA
t = duration of fault in seconds
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(This may be generally taken as 1 second)
The aluminium conductor area will be 1.6 times the copper equivalent area,
to carry the same current.
7.3 Corona
7.3.1 For EHV lines, specially 220 kV and above, the size of the conductor has to
be determined from corona consideration rather than current carrying
capacity. The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm mercury pressure and 25oC
is 30 kV peak per cm or 21.1 kV (rms) per cm. At any other barometric
pressure b cm and taoC the breakdown strength of air is δ 21.1 kV per cm.
Where δ = 3.92 b_
273 + ta
The value of the voltage at which the air breaks down and becomes a
conductor is the corona inception voltage. The phenomenon of corona
generates a faint glow, humming noise, radio interference (RI), conductor
vibration, ozone and energy loss. The visual corona inception voltage of a
conductor in fair-weather is given by -
Vo = 21.1 m δr (1 + 0.3 ) logn (D)

√δr ( r)
Vo = Corona starting voltage to ground, kV rms
r = radius of the conductor in cm
D = (GMD) equivalent spacing between conductors in cm
m = roughness factor
= 1 for clean smooth conductor
= 0.82 for stranded conductors
The voltage gradient at the surface of a conductor at the operating voltage V

kV is expressed as -
go = V / √3__
r logn [D] kV (rms to neutral) per cm
[r]
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Corona discharge forms at the surface of a conductor if go ≥ the corona

starting gradient i.e.
21.1 m δ r [1 + 0.3]
[ √δr ]
In practice δ is taken as 1. The voltage gradient at the conductor surface can

be decreased either by increasing the spacing or the diameter of the
conductor. The spacing cannot be increased greatly as the cost of the
supports will be high.
7.3.2 Bundle Conductors
EHV transmission lines 400 kV and above use bundle conductors from the
stand point of corona performance. These are made up of 2, 3, 4 or more
conductors and are used as one phase conductor. The advantage of improved
corona performance and increased line loading of the bundle conductor is to
be weighed against increased cost and charging KVA. There is an optimum
number of sub-conductors and sub-conductors’ separation for bundle
conductors that will give an economically minimum voltage gradient on the
surface of the conductors. For 400 kV lines in India and upto 500 kV in
foreign countries, twin Moose bundle with 45 cm spacing is found to give
satisfactory corona and RI performance.
7.3.2.1 Voltage Gradient Formula
The basic expression for go in para 7.3.1 is generally true based on the
assumption that the conductors are separated by large distances from each
other and from ground relative to their diameters. For a transmission line
strung at height H above a equipotential ground plane, its effect is taken into
account by considering image charges of each conductor at distance 2H from
the conductor. In the case of a 3-phase line having bundle conductors with
horizontal configuration of phases, following Mangoldt formula has been
derived for the maximum voltage gradient on the surface of a subconductor
on the centre phase.
1 + (N-1) r/R x V / √3
9 (Max centre phase) = [ ( 2HavD ) ]
in kV rms/cm Nr logn [ (rB (D2 + 4H2av)½ ]
V / √3 = line operating voltage to ground, kVrms
rB = equivalent radius or geometric mean radius of a bundle
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= R (Nr) 1/N cm
(R)
Where
R = bundle radius = B/2 Sin π cm

N
B = spacing between sub-conductors, cm
r = radius of each sub-conductor, cm
N = number of sub-conductors in a bundle
D = phase to phase spacing, cm
Hav = mean height of sub-conductor above ground cm
= (Stringing height H - 2 Sag). As a guide line, sag is limited

to 3% of span. 3
The gradient on the sub-conductor is not uniform due to the effect of the sub-
conductors on each other and varies as follows :
g max = gav [ 1 + (N-1) r ]

R
g min = gav [ 1 - (N-1) r ]

R
Also the outer phase sub-conductors maximum surface gradient is

approximately 4 to 5% lower than that of the centre phase. Calculations have
shown that a variation of height H from 10 to 30 m does not change g by
more than 1%.
7.3.3 The conductor size should be chosen such that the normal design gradient of
a conductor should not exceed 17.5 kV/cm. At this value overhead lines do
not exhibit much corona in fair weather. As corona is a variable phenomenon
it is not practical or economical to design an EHV line such that there will be
no corona at all times. Bad weather such as fog, snow, rain may reduce the
corona starting voltage to as low as 0.7 of the fair-weather value. Also
surface irregularities like abrasions, scratches and contaminating particles are
dominant sources of corona.
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8.0 CORONA EFFECTS
8.1 A breakdown of air causes dissipation of energy and that has to be supplied
by the power station. The corona current is mainly in phase with applied
voltage and forms a component of the line charging current. For lines of 220
kV and above serious attention has to be paid to corona loss and RI. A
weathered, (aged) conductor in use for more than 1½ year will have less
corona loss, audible noise and RI.
8..2 Lightning and switching surge will cause corona loss and in so doing it loses
energy while it travels and its amplitude decreases corresponding to lower
energy content. Corona thus helps to attenuate high voltage travelling waves.
Similarly, corona helps to reduce overvoltages on long open-circuited lines.
8.3 Corona Loss
8.3.1 Many countries have conducted experiments to evaluate corona losses and
derived empirical formulas from the measurements and theoretical analysis.
However, they do not fit in for universal application. One of the more useful
formulas, valid for lines between 400 to 700 kV, (Project EHV, USA), giving
the corona loss in rein above fair weather loss, in KW/3 phase Km is given
in Table-3.
TABLE 3
CORONA LOSS IN RAIN
Referenced transmission line reference book 345 kV & above (EPRD)

Following formula for Corona loss in Rain was developed from the test
results by project EHV. It is valid for practical line configurations between
400 & 700 kV.
N
Σ P = PFW + [ V Jr logn (1+KR) ] Σ (E5)
2
[ 1.6√3 ] 1
ΣP = Total 3 Phase Line Losses in KW/KM

PFW = Total 3 Phase Fair Weather Losses in KW/KM
= 1 to 5 KW/KM for 400 to 500 kV and
= 3 to 20 KW/KM for 700 kV
V = Phase to Phase Voltage in kV
J = A Loss Current Constant
= 7.04 x 10-10 for 400 kV Configuration
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= 5.35 x 10-10 for 500 and 700 kV Configuration

N = Total Number of Conductors
= (No. of Conductors in Bundle x 3)
E = Each Conductor Gradient in kV (Peak)/CM
(Use average surface gradient of centre phase for calculation)
r = Conductor Radius
k = A Wetting Coefficient = 10
R =Rain Rate in MM/Hour
4 MM/Hour is medium Rain
(12.5MM/Hour is very heady and Localised on short section)
For a region of warm, temperature, rainy climate the yearly average foul -
weather corona loss/km has been estimated to be about 3.5% of the value
computed from heavy rain test corona loss in snow, specially wet snow, can
exceed that in rain for snow, the test data of project EHV suggests a loss
multiplier of about 2 and the following equivalent rain rates.
Heavy Snow, R = 2.5 mm/h (0.5 in/h)
Medium Snow, R = 0.635 mm/h (0.025 in/h)
Light Snow, R = 0.217 mm/h (0.5 in/h)
8.3.2 Curves and procedures are also described in Transmission Line Reference
Book 345 kV and Above (EPRI) to enable a designer to estimate the likely
corona losses. However, due to the variable nature of the losses, the.
accuracy of the estimated value cannot be much better than ±30%.
8.3.3 The magnitude of fair-weather corona loss is insignificant in comparison

with foul-weather loss. However, fair weather losses occur for a large
percentage of time and their consideration will affect the value of the total
energy consumed by the line.
Calculations show that during rain or snow, corona losses can go upto more
than 50 times that under fair weather. Since rain would be for 3 months in a
year and heavy rain would occur for only a short-time and on a short length
of line, the yearly average loss is estimated to be 5-10 KW/3 phase Km for
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voltages upto 500 kV. The cumulative annual average corona loss may
amount to 10% of I2 R loss at full load.
8.4 Insulator Losses
Studies of EHV line above 220 kV have shown that major fair weather losses
were insulator leakage losses. These losses are a function of the square of the
voltage. The representative values for strings having standard 146 x 254 mm
insulator units are as follows:
Watts per
Voltage kV string
345 60
500 95
8. 5 Radio-Interference
8.5,1 Other corona effects are audible noise, radio and television interference (RI,
TVI). Corona discharge process produces pulses of current and voltage
whose frequency range can cover a considerable portion of the radio and TV
broadcast bands. Most literature data available deal particularly with
interference in the radio band 535-1605 kHz and TV band 54-88 MHz. Both
RI and TVI come under the broad classification of radio noise which is
predominantly caused by corona discharges on the positive half cycle of
power frequency voltage.
For transmission lines below 500 kV audible noise level is sufficiently low
and of no concern but radio noise problem becomes acute above 345 kV.
Hence the 400 kV line has to be designed to have an acceptable radio noise,
and when so designed there normally will be no audible noise problem.
8.5.2 RI Level and Limits
The level of radio noise that will cause interference will depend on factors
such as the transmission line geometry, weather condition, distance of the
transmission line to the communication receiving device, direction of the
antenna and the accepted signal to noise ratio. Signal to noise strengths
(.SNR) are expressed in terms of decibels (dB above 1. µV (micro volt/m)
This would be as follows:-
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Broadcast signal S = 20 log 10 (Signal in µV/m) dB

1 µV/m
Noise level N = 20 log10 (Noise in µV/m) dB

1 µV/m
SNR = S-N
Both measured by the same antenna and meter. The voltmeter, basically a
radio receiver, is calibrated to indicate the rms value, in micro, volts or dB
above 1 UV, of a sinusoidal input signal whose frequency is equal to the
tuning frequency of the meter. The frequency used in the measurements is
around 1 MHz for RI and 83 MHz for TVI. Investigations based on listening
tests have shown that a tolerable SNR for satisfactory broadcast and TV
reception is 25 dB. The broadcast signal strengths along the edges of a
proposed right-of-way (R.O.W.) may be measured or ascertained from signal
level contour maps prepared by radio stations. Then at a fixed lateral distance
from the outer conductor, the allowable limit of noise level, given by
minimum signal strength minus acceptable satisfactory signal-to-noise .ratio,
should not be exceeded. The minimum radio signal strength in rural/suburban
areas is about 60 dB (1000 µV/m) . In urban regions this would be 10 to 15
dB more. It is apparent that, a noise level which is tolerable in a high signal
strength area may not be tolerable in a low signal area.
The RI limits an, laid down by some European countries, range from 46 dB
to 57 dB measured at 500 kHz, at a lateral distance of 20 m from outer phase,
in average fair weather. .At 0.5 MHz the noise is 4.5 dB higher than at 1
MHz while at 2 MHz it is 8 dB lower than at 1 MHz. Also there is generally
a decrement of 8 to 10 dB at 1 MHz for every doubling of lateral distance
Therefore, a change of a few hundred feet in the right of way will aid in
protecting the communication service from RI.
8.5.3 RI/TVI Assessment
A wide variation of transmission line noise is possible due to weather.

conditions ranging from bad (heavy rain, fog, snow) to fair weather. In the
latter case it will also be dependent on conductor surface conditions like dust,
irregularities and abrasions which will result in higher noise levels during fair
weather. Based on many years of experimental test results, in the
Transmission Line Reference Book 345 kV and Above (EPRI) , design base
curves are given , to obtain with an acceptable degree of accuracy, the RI
level of any line whose geometry (number and diameter of sub-conductors,
average heights of phases and ground wires, phase and ground wire spacing)
is reasonably close to one of the numbers of given base curves representing
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line voltage classes from 360 to 1500 kV. In these base curves, heavy rain (≥
12 mm/hour) RI figures are given for a lateral measuring location 15 m (50
ft) from an outside phase, for a typical ground resistivity of 100 Ohm.m and
for a measuring frequency of 1 MHz and radio noise meter bandwidth of 5
kHz. To determine precise RI level of a line whose geometry and other
measuring conditions differs from those of the base case designs, additional
curves are given which take into account the effect of variation of all the
above parameters and of different measuring distances. Using heavy rain RI
level of the line as obtained from these curves, the average fair weather RI
level, as suggested from experimental data, is 22 dB less than the heavy rain
RI level. The fair-weather value should not exceed the acceptable RI level
obtained from the relationship of (S-SNR) dB.
Based on investigations from operating lines and the results of tests at Project
UHV a comparative method has been adopted for determining the TVI level
of 3 phase transmission lines. The frequency spectra of corona noise
attenuates by an inverse frequency law. TVI is measured at picture carrier
frequency of 83 MHz and with 3 MHz bandwidth of the meter compared to
1 MHz frequency and 5 kHz bandwidth for RI levels. The net effect
(attenuation for frequency and noise adder for larger bandwidth) is that 10
dB must be subtracted from RI levels to determine the TVI levels.
If necessary, depending on population and listening requirements, field

measurement tests may also have to be done to assess the RI levels at the
required separating distances.
9.0 OPTIMISATION OF CONDUCTOR
9.1 If more than one conductor satisfies the requirements of current carrying
capacity and corona performance, then a study is required for optimisation of
conductor size. The cost of line conductor alone need be considered as the
cost of insulators and line termination equipment will be common for all
alternatives.
Following method is suggested :
C = Cost in Rs. per Km of 3 phase line
A = Annual fixed charges on capital in Rs. per Rupee of capital cost

(Interest 14% + depreciation 5% + operation and Maintenance
1 to 3%)
PMax = Rated sending end power or Maximum load demand, kW
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V = Line Voltage, kV
I = Load current corresponding to PMax Amps
R = Resistance of conductor in ohms per KM per Phase
COs φ = Load p.f
M = Demand charge in Rs. per kW per month
L = Energy charge in Rs. per kWh
LF = Annual load factor

= Annual Energy generated
8760 x Rated sending end power
or
= Average Load during the 12 months

Maximum Load Demand
H = Loss Load factor expressed as decimal

0.3 (LF + 0.7 (LF)2 for normal load variations or
0.2 (LF) + 0.8 (LF)2 for more uniform load
J =12 M(LF)2 + 8760 LH

1000
T =Total annual cost of line in Rs/km
= CA + P2m RJ
V2Cos2 φ
The Conductor giving the minimum T will be the optimum
9.2 Cost per Km per kW i.e. T/Pm will be minimum when -
Pm = V Cos φ [ CA]1/2
[ RJ ]
9.3 The capitalised, present value, at an interest rate -
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i = percentage rate of interest and

100
30 years useful life, will be -
Rs/Km = C + T [ (1 + i)30 - 1 ]
[ i (1 + i)30 ]
9.4 In an overhead line the cost of conductor would be approximately 40% of the
total line cost, therefore it is important to select the conductor which will
give minimum capitalised and running costs of. line per Km along with
satisfactory technical requirements.
10.0 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTOR SELECTION
The weight and hence cost of towers are influenced by conductor parameters.
Factors affecting the choice of conductors based on structural conditions are
as follows:
(a) Al/St Area
In open terrain where few angle towers are required, longer spans will
be more economical. For lines with longer spans conductor, with
smaller Al/St area ratio should be chosen to give less sag. Lines with
many angle and dead-end towers will require shorter spans so that the
towers will be subject to lesser unbalanced tension during broken wire
conditions.
(b) Compactness
Conductors in open terrain are subject to aeolian vibrations. Therefore,

compact conductors (with equal diameters of Al and Steel strands)
having high self-damping capacity would be necessary for the open
terrain conditions.
(c) River Crossing
Sometimes, river crossings spans are more than 1000 m. In such

crossings, use of special single conductor of alloy of aluminium
magnesium and silicon (AAAC) large enough from electrical
consideration, would be more suitable than bundle conductor that has
the tendency of galloping and twisting due to very long spans.
(d) Weight/Diameter
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The unit weight to diameter ratio is another important characteristic of

the conductor. The conductor with less w/d will swing more. This will
entail longer crossarms to maintain the required clearances and line
reactance will increase due to increased interphase spacings. Longer
crossarms will increase torsional loads on the bracings of the towers
and will also require more width of rightof-way.
(e) Sub-conductor spacing
Increase in subconductor spacing will increase the cross-arm length.

With a given specified angle of shield of the ground wire, this will
involve an increase in the tower height and therefore its weight.
(f) Conductor Creep
Creep is a slow, continuous, non-elastic elongation of metal when

subjected to tensile forces over a long period of time. The primary
creep corresponding to strand settlement, manifests itself at a relatively
rapid rate. Afterwards its a linear increase which may level off if the
stress is not high. Conductor creep results in increasing the conductor
sag and may cause less electrical clearance to ground and to earth metal
parts. This may require resagging operations at a later date. The sub-
conductor of a bundle must have same tension time history so that they
have same creep. The amount of creep during the conductor life
depends on everyday stress and temperature operating condition. For
high stresses, the elongation rate increases rapidly and the conductor
may finally fail.
(g) Creep Allowance
There are two methods in regular use for creep adjustment.
i) One method is overtensioning the conductor during erection

sagging to allow for the creep. Creep correction is included in an
'Erection' stringing chart. This chart has to be made in addition to
design stringing chart. This method results in tower overloading
initially but there is cost saving from reduced tower heights. If
this method is used it is suggested that the every day tension at
32o C should be 20% UTS instead of 25% UTS to avoid
exceeding the maximum design tension.
ii) In the second method, erection sagging is done to design

stringing chart and the permanent sag increase is considered in
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the tower design by providing equivalent extra clearance from the

bottom crossarm to ground. This method finally results in lower
tower loadings with time, which means the line life and stability
can be expected to be more than with the first method, because of
reduced tension and vibration effects. At the same time there is
no chance of design tensions being exceeded in this second
method. However, the tower heights will increase.
iii) Creep Evaluation
The simplified formula for creep for aluminium strands of ACSR

is given below :
e = 0.01165(t)0.2 (1.1434-Wa) pa 1.15 (106.58 + φa)
e = Creep in mm per Km or microstrain
Wa = Unit Weight of Steel Core

Unit Weight of Conductor
t = Creep period in hours = 175,200 hrs (20 years)
Pa = Everyday tension at 32oC, no wind, in percent

UTS [25% UTS or 20% UTS]
φa = Average every day temperature 32oC
Moose -conductor creep history shows a creep of 500 mm/Km with 20%
UTS tension and 700 mm/Km with 25% UTS tension, over a period of 20
years. The creep overtension is 3578 Kg at 32o C erection temperature to
reduce the design sag from 9.88 m at (20% UTS) 3255 Kg tension to 8.99 m
at erection. The span being 350 m.
11.0 EARTH WIRE
11.1 All EHV lines are provided with earth wire arranged above the phase
conductors and grounded at every tower. Their main purpose is to shield the
line conductors from direct lightning strokes by intercepting the strokes and
distributing the current in two or more paths, thereby reducing the voltage
drop. The earth wire also reduces the voltage stress, due to stroke, across the
insulator string, due to its coupling with the phase conductor.
The other advantages of the earth wire are:
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(a) Reduction in surge impedance to lightning strokes.
(b) Attenuation of the travelling waves.
(c) Provides ground fault path and enables relay protection.
(d) Reduces the induced voltages in adjacent communication circuits.
11.2 Shield Angle
The protection given by the earthwire(s) to the conductors depends on the

shielding angle. This is the angle subtended by the vertical line through the
earthwire and the line connecting the earthwire and the outer most conductor
for horizontal formation and top conductor for vertical formation. The
probability of flashover is less with lower shield angle, that means better
degree of protection. However, lower shield angle requires higher tower
height and hence, higher cost of tower. It is suggested that for areas of high
isokeraunic level the shielding angle should be low. The shielding angles
generally used are, 25-30 degrees for lines upto 220 kV and 20 degrees for
400 kV and above. It is' also possible to provide a lower shield angle by the
use of two earth wires suitably placed relative to the phase conductors. Cost
of the increase in tower height versus providing two earthwires should be
considered when evaluating the line costs. Two earth wires have the
additional advantages of lower surge impedance and increased coupling
effect, with the conductors.
11.3 Mid-span Clearance
The lightning surge remains at the point struck, at tower top or midspan, till
the time taken by the surge to travel to ground through tower footings and the
reflected wave to return back to the incident point. For a mid-span stroke,
potential of the earth wire will be approximately one-half of the stroke
current times (Zg-Zm), where Zg is the surge impedance of the earth wire
and Zm the mutual surge impedance between the earth wire and line
conductor. The voltage on the earth wire may, therefore, cause flashover
from earth wire to conductor (known as back flashover), if the midspan
clearance between the earthwire and conductor is not adequate. This
clearance should be 1 to 1.5 metres more than that at the tower. The mid-
span clearance is the, direct distance between earth wire and top power
conductor, in case, of vertical or triangular formation of conductors, or outer
power conductors, in case of horizontal formation, at minimum temperature
and still air conditions. As per IS 5613, following values of mid-span
clearances may be considered.
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These should also meet the requirements of (a) shielding angle and (b) earth
wire sag to be not greater then 90 percent of the corresponding, power
conductor sag in still air conditions for the entire specified temperature
range.
Minimum Mid-span
Line Voltage kV Clearance Metres
66 3
110 4.5
132 6.1
220 8.5
400 9.0
11.4 Sizing
11.4.1 The earth wire should be adequate to carry the very short duration lightning
surge currents of about 100 kA without excessive overheating. The sizing
may be based on 200 microsecs short time and a safe temperature rise of
300o C, approximately same for Cu and steel, with bolted connections the
formula is -
A sq.mm (for Cu) = 5 x I x √ t (I = Current in kA)

(t = time in seconds)
The area for steel wire will be 3 x A (Cu) sq.mm.
Since the earth wire has to be under tension to provide for adequate mid span
clearance it has to be mechanically strong. The earth wire also has to
withstand the effects of eolian vibrations which are directly proportional to
the tension in it. From mechanical considerations, size will be higher than
that required for current rating and for EHV lines it is suggested as 70 sq.mm
(7/3.66 mm). This size of stranded, galvanised earth wire of 95 Kg/sq.mm
quality is found to be adequate to give the required strength. Vibration
dampers should also be provided to minimise fatigue damage.
For long life and protection against corrosion, the minimum guaranteed
weight of zinc coating should be 260 gm/sq.m of each uncoated strand wire
surface as specified in IS 4826.
11.5 ACSR earth Wire
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Where the atmosphere is corrosive, or the resistance of earth path is required

to be lower or to reduce the induced voltage on a communication line in
close proximity, ACSR may be used as earth wire instead of galvanised steel.
The screening factor with ACSR conductor, for parallelism with
communication circuit, .is 60 percent whereas it is 95 percent with steelwire.
The tension/weight ratio of' ACSR earth conductor should be greater than
that of the power conductor to obtain a midspan clearance more than that at
the tower. It has been found that ACSR of size 12/3.0 mm AL + 7/3.0 mm
steel can conveniently be used as earth wire.
12.0 EARTHING
12.1 To reduce the earthwire potential and stress on the insulator at time of stroke
and also for safety,. it is essential to keep the tower footing resistance low.
This should be, as far as possible, not more than 20 ohms. The degree of
protection provided by earthwire depends on its ground resistance. In
practice it is difficult to obtain tower footing resistance of 10 ohms.
12.2 Earth wire is connected to the tower top generally by tension clamps and tin
plated copper earth bonds are used to connect earthwire to the towers which
in turn is earthed. The earth resistance will depend on soil resistivity at the
lower location. Soil conditions prevailing at the tower locations are to be
ascertained in dry season. This will ensure that the value of earth resistance
throughout the year is below this value. A general average valve is 100 ohm-
metre.
12.3 Methods of Tower Earthing
12.3.1 Buried Conductor
In this method one or more lengths of wires are buried in the backfill of the
tower foundation. If the wire, is arranged as several shorter radial wires it is
more effective than laid as one wire. The group of wires is connected to the
tower leg,. This method is inexpensive and used where the soil resistivity is
low.
12.3.2 Counterpoise
A length of wire/strip about 50 metres is buried horizontally at a depth of 0.5

metres below the ground. One end of the wire is connected to the tower leg
and the other to a buried rod. This method is effective where lower layers of
soil have rocks, or very high earth resistance and soil conductivity is mostly
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confined to only upper layers of the soil. One or all four legs could be
earthed in this way depending upon the value of earth resistance required.
12.3.3 Rods/Pipes
Pipe/rod of 3 to 4 m long is driven into the ground near the tower and the top
of rod/pipe is connected to the tower leg by a suitable size wire/strip. This
method is costly but gives better results because with normal soil, ground
conductivity increases with depth.
12.3.4 Treated Earth Pit
If soil resistivity in very high near the tower location, the rod/pipe 3 to 4 m
long are buried in treated earth pits. The treated earth pits are filled with
charcoal/coke and salt and watered during dry season.
12.3.5 Tower footing resistance
12.3.5.1 The tower footing resistance will depend on (a) type of electrode
configuration employed and (b) the soil resistivity. In all cases, sufficient
area must be exposed between the electrode and soil in order for the current
to spread over a large area.
Soil resistivities PS have the following range:
Sea Water Moist soil Loose soil/clay Rock
1 10 102 103 ohm metre
12.3.5.2.Formula for earth resistance in ohms, of various electrodes are as follows:
(a) Vertical driven-rod/pipe
R =_Ps_ (Log e 2L - 1 ) Where L >> a

2π L a
L = Length of the rod, m
a = rod/pipe radius, m
Ground resistance can be lowered by connecting rods/pipes in parallel

provided the spacing between them is large compared to length of individual
rods/pipes. The resistance will be reduced in inverse proportion to the
number of rods.
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(b) Buried horizontal wire
R = Ps (Log e 2L - 1 ) Where L >> a

πL √4ad
L = Length of the wire, m
a = wire radius, m
b = burial depth
(c) If a lightning surge is applied to a buried wire, the effective resistance

is initially quite high of the order of 150 ohms. This is the surge
impedance of the wire. As the surge propagates along the wire and
spans more and more of the wire thus making more effective contact
with earth, the resistance decreases. For a given length of buried wire
the transient resistance will reduce to the steady state, resistance faster
if the wire is arranged as several shorter radial wires than if it is laid as
one long wire. In the case of driven ground rods the final resistance
would be obtained quickly since the rods are shorter.
Measured test values of ground resistance as a function of impulse

current indicates that ground resistance greatly decreases with
increasing currents through the tower footings, atleast until such time
as the current dries out the soil. The reduction is less for grounds of
low resistance than it is for high resistance.
12.3.5.3 In practice, a transmission line does not have a constant value of footing
resistance but a range of values, .depending on the composition of the soil
and its moisture content at the tower location. If the expected variation of
footing resistance about a mean value is less than half the average value, then
the average value can be used for any calculation purposes with an
acceptable error.
13.0 PARALLELISM WITH COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS
13.1 Where transmission line runs parallel with P&T telephone/telegraph

overhead lines there is a danger of high induced voltage on the P&T lines
during phase to earth faults. This will cause danger to communication
equipment and personnel. The maximum permissible induced voltages
permitted by P&T and railways are 650 V and 43.0 V respectively when the
powerlines are 66 kV and. above. It is therefore essential that transmission
line should not run parallel to telecommunication lines.
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13.2 However, if the rights of way of the two lines are close to each other, it is
necessary to determine the minimum safe separating distance that will not
induce more than 650 or 430 V, as required, in any -communication line that
may be in parallel with the power line.
The induced voltage V in a parallel communication line is given by:
V = 2π f MIL x S
M = Mutual inductance between two earth return circuits in henries for

one Km length
I = Earth fault current in Amps
L = Length of parallelism in Km
S= Factor for screening effect provided by grounded conductors. A

Screening factor of 0.66 is adopted for a single ground wire with a
copper equivalent of not less than 0.4387 cm2. For smaller sections
P&T does not allow for any screening.
13.3 The mutual inductance M is a function of spacing-between the two systems

and the earthresistivity. Graphs showing mutual inductance against
separation distances for various earth resistivities are given in Fig.l. These
may be used to arrive at the mutual inductance for any particular separation
distance and earth resistive Before finalising the route, earth resistivity tests
should be conducted along the proposed route at intervals of 3 Km. For a
preliminary check, earth resistivity of 10,000 ohms per cm cube (100
ohmmetre) may be assumed for working out safe separation distance from
communication circuit.
13.4 Each power line case is to be examined by the power and Telecom Co-
ordination Committee (PTCC), regional in the case of lines upto 132 kV and
central (CEA) in the case of lines above 132 kV, who will issue the final
clearance.
14.0 LINE INSULATION
14.1 Transmission lines are subject to the following types of overvoltages:
(a) Lightning overvoltages
(b) Switching, overvoltages
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(c) Temporary overvoltages
(d) Power frequency overvoltage under normal operating conditions
The insulation design must prevent flashover during these voltage stresses
and if such flashover occur they should be restricted at the protective arcing
horns and lightning surge arresters locations where the damage is not done.
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14.2 The insulation performance of a line is evaluated by the ability of the

combination of line insulator string and different air gaps in each phase to
withstand the stresses created by lightning and switching surge transients for
which only the highest peak values are considered and the power frequency
overvoltages both continuous and temporary. The standard lightning impulse
wave shape adopted is 1.2/50 Us and the switching wave usually employed
has a time to crest of less than 250 Us and a time to half value of 2500 to
3200 Us. This is because the minimum switching surge strength for
conductor to ground plane is found to be in the 100-250 Us region. Positive
polarity is utilised since it results in lower flashover strengths on any gap or
insulator assembly for both wet and dry conditions.
14.2.1 The temporary overvoltages generally arise from faults, load rejection and
resonance. They are overvoltages having several successive peaks, with a
decrement of the amplitude such as to be comparable with a sustained
voltage at power frequency or at harmonic frequency. For voltages upto 245
kV the performance under power frequency, temporary overvoltages and
switching overvoltages is checked in general by a short duration (1 minute)
rms power frequency voltage test. On effectively grounded systems (Xo/Xl
≤ 3, Ro/Xl ≤ 1) the voltages on healthy phases during a line to ground fault
may reach 1.3 to 1.4 pu (1 pu = line to neutral crest voltage). Sustained
overvoltages on loss of load can be in the same range of values an fault
voltage and can exist for many cycles or seconds.
14.2.2 Switching surges are to be considered on systems of 345 kV and above. The
causes, magnitudes and waveshapes of switching surges are numerous. The
main causes are energisation/de-energisation of lines with or without
transformers/shunt reactors, de-energisation of reactors and capacitor banks,
out-of-phase switching and high speed reclosing. Field tests have indicated
the magnitude as high as 3.5 p.u. due to energising or high speed reclosing.
The use of preinsertion closing resistors of suitable value in the circuit
breakers can reduce this magnitude to less than 2.3 p.u. This allows
significant reduction in transmission line dimensions at 400 kV and above.
14.3 Critical Flashover Voltage
14.3.1 The critical flashover (CFO) voltage is the crest voltage that yields flashover
in 50% of the number of shots given to insulator strings or air-gap. This
inherent breakdown characteristics of large gaps is greatly influenced by
following types of gap geometry:
(a) The effect of the presence of insulator string and other hardware. This
is ex-pressed as the ratio of the shortest distance in air between
conductor and tower at no swing to the length of the porcelain string.
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(b) The ratio of the height of the insulator string from the ground plane to
the length of the porcelain insulator string.
(c) The ratio of the width of the tower leg/truss to the distance between
conductor to tower leg/truss.
14.3.2 Based on these gaps and string configurations, the spark over voltages have
been measured in field tests and in laboratories and the design data curves of
CFO voltages versus large gap spacings and insulator strings in proximity to
tower leg and truss, are available in EPRI/GEC Transmission Line Reference
Book for the switching and lightning surges of respective wave shapes and
also for 50-60 Hz power frequency. Some of these data curves are given in
Figs. 2 & 3.
14.4 Formula
14.4.1 Based on the large amount of experimental data from all over the world,
empirical relations called Paris formulas are found between the large air gaps
d in metres and the CFO voltage V50 crest. They are useful in the insulation
design of the line along with the detailed design curves mentioned earlier.
Following are the formulas, all dimensions in metre.
COF V50, kV Crest

Gap Type Switching Lightning Power Frequency
1. Basic, rod to 500 (d)0.6 550(d) a) 650(d) 0.576
earth plane (2.5<d<7) (1<d<2.5)
b) 650(d) 0.576
(2.5<d<5.5)
2. Conductor on 1.05 x Basic - 1.00 x Basic in case of (a)
vertical string to
tower leg (Based on ratio d/D 1.05 x Basic in case of (b)
d= shortest distance of live
metal to tower and D=por-
celain length of the string.
Ratio range 1 to 1.5)
3. Horizontal 1.17 to 1.2 x Basic - 1.12 x Basic in case of (a)
conductor to For (W = 1) : and 1.2 x Basic in case of
tower leg/truss (d ) (b).
(W = 0.5 )
(d )
respectively
W=Width of tower leg/truss
and d=shortest distance of
conductor to tower.
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14.5 Withstand Voltage
14.5.1 The relationship between the 50% CFO voltage V50 kV crest and the
probable withstand voltage of a gap depends upon the following factors:
(a) In hundreds of test series the switching, surge flashover voltage values
for one gap geometry is found to deviate by an average of 5% of the
V50 value. This is called standard deviation Sf. The flash over
probability is found to be 0.2% at V50 (1-35f) and 99.8% at V50.
(1+3Sf). The accepted withstand voltage is therefore taken as V5o (1-
3Sf) for satisfactory switching insulation performance. Similarly for
lightning and power frequency, the considered standard deviations are
5% and 2% respectively and going by 2Sf for lightning and 3Sf for
power frequency below the respective CFO voltages is sufficient to
secure a satisfactory performance for these overvoltages.
(b) The withstand strength of a transmission line is a function of number of

towers stressed simultaneously during a switching surge, i.e. the
withstand strength will decrease as the number of parallel gaps
increases. The withstand probability curves show that the withstand
voltage will be reduced to V50 (1-3.6Sf) for upto 200 towers and V50 (1-
3.7Sf) for upto 400 towers.
(c) The factors which change the switching/ lightning surge flashover
strength of insulator string in combination with clearance gaps between
tower-leg/truss (this is called conductor-tower window) are as follows:
i. Corona rings cause reduction of 10% for vertical strings and 5%

for V-strings.
ii. There is an increases in the flashover strength for outer phase of

about 11% for vertical insulator strings and 5% for V-strings,
over the V50 value of the centre phase.
iii. The flashover strength for a V-string in the centre phase is 5%

less than of vertical string due to tower proximity effects.
iv. Change from a single string to two strings in parallel gives about
3% reduction in the switching surge flashover strength. For most
practical purposes the lightning impulse strength of single and
several strings in parallel is the same.
(d) Rain has very little influence on the flashover strength of air gaps but
for gaps in combination with insulator strings there is a reduction in
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strength of 5% and 20% for switching surge and power frequency

respectively during heavy precipitation. For lightning impulse dry and
wet performance may be considered same. In the UHV range the wet
switching surge flashover voltage is very close to the dry value.
(e) In general humidity is beneficial as it suppresses the electron avalanche

that initiates the breakdown, unless condensation forms on insulator or
electrode surface. Practical limits of the correction factor for very low
humidity (2.54 mm mercury vapour pressure) are 1.2 for switching and
power frequency and 1.14 for lightning flashover strengths. The V50
value is to be divided by the correction factor. For vapour pressure of
12.7 mm of mercury the humidity correction factor is unity.
(f) Insulation strengths are directly proportional to relative air density. The
relative air density = 1.00 at a barometric pressure of 760 mm Hg and
25oC temperature. Tests have led to the conclusion that for insulators
and gaps with spacings greater than 0.76 m an insulation reduction of
2.5 percent per 300 m of altitude would be satisfactory.
(g) Contamination of insulation surfaces can cause an EHV line to

flashover. The contaminants that are usually encountered, when the
lines are routed through industrial/sea-side regions, are furnace dust,
cement, dust from aluminium and chemical works and salt
precipitation. These form dry bands on the insulator. With high
humidity and in fog or drizzle the dry particles absorb moisture and
form a high conductive film causing an increase in leakage current. The
moisture reduces the dielectric strength and the string may flashover or
the arc may cause rapid evaporation, re-establishing the dry bands.
Moderate to heavy rain with contaminants does not usually cause
serious problem because of cleaning effects and dilution of conducting
films. It has. been shown by tests that an average 11.5 kV (rms) rating
of the standard disc insulator is reduced to 9.1 kV under moderate
contamination, 6.9 kV under severe contamination and 5.7 kV under
salt precipitation near sea-side. The insulator units have therefore to be
increased and special high creepage fog type units have to be used.
This is discussed under insulators. A heavily contaminated wet
insulator string is found to have switching surge flashover voltage of
1.67 times the power frequency crest flashover voltage and 2 times
when re-energising a line after being out of service. If the insulation of
EHV lines is designed to meet the power frequency crest withstand
voltage strength under contamination, the switching surge under the
same amount of contamination will not be a problem.
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Horizontal and' inclined (V) strings remain more effective than vertical
strings in regions of heavy contamination.
14.6 Insulation Levels and Clearances
14.6.1 In the range of vo1tage upto 245 kV switching over voltages are seldom a
major problem and insulation design is mainly based on withstand of
lightning overvoltages and power frequency short duration (1 minute)
overvoltages. The minimum electrical line clearances in use for line voltages
upto 245 kV 'have been specified in IS 5613 (P2 Section 1).
14.6.2 For higher voltages of 300 kV and above, the insulation has to be designed
for both lightning,. and switching over voltages. The switching surge
withstand value is rather inferior and for 300 kV and above this becomes the
most important consideration. The electrical clearances and selection of
insulation level will therefore be based on switching surges. The clearances
and conductor spacing are indicated in para 4.3.
14.6.3 The recommended correlation between the rated lightning and switching
impulse withstand voltages and between the rated lightning impulse and
power frequency short duration withstand voltages are given in IS 2165
(Parts 1 & 2), associated with each highest system, voltages upto 765 kV.
Standard insulation withstand level combinations other than those given in IS
can also be selected when the design of the system/methods of control of
overvoltages and the limiting effect of surge diverters justifies it technically
and economically.
14.6.4 The overvoltage between two phases is determined from two overvoltages to
earth having opposite polarity. The switching impulse voltage peak is very
much dependent on time to crest of the two components having opposite
polarity and the time delay between these two components. Based on
statistical observations and accepted risk of failure, for 300 kV and above,
the selected value of the ratio between rated switching impulse withstand
voltage phase-phase and phase-earth is in the range of about. 1.5 to 1. 8. The
value 1.5 being used upto 400 kV lines. For voltage range 52' kV to 245 kV,
the lowest phase to phase rms power frequency withstand values associated
with each system voltage are close to a temporary overvoltage of 1.5 p.u. (i.e.
1.5 p.u. x √ 3/2).
The corresponding lightning impulse stresses between phases will generally

not be higher than those to ground and are selected from the recommended
values given for phase to earth withstand values.
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14.6.5 The phase to phase horizontal spacing is decided on sag and conductor swing
under dynamic lateral forces or in maximum wind, so as not to cause arc over
between them at midspan in case of out of step swinging of conductors if
any. In certain conditions of wind/ice it will also depend on
galloping/dancing movement of conductors due to vibrations of high
amplitude It is difficult to estimate the probable travel of the conductors
under all conditions. Long spans increase the sag and consequently the phase
spacing. There are several empirical formulas adopted by different countries
for the phase to phase spacing and they give widely varying results. One of
them is the following VDE formula which can be used as a design check.
0.75 √ sag x __V2 m

20000
Maximum Sag in m and V =phase - phase in kV
14.6.6 The vertical clearance above ground of the lowest conductor is laid down by
the rule 77 of the Indian Electricity (I.E.) Rules, 1956. For the purpose of
computing the vertical clearance, the maximum sag is to be calculated on the
basis of still air and-maximum temperature of the region.
14.6. 7 Some of the representative values of standard insulation, levels and the
minimum associated air clearances are given in Table 4. They are suitable for
general application, providing as a first approximation a clearance to be
specific in relation to the specified impulse withstand voltage. The values of
phase to phase spacing, ground clearances and conductor to tower clearances,
as applied, are given in Item 19.0 under Tower Design.
15.0 INSULATION DESIGN APPROACH
15.1 For voltages upto 245 kV it would suffice to presuppose the temporary
overvoltages lightning impulse magnitude based on previous experiences of
comparable system. The insulation level selection is then made, from the IS
tables of standardised values of withstand voltages, giving a suitable margin
of safety.
15.2 For 300 kV and above, the high cost of line equipment, while, in turn, the
serious consequences of a failure necessitates a more precise estimate of the
overvoltages to be expected. The magnitude of switching overvoltages are
evaluated by the use of digital computer studies or transient network
analysis, considering credible system contingencies and electrical parameters
of the system. The insulation level selection should be optimised and based
upon a statistical evaluation of the probability of withstand/risk of failure
rather than a prior choice of safety margin.
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TABLE – 4
STANDARD INSULATION LEVELS & MINIMUM AIR CLEARANCES

(REF. IS 2165 (P1 & P2) : IS 3716)
Highest Pu Voltage Lighting Switching P.F. (MINT) Minimum Air

Voltage (V √ 2/31 Impulse Impulse Withstand Clearances
V Withstand Withstand kV kV (cms) mm
Kv (rms) kV (Peak) kV (Peak) (Peak) (Ph-E & Ph- (Ph-E & Ph-
(Ph-E & Ph- (Ph-E & Ph- Ph) Ph)
Ph) Ph)
72.5 59 325 - 140 630 630
129 100 550 - 230 1100 1100
145 110 650 - 275 1300 1300
245 200 950 - 395 1900 1900
(rod Struct)
1800 --
(Cond-Strict)
1050 460 2100 2100
(rod Struct)
- 1900 --
(Cond-Struct)
420 343 1175 950 1425 - 2.20 3.1
1425 1050 1550 - 2.00 3.5
1550 1050 1550 - 3.10 3.5
NOTE:
The minimum clearances have to be increased by safety factor of 1.1 to 1.2 to take
care of actual site conditions. Tolerances in manufacture, variations in Gap Geometry.
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15.3 Example
Following is an example to illustrate the flashover and withstand strengths of

conductor to tower gap (clearances) based on previous discussion.
A variety of weather studies on EHV lines (345 kV and above) with

reasonably severe and steady winds have shown that only about 15% of the
time the swing angle exceeds 15 degrees at any point on the line. Therefore
line insulation design based on a two clearance criteria as follows, is
considered reasonably conservative for assuring a satisfactory performance
consistent with maintaining economic dimensions.
(a) In still air and at a 15o C swing angle the minimum clearance to tower
steel is based on switching surge withstand, for 345 kV and above. For
voltages less than 345 kV, at a 30o swing angle the minimum clearance
should withstand the lightning impulse strength.
(b) At a 45o swing angle (and 60o for voltages lower than 220 kV) the
minimum clearance to tower steel is to be sufficient to withstand power
frequency overvoltages.
Consider 420 kV maximum voltage
Line to ground peak value = 420 √2/3 = 343 kV crest (1.00 op.u.)
15.3.1 Switching Surge Criteria
Let the maximum switching surge be limited to 2.5 p.u by (a) pre-insertion of
circuit breaker closing resistors in series with the line, (b) shunt reactors to
drain the trapped charge of the line and aid in proper interruption of unloaded
lines and (c) by correctly rated surge arresters. There may be random
overvoltage upto 2.7 p.u due to high speed reclosing after fault, however, it is
uneconomical to design with such a high degree of safety such that insulation
can sustain all types of overvoltage under all conditions.
Therefore withstand voltage Vw = 2.5 x 343 = 860 kV crest. This should be

withstood by the insulation gap between the combination of conductor on
insulator string to tower leg/truss. A preliminary choice of insulator string is
made on the basis of earlier designs, contamination level and string
characteristics. The string length (porcelain part) is then known. When the
swing angle is 15o the distance between the line-end hardware and the tower
leg is made to be equal to the string length.
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(a) Choosing a 23 unit insulator string, length is 3.35 m and hardware

about 0.3 m. Shortest clearance d between the vertical string and tower
leg = 3.65 x Sin 15o ) + 3.35 = 4.3 m at standstill.
Using the formulae of 14.4 (all values are peak voltages) the CFO
voltage is :
V50 = (4.3 ) 0.6 x 500 x 1.05 = 1260 kV crest
This is the flashover value of the vertical insulator string in centre

phase, influenced by proximity to tower leg.
This checks with GEC reference curves (See Fig. 2), for 23 unit string
and ratio d/D = 4.3/3.35 = 1.28.
(b) At 15o swing, the clearance d = 3.35 between live point and tower
leg.
Let tower leg W = 2 m wide alongside the conductor length.
Ratio W/D = 2/3.35 = 0.59
V50 = (3.35)0.6 x 500 x 1.2 = 1239 kV
This is the switching surge strength of air gap between conductor and
tower leg. This also can be checked with GEC reference curves.
(c) Based on statistical accepted risk of flashover of 0.2% the gap

withstand voltage.
Vw = (1 - 3 Sf) 1239 Sf = 5% (0.05)
= 0.85 x 1239 = 1053 kV
The rated switching impulse withstand voltage selected is 1050 kV.
The actual required switching surge withstand is 860 kV.
Hence factor of safety = 1050 = 1.22

860
If 200 towers (i.e gaps in parallel) are considered stressed

simultaneously, the withstand voltage.
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Vw = (1 - 3.6 Sf) 1239
= 0.82 x 1239 = 1016
The safety factor is 1016 = 1.18

860
The probability of withstand is 97.5 percent (risk of flashover 2.5%)

from the probability of withstand curves (See Fig.2). This is considered
acceptable.
15.3.2 Power Frequency Criteria
At 45oC swing, clearance between live point and tower
d = 4.3 - (3.65 x Sin 45o)
= 1.718 m
The CFO voltage V50 = (1.718) 0.576 x 650 x 1.12
= 994 kV
Gap withstand voltage
Vw = (1 - 3 Sf) V50 Sf = 2% (0.02)
= 0.94 x 994 = 934 kV
Considering a reduction of 20% for unfavourable wet weather,
Vw = 0.8 x 934 = 747 kV
The factor of safety for 50 Hz performance
= 747 = 2.17
343
15.3.3 Lightning Criteria
(a) At 15o swing, the clearance to tower leg is 3.35 m
V50 = 550 x 3.35 = 1842 kV
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The gap withstand voltage
Vw = ( 1 - 2 Sf) 1842 Sf = 5% (0.05)
= 0.9 x 1842 = 1658 kV
A standard rated withstand BIL of 1550 kV is selected. This gives a

margin of 1658/1550 = 1.072.
(b) Trip out rate

For satisfactory lightning performance, continuous shield wires and a
tower footing resistance upto 20 ohms is found adequate. This is
expected to give acceptable outage rate for the line, for the isokeraunic
levels of upto 100 encountered along the line.
i. The ground wire protects a width, at ground level equal to four

times its height. The total number of strokes NL = (4h + b) x 0.01
IK
h = effective height of the ground wire, m
= ht (tower height) - 2 (sag of ground wire)
3
b = horizontal spacing between two ground wire, m
= 0 for only one ground wire
IK = Isokeraunk level (No. of thunderstorms days in year)
For 400 kV line, considering typical values
H = (32. 4 - 2 x 7) = 27.7 m
3
b = 19.6 m
IK = 60 (assume)
NL = 78 strokes to the line per 100 km per year.
ii The trip out rates per 100 km per year for shielding failure and
for strokes to tower can then be computed from a family of
curves related to footing resistance, tower height, spans and
shield angles as given in GEC Reference Book, see Fig. 4. The
trip out rates for strokes to tower increase about 6 times for an
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increase of footing resistance from 20 ohms to 50 ohms for the

particular case considered. It is very important to keep the footing
resistance low.
iii. For high towers with shielding angle upto 20 degrees and for
smaller towers with shielding angle upto 30 degrees, the
probability of shielding failure is very low i.e. 5 x 10-3.
The number of strokes causing shielding failure will therefore be
= 78 x 5 x 10-3 = 0.39
The number of trip outs rate for strokes to tower based on a tower
geometry of a 500 kV line a span of 300 m, 40 ohms resistance
(assumed), a 23 insulator string unit and isokeraunic level of 100,
is given from the reference curves Fig. 4 as equal to 3.125 (say
3.2).
iv. The T = indicated total outage rate of the design case, i.e. trip
outs per 100 km of line per year.
= Shielding failure + trip outs for strokes to tower
= 0.39 + (3.2) 60/100
= 0.39 + 1.92
= 2.3
About 3 outages per 100 km line per year.
This can be reduced to 1 if the tower footing resistance is 20

ohms instead of 40 ohms
v. Experimental field data using magnetic links connected to tower

tops has established that for tall steel towers with span length of
approximately 300m, 60 percent of line strokes make contract at
the tower or contract a ground wire within 1/4 span from the
tower and 40 percent may be considered to contact the middle
span. For shorter moderately sized EHV steel towers with span
lengths of 270 m, 40 percent of the strokes are assumed to occur
near the tower and 60 percent on the span. However, as stated in
(iii) with adequately designed ground wire shielding angle the
probability of strokes directly contacting conductors is very rare.
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15.3.4 Insulator String Criteria
(a) Creepage
Considering moderately heavy pollution, the creepage length

requirement would be 23 mm/ kV i.e. 23 x 420 = 9660 mm.
Actual creepage for 23 fog type unit string will be 432 mm/unit x 23 =
9936 mm. Hence creepage requirement is adequate.
(b) Lightning Impulse
i. As per NGK catalogue the 50% minimum flashover voltage for

23 standard units is 1780 kV peak. With the string flashover
value for fog type considered to be 12% more and a reduction of
10% for corona ring fittings, the withstand value is :
Lightning Impulse withstand of insulator string -
= (1-2 Sf) (1780 x 1.12 x 0.9), Sf = 5% (0.05)
= 1615 kV peak
This is more than the required withstand of 1550 kV peak, hence

this is adequate.
ii. An example is given to indicate the value of a direct stroke

current to tower that could cause the insulator string to flashover.
Tower top potential is approximately.
Vt = Is / (1/Rtf + 2ng / Zg + 1/Zs)
Following data is assumed -

Rtf = footing resistance of 40 ohms (assumed)
Zg = surge impedance of ground wire

= 500 ohms (assumed)
ng = No. of ground wires = 2
Zs = Surge impedance of the lightning stroke channel

= 400 ohms
Is = Stroke current, kA
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This gives Vt = Is x 28.2 kV peak
The insulator strings supporting the conductors will experience a

maximum voltage of -
V1 = Vt (l - Kf) + Em
Where Kf = coupling factor between ground wires and phase

conductor for a voltage applied to ground wire. A value of Kf =
0.2 to 0.3 is an average.
Em = Peak value of line to ground power frequency voltage
= 420 √ 2/3 = 343 kV
Therefore Vi = (1 - 0.2) Vt + 343 kV
This is based on worst probability that at the instant the stroke

hits the tower top the power frequency voltage is passing through
the peak value but of opposite sign to the polarity of the lightning
voltage at tower top.
V1 = 22.56 Is + 343 kV
If V1 = 1780 kV, the insulator string flashover voltage
Is = (1780 - 343) / 22.56
= 63.7 kA stroke current is required for string to flashover.
Published field test data indicates that the probability of this

high value of crest amplitude stroke current is 0.2 percent.
(c) Switching Surge
The switching surge flashover value, as per Item 15.3.1 (a), of

23 unit suspension string influenced by a proximity distance of
d = 4.3 m from the vertical axis of the insulator string to tower
leg, is 1260 kV. This is reduced by 10% for corona ring/fittings
and 5% for rain and considering increase of 1.12 times for fog
type string, the switching surge withstand value of insulator
string will be
Vow = (1-2 Sf) 1260 x 0.9 x 0.95 x 1.12 (Sf = 0.05)
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= 1066 kV
which is adequate for the selected rated value of 1050 kV

switching surge withstand.
15.3.5 Phase to Phase Horizontal Clearance
Using VDE empirical formula
0.75 √ Sag + __V2__ m

20000
Maximum sag for a 350 m span, 31.77 mm diameter ACSR conductor with
3500 kg tension would be about 9 m.
V = 420 kV
Hence phase to phase spacing
= 0.75 √9 + (420)2
20000
= 2.25 + 8.82
= 11.07 m
15.3.6 Minimum Ground Clearance
As per rule 77, the minimum ground clearance for an EHV line will be 5.2 m
plus 0.3 m for every 33000 volts or part thereof by which the line exceeds
33000 volts.
Therefore (400 - 33) / 33 = 11.12
Hence minimum ground clearance
= 5.2 + 12 x 0.3
= 8.8 m
16.0 INSULATORS
16.1 Insulators are required to attach the line conductors to supporting structures
and maintain insulation to ground. The basic requirements of the insulators is
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therefore mechanical strength to support the conductors under the worst

loading conditions, prevent voltage breakdown under the worst climatic
conditions and also keep the leakage current to negligible proportions.
Voltage breakdown can occur in a number of ways, viz. an electrical
flashover through the air surrounding the insulator or through
dirt/contamination on the surface of the insulator or through the material of
the body itself (puncture).
16.2 Insulator Material
16.2.1 High grade electric porcelain is the recognised dielectric for insulating EHV
lines. It has the outstanding features of being non-porous, chemically inert,
having high di-electric properties, high mechanical strength and very high
melting point.
16.2.2 Toughened (tempered) glass is a good material for insulators. The toughened
glass insulators are equal to porcelain insulators in all respects. They have the
added advantage of having higher resistance to the effects of power arc and
chipping damage than porcelain. Also unlike a porcelain insulator, a
damaged/punctured glass insulator can be detected easily by visual
inspection and they do not require periodic testing for electrical deterioration.
A disadvantage is that they are more susceptible to breakage from small fire
arms.
16.2.3 Fibreglass and polymeric compounds are being used for insulators. This
composite insulator consists of a glass fibre core for mechanical strength and
a polymeric incapsulation for electrical performance.
16.2.4 The choice of insulator material is governed by the availability, price and
ease of maintenance.
Porcelain insulators are the ones, that are largely used in India, at present.
16.3 Insulator types
16.3.1 The disc insulator consists of a central suitably shaped porcelain/glass body
resembling a disc with a metal cap on one side and a metal ball pin on the
other, cemented to it. The cap is of malleable cast iron and the ball pin is of
forged steel. The porcelain transmits the mechanical load applied on the disc
from pin to the cap through the cement. The porcelain has adequate thickness
to withstand powerful lightning strokes and the shed outside the cap gives
sufficient distance between cap and pin for the required flashover voltage.
Suitably sized and shaped corrugations in the underside of the porcelain disc
give the required leakage (creepage) distances. Technical particulars of disc
insulator units are given in Table-5.
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TABLE : 5
TECHNICAL PARTICULARS OF DISC INSULATORS
Type Standard Insulator Fog Insulator

Ref. IS 3186/NGK Ref. NGK Catalogue
Coupling Ball & Socket
Voltage Class 12 kV
Diameter 255 280mm 255 280mm
Spacing 145mm 145&170mm 145mm
Size of Pin Ball 16mm 20mm 16mm 20mm
Minimum Creepage Distance 290/320mm 320/330m 432mm
Rated Electro Mechanical 70/90/120 120/160 80/120 160
Strength KN
Dry withstand Impulse Kv 110 125
(Peak), positive wave, 1.2/50
sec.
50% Impulse Flashover, 120 135
Minimum kV (Peak)
P.F Puncture withstand kV 110 130
(rms)
P.F 1Mint Dry withstand kV 70 85
(rms)
P.F 50% Dry flashover, Min. 78 95
kV (rms)
P.F. Mint Wet Withstand kV 40 50
(rms)
P.F 50% Wet flashover, Min 45 55
kV (rms)
Min. Corona Extinction Volt. 18 18
kV (Rms)
Max. RIV at 10kV (cms) at 1 50 uV 50 uV
kHz
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16.3.2 Strut type insulator comprises of several insulator discs cemented altogether
without any links. Strut insulators are rigid and can take both tension and
compression loads. These are used for holding the conductors out of the way
of the structure, thus making the structure and cross arm shorter. They can be
mounted either in vertical or horizontal positions to suspend jumpers and
conductors.
16.3.3 Another type is the long rod insulator made of solid porcelain rod with
numerous sheds and the caps are cemented at both ends of the rod. The
advantages of long-rod insulators are :
(a) The insulator is absolutely puncture proof because of its long porcelain
length.
(b) The porcelain body is not subject to tensile stresses due to the
expansion of cement. Owing to this, the routine lines maintenance
work and maintenance cost is greatly reduced as only occasional visual
inspection is required for checking the damages to porcelain sheds.
(c) Since there are lesser number of metal parts there is less failure due to
corrosion of metal parts and cementing of caps and pins.
(d) The leakage distance is slightly more than that of disc insulator string
of identical length and it has an excellent antipollution performance.
16.3.4 The disc type insulators are readily available and economically priced. This
is the type that is widely used for transmission lines in India, at present.
16.4 Insulator Strings
16.4.1 The disc insulators are joined by their ball pins and sockets in their caps to
form a string. The number of disc insulators in a string is decided based on
the system voltage, the switching and lightning overvoltages, altitude and
pollution level. Sometimes it is required to increase the number of discs to
provide safety and reliability in places where it is difficult to inspect the
insulators regularly. The insulator string is used for either supporting
(suspension string) or taking the tension of the conductor. Requirements of
string insulators are given in Table 6.
16.4.2 Suspension strings support the weight of the conductor length between the
maximum sag points of the spans on either side of the string location. Two
suspension strings in parallel are used at railway, road and river crossings
etc., as required by statutory regulations or site conditions.
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The swinging of suspension string due to wind etc. has to be taken into
consideration, so as to ensure the minimum required clearances of the line
conductor with the tower members.
In case of a broken conductor in any of the spans, the suspension string

swings and takes inclined position in the span opposite to the broken wire
span. This results in the reduction in tension of the conductor as the length of
the conductors is increased by the string length.
TABLE 6
STRING INSULATOR CHARACTERISTICS
(REF. IS 731)
Highest Visible Wet 1min. Impulse Recommended No. of

Voltage Discharge P.F withstand Insulators* and
kV (rms) P.F Volt Withstand (BIL) strength
KV (rms) kV (rms) kV (Peak) (*Between moderate to
heavy pollution)
72.5 53 140 325 6 STD Type or
4 FOG Type (70 KN)
123 88 230 550 10 STD Type or
7 FOG Type (70 KN)
145 105 275 650 8 FOG Type (90 KN)
245 154 460 1050 14/15 FOG type
(90 KN Suspension)
(120 KN Tension)
420 266 680 1550 & FOG Type
1050 23 Suspension (120 KN)
(SW.Surge 2x23 Tension (160 KN)
NOTE : Power Frequency Puncture withstand voltage kV (rms) for all strings is 1.3
Times the actual dry flashover voltage
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16.4.3 The strain or tension insulator strings are used where the line is dead ended
or at angle points, to take the conductor tension load and also to provide
adequate insulation clearance between the line and earth. These insulators
should have sufficient mechanical strength to counter balance the forces due
to tension of the line. When a single string is not able to withstand the
conductor tension or for the purpose of greater reliability, two or more
strings are used in parallel to share the mechanical loads. They are also used
at railway, river, road crossings etc. as required by statutory regulations or
site conditions.
16.5 Voltage Distribution
The voltage distribution along the length of the insulator string is not uniform
because of the capacitance between the discs, the disc caps and the earth.
This results in a voltage of about 20 to 30% of the line voltage being
impressed on the line end units and produce localised corona around the line
side units. This is also associated with radio interference and accelerated
corrosion damage to the insulator. Grading rings (corona shields) are used to
achieve uniform voltage distribution to the extent possible besides screening
the line-side hardware fittings which are potential sources of RIV.
16.6 Pollution on Insulators
16.6.1 Deposit formation on the line insulator discs cannot be avoided as they are
always exposed to the atmosphere. These deposits pollute the surface of the
insulator and impair its electrical characteristics. The deposits which are
particularly harmful are those that contain greasy ash, soot, salt deposits (in
coastal areas), cement dust, chemical deposits (industrial areas), agricultural,
fertilisers and cost dust. The amount of deposit on the insulator is not
uniform because of the combined action of electrical field, rain and wind.
The unequal contamination of units from one end of an insulator string to the
other, is more deleterious than uniform contamination. The layer of deposits
have little influence when dry but in the presence of humidity that moistens
the dust without washing it, a highly conductive electrolyte is formed.
Considering the difficulty in controlling pollution it is very necessary to
ensure that, as far as possible the line is routed through pollution free regions.
This may increase the length of the line, but the extra cost on account of this
derogating would be more than compensated by the problems and cost
which, otherwise would have been incurred for overcoming the effects of
pollution.
16.6.2 Counteracting Pollution Effects
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16.6.2.1 Periodic washing and cleaning of insulators, gives the best results. When the
line is de-energised the insulators can be rubbed clean with a piece of cloth
soaked in solvent. Live line washing can also be done by a jet of water under
pressure, but adequate safety measures have to be observed, properly
designed/insulated equipment and specially trained manpower has to be used
for this. Washing of insulators becomes costly if it has to be carried out
frequently.
16.6.2 More number of insulators may be added to the insulator string. However,
increasing the number of disc in insulators does not increase its performance
linearly. An increase of the number of discs by 33% results in increasing the
flashover voltage by 18% only.
Increasing the string length will also increase the cost of the towers, as longer
cross arms will be required to maintain the required conductor to tower
clearances.
16.6.2.3 The length of the creepage path of an insulator is a very important factor
controlling its ability to withstand electrical stresses. For a constant amount
of contamination, the maximum operating voltage that a string can withstand,
is directly proportional to the leakage distance. Therefore, it is better to use
special insulators (fog type) having longer leakage path under pollution
condition than to increase the length of the string by adding more of the
standard leakage path discs.
The creepage length as a function of pollution level is as follows :

SL. Pollution Level Equivalent Specific Nominal
No. Salt Creepage Length
(Na Cl) (between phase and
earth) mm/kV (Phase
Deposit to phase referred to
Density highest system voltage.
mg/cm2
(a) Light (Rural and forest region) - 16
(b) Medium (Suburbs of large 0.02 - 0.025 20
industrial area)
(c) Heavy (Furnace dust, 0.04 - 0.05 25
metallurgi-cal plants)
(d) Very Heavy (Aluminium/ 0.07 - 0.15 31
Chemical Plants)
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For example if a 400 kV line route is expected to have a pollution level

between medium and heavy, the minimum creepage distance required will be
23 x 420 = 9660 mm. Following are the provisional practical number of disc
insulator units in a vertical (tangent) string that can be used in various
contamination conditions for 132, 220 and 400 kV lines.
Class Highest Voltage

Contamination
145 kV 245 kV 420 kV
Standard Fog Type Standar Fog Type Standard Fog Type

Type d Type Type
A Light * 10 8 16 13 25 23
B Medium 12 8 19 13 25 23
C Heavy 13 9 22 15 27 25
D Very Heavy 14 9 23 15 30 27
E Salt precipta- 17 13 28 18 - 30
tion 0.2-0.5
mg/cm2 (sea-
side regions,
salt marsh)
* The minimum number should be based on rated BIL/switching surge withstand of the
line.
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16.6.2.4 Other methods for improving pollution performance are :
(a) Greasing of insulators by applying a coating of silicon grease or

petroleum jelly to insulator surface. The water repellent (hydrophoric)
property of silicones and petroleum jellies prevents the build up of a
continuous surface water film. Petroleum jelly is much cheaper than
silicon grease and about 3 mm thick coating of it has a working life of
about 2 years unless reduced by high contamination or persistently
severe weather conditions.
(b) Special disc insulators with semi conducting glaze are sometimes used.
The heat produced by the semiconducting coating keeps the insulator
surface dry under fog and drizzle and prevents flashover. The
semiconducting glaze also helps to some extent in establishing a more
linear potential distribution along the string.
(c) Use of suitable configurations of insulator strings which will give

better performance under pollution. V-strings self clean more
effectively in rain than vertical (tangent) strings, because both the top
and under sides of each insulator shed are exposed to rain. V-strings
therefore function better in areas of heavy and very heavy
contamination.
Horizontal strings are washed most effectively by rain but they can be
used only with strain-towers. The T-string configuration is a
compromise between strain and vertical (tangent) strings. The
horizontal string in this configuration can be made as long as required
to withstand contamination and the vertical string permits the
combination to function as a tangent string. This could be useful in
areas of very heavy contamination and salt precipitation.
16.6.3 A through survey of present and future contamination conditions along the
proposed line route is essential so that adequate clearances for installing
effective string lengths and string configurations can be considered during
tower design stage.
17.0 LINE HARDWARE
17.1 Line hardware are fittings used for connecting the insulator string to cross
arm support at one end and the conductor at the other and they have to ensure
proper mechanical and electrical performance of the electrical string.
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17.2 The line hardware consists of many component parts. The commonly used
hardware components in the assembly of suspension and tension strings are
shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. The maximum stress in conductor takes place at
suspension and tension clamped points and it is of vital importance that these
fittings do not cause damage or abrasion of the conductors. The following
important components are discussed from the view point of mechanical and
electrical considerations.
i. Suspension clamps
ii. Compression type and bolted type tension (strain) clamps
iii. Protective devices (arcing horns, grading rings and corona control
rings)
iv. Sag-adjustment devices
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17.3 General Requirement
17.3.1 Clamps
(a) Mechanical breaking strength is based on the loadings like weight of

the conductor, windforce, maximum working tension and impact loads
imposed under broken wire condition. Generally it is taken same as the
electro-mechanical strength of the insulator string.
(b) The suspension clamp has to ensure that the conductor does not
completely slip from the clamp under broken wire conditions but it
shall permit the conductor to slip to a certain extent just before the
failure of the conductor occurs. The IS 2486 (PI) specifies the slip
strength for suspension and tension clamps as 25% and 90% of the
breaking load of the conductor respectively. The breaking load shall be
taken as specified in IS 398 for conductors.
(c) The magnetic power loss caused by the hysterisis and eddy currents in
the clamp has to be kept to a minimum. This is achieved by using non-
magnetic material for the clamps and hence aluminium alloy clamps
are used for this purpose. The power loss takes place only in the
galvanised steel bolts. These clamps are generally used where the
currents carried by conductor are large, as the power loss is greatly
reduced. Aluminium alloy clamps also reduce corrosion problems
which would arise due to galvanic action between the dissimilar
materials of clamp and conductor. Clamps of malleable iron/forged
steel would require aluminium liners for use with Al conductors.
(d) Suspension clamps should have maximum flexibility in any direction

and minimum moment of inertia, so as to produce minimum stresses
due to vibrations. The free centre type suspension clamp offers
freedom of movement in the horizontal as well as vertical plane. The
clamp moves on its centre coinciding with the axis of the conductor.
This type of clamp has been used in India for the 400 kV lines.
(e) The clamp should be designed for corona and RIV performance either
equal to or better than that of the conductor. All edges, lips and corners
of the clamp should be round and smooth to minimise corona and radio
interference. The hexagonal nuts can be provided with corona
suppression caps to have a corona free clamp. The armour grip
suspension clamp is claimed to be corona free and is widely used in
U.S.A, Canada and Australia.
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(f) Armour rods are helical layers of round aluminium rods used for
reinforcing the conductor at suspension points. The parameters of the
armour rods are designed to suit the specific size of the conductor.
Such helical shaped rods are available as factory performed rods to
make them convenient to apply on the conductors without excessive
clamping pressure at any point. The armour rods protect the conductor
from the effects of power arcs and substantially reduce the vibrations
strain at clamping points.
(g) Tension (strain clamps) can be either bolted type or compression type.
i. Bolted type are used in slack span and in overhead ground wire
assemblies. With bolted type clamps, continuous jumper loops
without cutting conductor are easily formed by stringing the
conductor at angle point through the clamps. The jumper is
formed by the uncut slackened portion of the conductor. On the
terminal structures, the uncut conductor can be run through the
clamp directly to the equipment with considerable cost savings in
labour and' material. The bolted type strain clamps are available
with clamp body of aluminium alloy or malleable iron/forged
steel hot dip galvanised. The clamps of iron/steel material are
used mainly for ground wire assembly. If used for ACSR
conductors, aluminium liners are provided to prevent corrosion.
ii. Compression type tension (also known as dead-end) clamps

consist of high strength. galvanised steel clevis or oval eye end,
pure aluminium compression body and pure aluminium
compression jumper terminal bolted to an integral part of the
compression body. The steel core of the ACSR conductor is
inserted into the hollow stem of the eye and the stem is
compressed by hydraulic compressor. The tension on the steel
core is transferred to the support when the eye is anchored to
strain insulator string. The aluminium body is then compressed
over the stranded aluminium conductor. This ensures good
pressure contact between the conductor and the aluminium body
of the clamp for the passage of the current from the conductor to
the body and then to the jumper. The jumper terminal can be
straight or with an angle of 15o to 30o as may be required. An
angle of 30o is preferable, in order to follow the path of the
jumper smoothly to avoid axial force acting on the jumper
terminal arrangement.
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The compression dead-end clamps and the jumper connector

shall have/ strength of not less than 95% and 30% of the ultimate
tensile breaking load of the conductor.
(h) The electrical conductivity of clamps should not be less than that of the
conductor.
17.3.2 Protective Devices
(a) Insulator strings have to be protected from the damaging effects of high
intensity arcs during a flash over. Arcing devices are therefore placed
at the ends of the insulator string to provide a secure route for the arc
and keep it far from the insulator.
The report of CIGRE Study Committee No.22 gives the arcing distance
between protective fittings for 132 to 500 kV by the formula d = 140 +
0.6 V cm; V= Line Voltage in kV. For example for 400 kV, d = 3800
mm. However, d/kV decreases as the voltage increases. These devices
should have adequate cross-section to withstand without deformation,
erosion and rupture the thermal effects of arc and mechanical stresses
due to the vibrations/galloping of the conductors. Their additional
functions are they should have such forms which will improve voltage
distribution and reduce corona and radio interference levels of the
insulator string.
(b) The arcing horns are made of 18 mm diameter galvanised steel rod
with 40 mm spheres on its ends. The arcing horns are attached to
hardware fittings. For voltages upto 66 kV arcing horns are generally
provided on the line side, and for 132 kV they are provided both at
tower and line side.
(c) For 220 kV and above, grading corona control rings are provided on
the line side and arcing horns on the tower side. The grading corona
control rings upto 220 kV can be of galvanised steel tube but for higher
voltage these rings are normally of aluminium alloy of suggested size
38 mm dia. with wall thickness of 2 mm.
17.3. 3 Sag Adjustment Devices
(a) Bundle conductors face the problem of sag mismatch between sub-
conductors. Therefore sag adjustment devices are used along with
tension hardware to adjust and match the sag of all the sub-conductor.
The devices usually used are the sag adjustment plate/link and turn
buckle types. The former type is used in America, Canada and
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Australia and the latter in European countries. In India both types have
been used.
(b) The sag adjustment plate/link require extra care at time of adjustment.
Also it has a limited number of adjustments in steps of 15 to 25 mm
and unlike in turn buckles, fine adjustment are not possible. However,
the sag adjustment plate design is sturdy giving it a longer service life
and it is more economical than the turn buckle. Failure probability due
to pull under broken wire conditions is comparatively more for turn-
buckle due to fatigue failure of threads.
17.3.4 For lines subject to heavy contamination, insulator and fitting shall be
suitable for hot line maintenance.
17.4 Technical Particulars
Following table summarises the hardware technical particulars :
Suspensi Tension Protective Other hardware

on clamp Clamp devices components
1. Material High (a) Arcing horns (a) Socket type

strength Compression mild steel malleable cast iron or
Notes cast Al type extruded rods and forged steel
All ferrous alloy Al alloy grading/coro
parts are hot na rings Al
dip galvanised alloy tubes
(b) Bolted type (b) Ball ended clevis,

Al alloy, chain, shackles, forged
malleable iron steel
or forged steel
All bolts, nuts, (c) Yoke plates mild

and washers steel
are galvanised
steel.
Small nuts & (d) Cotterpin forged

spring washers steel
may be electro
galvanised.
(e) Security
clipsphosphor bronze or
stainless steel
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Suspension Tension Clamp Protective Other

clamp devices hardware
components
2. Minimum
Strength
2.1 Slip 25% of 90% of ultimate -- --

Strength ultimate conductor brea-
conductor king load
breaking load
2.2 Minimum EM strength of 95% of ultimate EM Strength of respective

failing load respective conductor insulator string.
insulator string, breaking load
not less than
50% of
ultimate
conductor
breaking load
3.0 Magnetic 7 watts - -

Power loss maximum
corresponding to
600A
18.0 OTHER HARDWARE

Following are other important conductor hardware :
18.1 Spacers
18.1.1 Spacers are required on bundle conductors to maintain the design separation
between the sub-conductors and to prevent them from clashing due to wind
action. They have to withstand the forces due to aeolian and subconductor
vibrations and also to-provide latitude for conductor longitudinal, vertical
and horizontal movements.
18.1.2 Under fault currents many times the normal current, the sub-conductors are
drawn towards each other until they collide. Spacing devices installed at
intervals of 100 M or less will ensure rapid separation once the fault is
cleared. This will permit circuit reclosing within the period required in the
interconnected systems.
18.1.3 The short circuit conditions produce large compressive forces on the spacers.
Spacer flexibility reduces clamp forces and makes clamp loosening less
likely. Some typical types of spacers are shown in Fig.8.
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18.1.4 Flexible spacers are recommended because the compressions forces, if large
enough, will collapse the spacer without causing deformation to the
conductors near the spacer location. In addition, the spacer will exert a
restoring force on the conductors after fault clearance. In flexible spacers, the
quality and strength of the central member consisting of stainless steel helical
spring has to be of very high order, so as to ensure that it does not loose its
property and flexibility under the stresses induced by wind. The pair of
clamps at both ends of the central member consist of aluminium alloy body.
Instead of a spring type central member the flexible spacer can also be
designed with the connecting element as a flexible ring of stranded high
tensile galvanised steel wire permanently mould casted to the two aluminium
alloy clamps.
18.1.5 Semi-rigid spacers are composed of rigid components but with (a) flexible
joints containing springs, rubber bushes/elastomeric inserts or (b) with
flexible clamp conductor interface. The armour, grip type spacers of the latter
type, consisting of aluminium alloy tube frame with neoprene moulded
integrally on aluminium inserts at the ends provide good combination of
strength and cushioning. The method of attachment to the cable employs
helical shaped (performed) aluminium alloy retaining rods. This eliminates
bolts and also spreads the load on the conductor which helps to minimise
stress concentration.
18.1.6 Another type of spacer in the combined spacer damper. This type, in addition
to maintaining bundle geometry, in weighted to damp the aeolian vibrations
and sub-span oscillations.
18.2 Conductor Joints
18.2.1 The length of the tensioning section of a transmission line is 5 Km in plain

terrain and 3 KM in hilly terrain. However, the conductors, for practical
reasons, are made in lengths of about 1 to 1.2 Km. Jointing therefore
becomes necessary for making electrically continuous conductor in arty
section. The spliced joint of the conductor, shall have the same mechanical
and electrical properties as that of conductor. The joint consists of two
separate joints, one for the steel core and one for the overall ACSR
conductor.
18.2.2 There are two types of conductor joints.
(a) Compression joint
There are two sleeves, the inner one of galvanised or stainless steel and
the outer of pure aluminium. The aluminium sleeve (body) in initially
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inserted over one of the conductor ends, before making the steel core
joint. The ends of the steel core of the two conductors are inserted into
the steel sleeve and compressed with hydraulic compressor. This
ensures good tensile strength of the jointed conductor. The aluminium
sleeve is then placed over it and compressed on to the aluminium
strands of the two conductors. This ensures good electrical
Conductivity.
(b) Combined compression and wedged joint. In this type instead of using
the steel sleeves a wedged type arrangement is utilised for jointing of
the steel core. An aluminium tube, similar to the one in compression
joint is used for joining the overall conductor. This type of joint is
shorter in length which is an advantage when the joints run through
stringing rollers. The combined type joint takes lesser time to make.
Both types of joints are equally efficient mechanically and electrically.
18.2.3 The midspan joints shall be placed to ensure the following:
(a) No joint shall be placed within 15 m of the conductor support.
(b) There shall be no joints in important crossing spans, except where the spans
are longer than the standard conductor drum length.
(c) There shall be not more than one joint per conductor in a span.
19.0 TOWERS
19.1 Types
The two types of towers which are mostly, in use for EHV lines are guyed
towers and self supporting towers.
(a) The guyed tower is directly supported by guys or stays against the
transverse load. Therefore there is negligible bending moment at the
base but there is a high vertical force on the tower due to the guys
tension. Guyed towers are cheaper but require considerable extra land
to encompass the guys which may create right-of-way problems.
Guyed towers are more vulnerable to sabotage. This type of tower are
in use in America and Canada on the earlier 500-735 kV lines.
(b) In self-supporting type towers the overturning moment due to wind and
other forces is transmitted to the tower base and transferred to the
ground by tension/compression members of the leg. For narrow base
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towers the loading on the foundation is higher than in the case of broad
based tower and the cost of the foundation is more but the cost of
clearing right-of-way is less. Self-supported towers being more robust
and reliable are extensively used in India and other countries.
(c) A new development in case of EHV/UHV lines in areas exposed to

heavy marine/ industrial pollution is to group the functions of metallic
cross-arm and insulator strings together in one device known as the
“insulating cross-arm”. The insulating cross-arm consists of a tie-rod
and a strut hinged together at their terminal points and free to rotate
around the axis' passing through the points connecting the tie-rod and
strut to the tower. In this arrangement the insulator string is completely
eliminated thus substantially reducing the tower height and cross-arm
length for suspension towers. This reduces tower cost and right-of-way.
19.2 Material
The two types of steel used in the fabrication of towers are mild steel and
high tensile steel. The use of high tensile steel results in considerable
economy because of the lighter weight. This type is widely used in all
foreign countries. In India, at present, mild steel is used for towers. However,
for 400 kV lines high tensile steel 40% by weight to total steel weight has
been also used. For protection against corrosion hot-dip galvanising method
is used for application of zinc coating on steel surface. The protective life of
hot-dip galvanised coating on steel is directly proportional to the thickness of
the coating for any given condition of exposure. Bolts and nuts are also hot-
dip galvanised and spring washers may be electroplated with zinc. Usually
the weight of zinc coating is 610 g/m2 for steel structure and half that for
bolts and nuts.
A study conveyed to evolve the economic advantage of galvanising versus

painting has revealed that galvanising and painting costs equal in 8 years and
the additional (5-7 years) life of galvanising protection is an advantage to the
user. Painting has to be done-every about 4 years. It is expensive for
maintenance and needs well planned execution to minimise the cost. In
highly polluted environment it may be necessary to paint galvanised structure
to extend its useful life.
19.3 Structure Outline
The tower structure outline is composed of its height, arrangement and length
of cross arms based on conductor configurations, phase spacing and
clearances and the tower widths at base and cross-arm levels. Both electrical
and mechanical considerations determine these dimensions. Some typical
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110 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV tower outline diagrams are shown in Figs 9 to
15.
19.4 Height
The height of the tower comprises the permissible ground clearance of

conductors required in accordance with statutory regulations for overhead
lines, maximum' sag for the lowermost conductors, vertical spacing, between
conductors including maximum string length and the height of the earth wire
peak portion.
19.4.1 Statutory clearances
The minimum safety clearances above ground of the lowest point of the
conductor and clearances over roads, railway, tracks, telecommunication and
power lines as laid down. In IE Rules and IS 5613 (Part 2) are as follows :
Minimum Clearance, m 66 kV 110 kV 132 kV 220 kV 400 kV (as

Under Conditions of Maximum Sag applied,
tentative)
i. Above Ground
a) Across/along roads 6.1 6.1 6.1 7.0 8.8
b) Other areas 5.5 6.1 6.1 7.0 8.8
c) Over maximum flood level -------- ---------- 3.05 --- ---------- -------------
of rivers (not navigable) ----- ---- --- ----
d) For navigable rivers, in consultation with concerned authorities.
ii. At Crossings with
a) Telecom lines 2.44 2.75 2.75 3.05 4.88
b) Railway tracks, on 1.5 kV dc
Inside Station 13.59 14.20 14.20 15.11 Not available
Outside Station 11.59 12.20 12.20 13.11 -do-
c) Railway tracks, on 25 kV ac
Inside Station 15.59 16.20 16.20 18.63 -do-
Outside Station 13.59 14.20 14.20 15.11 -do-
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iii. Line Crossing each other

66 kV 2.44 2.75 3.05 4.58 6.00
110 kV 2.75 2.75 3.05 4.58 6.00
132 kV 3.05 3.05 3.05 4.58 6.00
220 kV 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 6.00
400 kV 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00
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19.4.2 Sag
19.4.2.1 The size and type of conductor, wind and climatic conditions of the region
and span length determine the conductor sag and tension. The maximum sag
for conductor span occurs at the maximum temperature and still wind
conditions. Under snow conditions with wind, the maximum sag may
perhaps occur at minimum temperature with conductors loaded with ice.
19.4.2.2 Following IE Rules are to be observed for conductor tensions when

computing the sags.
i. Minimum factor of safety is 2 based on conductor breaking load i.e.

ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
ii. The conductor tension at 32oC (90oF) without external load of wind or
ice shall not exceed the following percentages based on their UTS.
With initial modules of elasticity (El) 35 percent
With final modules of elasticity (E) 25 percent
For sag tension stringing chart calculations the final modules of elasticity
values are to be considered, however, the tension at 32oC has to be also
checked with the initial modules of elasticity. In accordance with above,
therefore, the sag tensions computations made for final stringing of the
conductors must ensure a minimum F.O.S 2 under worst loading conditions
and a minimum F.O.S.4 under everyday loading conditions.
19.4.2.3 The standard sag tension parabolic equation considering the combined effect
of elasticity and temperature is given as :
(a) f22 [ f2 - (K - Eαt) ] = 12 δ2 q22 E = Z2 (Say)

24
Suffix 1 is for starting conditions
t = difference of temperature between two sets of loading
conditions = (t2 - t1 )
K = f1 - 12 δ2 q21 E = f1 - Z1
24 f21 f 21
= Constant for all subsequent conditions
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f = tensile stress in Kg - cm2 under different conditions of

loading
δ = W (weight of conductor kg/m)

A (Cm2) (Area of conductor)
q = loading factor under different conditions loading
q1 = √(W + Wi)2 + Pw2

W
(say under ice and wind) (at say t1 = minus 8oC)
P = Wind pressure Kg/m2
Pw = P x (diam. conductor with ice, mm)

1000
= Kg/m of conductor length
Ice load W1 Kg/m can be estimated from 12.7 mm radial thickness at rate of
916.8 Kg/m2.
Similarly, q2, q3 at same and or other temperatures and other loading

conditions are used for computing f under different conditions.
E = Final modulus of elasticity of conductor in Kg/cm2
℘ = Coefficient of linear expansion of conductor per degree C
l = Span length in metre
Under the worst loading conditions
f = UTS of conductor
2xA
(b) Sag tension computations may be started from the conditions of

minimum temperature with full wind conditions with a F.O.S. of 2,
assuming this as starting condition.
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Computations for other temperatures upto maximum temperature are

then made. A F.O.S more than 4 should be obtained for loading
conditions at 32oC without wind. Computer programme for ease of sag
tension computation are available for use.
(c) Sag = q δ 12 /8 fm
Maximum sag is determined from the working stress computed for

maximum temperature in still wind. The maximum temperature given
for a region shall be increased by 20oC to allow for the sun’s radiation
and heating effect of current.
19.4.2.4 A stringing chart has to be prepared, for a particular ruling (design) span,
tabulating the tension and sag corresponding to each of the temperatures in
the range of minimum to maximum ambient temperatures at site. A typical
stringing chart is shown in Table 7.
19.4.2.5 An increase of about 2 to 4 percent of the maximum sag values should be

considered to allow for conductor creep and likely sag differential arising due
to the assumption of parabolic shape of the conductor span instead of
catenary.
19.4.2.6 For supports at different heights :
Sag from lower support is S1 = S (1-h/4S)2
Sag from higher support is S2 = S (1+h/4S)2
Where S = Sag vide Item 19.4.2.3 and h = height difference.
The distance of the Sag from lower support is
d1 = 1 _ Th ; T = fA
2 W1
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FORM NO. 120 R1

TABLE - 7
SPECIMEN STRINGING CHART FOR ACSR ‘MOOSE’ WITH 20 PERCENT

UTS EVERYDAY TENSION
AT 32O C & STILL AIR
Line Section ‘A’ Sagging Sec. Loc. 28 - 30

Ruling Span 350 Mr. Sag in m for actual
Span (m) of
Temp Tension Sag 339 360

C kg Mr.
1. DESIGN CHART
(0 + wind 4009) - - -
0 3727 8.63 8.10 9.13
5 3642 8.83 8.28 9.34
10 3562 9.03 8.47 9.55
15 3486 9.22 8.65 9.75
20 3414 9.42 8.84 9.97
25 3345 9.61 9.02 10.17
30 3280 9.80 9.19 10.37
32 3255 9.88 9.27 10.45
35 3218 9.99 9.37 10.57
40 3159 10.18 9.55 10.77
45 3102 10.37 9.73 10.97
65 2900 11.09 10.40 11.73
Ref. CBIP
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19.4.3 Conductors and Cross-arms spacing
19.4.3.1 The length of insulator string assembly, jumpers, their swings and the
corresponding electrical clearances to earthed parts (i.e. cross arms, tower
legs) in the deflected positions of strings/jumpers and the tower width at
cross arm level determine the length of the cross arm level determine the
length of the cross arms and the vertical and horizontal spacings between the
conductors. The optimum cross arm lengths will give the most economical
tower outline.
19.4.3.2 Swings and clearances
The length of the suspension string is considered from the point of

suspension upto the centreline of the conductor and for the tension string, it
is taken from the point of attachment of the string to the cross-arm upto the
end of the tension clamp. The swings and clearances as considered in IS
5613 (P2 Section 1) for 66 kV to 220 kV transmission lines are given here
for ready reference. The clearances are suitable for altitudes upto 1000 m
above mean seal-level. For heights over 1000 m and upto 3000 m above
MSL, it is recommended that the values should be increased by 1.25 percent
for every 100 m height or part thereof.
Minimum Electrical Clearance in mm, from Live Conductor to Earthed

Metal
Type of Insulator Swing in 66 kV 110 kV 132 220 kV 400 kV

String Degrees kV
not in IS ,
as applied
i. Tension (Single/ Nil 915 1220 1530 2130 3350
Double
ii. Jumper Nil/10o 915 1220 1530 2130 3350
o o
20 /30 610 915 1070 1675 3100
o
iii Single Sus- Nil/15 915 1220 1530 2130/ 3350
. pension 1980
o
30 760 1070 1370 1830 3100
o
45 610 915 1220 1675 1860
o
60 610 915 1070 - -
iv Double Sus- Nil 915 1220 1530 2130 3350
. pension
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19.4.3.3 Vertical and horizontal spacings
For the vertical and horizontal spacings the swing angle and the
corresponding electrical clearances under these deflected positions of the
strings are to be considered. These are illustrated in Fig. 16.
S = String length
φ1, φ3 = Swing angles and corresponding
X1 = maximum clearance
φ2, φ4 = Maximum swing angle and X2 - corresponding
clearance
(B + C) = Flange width of the nearest projecting angle connected
to main angle member + distance to the centre of
gravity (CG) of the main angle section.
Y = Depth of jumper terminal point below cross arm level
and approximately it is
= Maximum sag of conductor x S/Half span
φ = Angle of deviation
D = Depth of the jumper, usually selected to be 1.18 X 1
H = Hanger length
α = Angle between the cross-arm lower main member and
the upper inclined member. This is usually between
20o to 30o
h = Height of the cross arm between the main horizontal
member and the inclined member = (a + offset) tanα
= (a + offset + S sinφ/2) tanα for angle tower
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FORM NO. 120 R1

(a) Vertical Spacings
i. For suspension towers, between two cross-arms, spacing =

H+b+h
where b = (S + X1 + B+C Cosα

when α < φ1 or b = S Cos φ1 +
(X1 + B + C) Cosα when α > φ1
The greater value of b is taken
ii. For angle towers, between two cross arms, spacing
= Y+b=h
where b = D Cos φ3 + (X1 + B + C) Cosα
when α > φ3
or
b = D Cos φ3 + (X1 + B + C) Cosα
when α > φ3
The greater value of b is taken
(b) Length of cross-arm
i. For suspension towers
= S Sin φ1 + X1 + B + C
or
= S Sin φ2 + X2 + B + C
The greater of the above two values gives the length of cross arm
considered from the point of suspension of the string to the CG of main
leg member. Twice the length of cross arm so determined may give the
width of tower window for centre-phase in the case of towers with
horizontal configurations. Clearances have to be checked from the tip
of arcing horns or grading rings used on the line side. Allowance is also
made in the horizontal distance corresponding to the sloping of leg
members, if any.
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ii. For angle towers
= S Sin φ/2 + D Sin φ3 + X1 + B + C

or
= S Sin φ/2 + D Sin φ4 + X2 + B + C
The greater of the two values gives the length of cross arm from
the point of attachment of conductor to CG of main leg member.
The horizontal spacing between conductors obtainable as above

are adequate so as not to cause any arc over between them at the
mid-span due to out-of-step swinging of conductors, if any, under
dynamic conditions. These spacings have to be checked from the
consideration of galloping of conductors also, under specific
conditions of snow and wind. Where conductors are hung one
below the other in vertical plane, an off-set of V/150 in metres (V
in kV is provided in order to avoid any possibility of conductors
coming closer or in contact with each other an causing flashover
under conditions of non-uniform shedding of ice or when a flock
of birds suddenly takes off from a conductors leaving the
conductor jumping in loops.
19.4.3.4 The cross arm spacings can also be determined graphically by drawing the
swings and clearances to scale. Following are representative values of
minimum spacings adopted currently, as given in IS 5613 (P2/Sec. 1).
Line kV No. of Circuits Spacing between

Conductors (Metres)
Vertical Horizontal
66 1 or 2 2.0 3.5
110 1 or 2 3.2 5.5
132 1 or 2 3.9 6.8
220 1 (horizontal) - 6.0
220 1 or 2 4.9 8.4
400 1 (horizontal) - 11.3
(as applied, not in IS)
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19.4.4 Earth wire height
19.4.4.1 The height and location of the earth wire will depend on the shield angle, that
is the angle made by the line joining the earthwire to the outermost conductor
with the vertical. This angle is 25 and 30 degrees for lines upto 220 kV in
horizontal and vertical formations respectively and 10 to 15 degrees for 400
kV lines. The protective value approaches 100 percent as the shield angle is
decreased from 20 degrees to less than 15 degrees. Smaller shield angles
means higher height and it is not economical to keep small angles for lines
upto 220 kV. In horizontal formation with two earth wires, the shield angle is
usually maintained at 45o for the central conductor.
19.4.4.2 The mid span clearance (direct distance) between the earthwires and
conductors has to be more than the clearance at the tower, as discussed in
Item 11.0 (Earth Wires) to prevent a flashover from earthwire to conductors
during a direct stroke on the earthwire midspan. The height of the earth wire
and its tension should be checked to ensure that under minimum temperature
and still wind conditions, the sage of the earth wire is such that the direct
minimum mid span clearance between it and the power conductor is
maintained as given in earlier Item 11.0
19.4.4.3 The position of power conductors with reference to which, earth wire
position is determined, is fixed depending upon the length of the insulator
strings, their swings and the corresponding electrical clearances as discussed
in Item 19.4.3. Having fixed the angle of shield, the location of the earthwire
is known and the height of the earthwire peak is determined.
19.5 Tower Width
Spacing between the tower footings, that is the based width at the concrete
level, is the distance from the centre of gravity (CG) of one corner leg to the
CG of the adjacent corner leg angle. Towers with larger base width result in
low footing costs and lighter main leg members at the expense of larger
bracing members. Based on many years experience certain empirical
relations have been developed to determine the optimum base width which
will give minimum total cost of tower and foundation. The relations
developed between height and width are as follows :
(a) Ratio between height of tower upto the lowest cross arm and base
width for suspension towers, is generally between 2.5/3 for single -
circuit and 3.5/4 for double circuit.
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(b) Ratio between overall height of the tower and base width generally
varies between 6 for suspension towers, 5 for medium angle and 4 for
heavy angle towers.
19.6 Conductor Configurations
19.6.1 Single circuit towers have the arrangement of conductors in horizontal or

triangular formation. A horizontal arrangement will require larger right - of -
way whereas the triangular configuration results in taller tower which
increase their weight and foundation depth. Also, the effect of wind and
probability of lightning flashovers will be more for taller towers. However,
the triangular formation has the advantage of providing balanced line
reactances.
19.6.2 Double circuit towers have the conductors in vertical formation and their
heights are more. Typical configurations of conductors on towers is shown in
Figs. 17 and 18.
19.7 Categories of Towers
19.7.1 A transmission line requires deviation after every about 15 spans or 5 km or

less of straight section depending upon the terrain through which the line has
to pass and also because of the practical difficulty to string long sections. In
hilly terrain the maximum length of a section should be 10 spans or 3 km. In
general, the following four categories of tower designs have been found
suitable for all occasions.
a) Tangent (suspension) towers with suspension strings, to be used on

straight runs and upto 2o line deviations.
b) Small angle towers with tension strings, to be used for line deviations
from 2o to 15o.
c) Medium angle towers with tension strings, to be used for line

deviations from 15o to 30o.
d) Large angle and dead end towers with tension strings, to be used for
line deviations from 30o to 600 and dead ends.
The angle of line deviation specified are for the normal span. The span may
however, be increased upto an optimum limit by reducing the angle of line
deviation.
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19.7.2 Where specially long spans are necessary because of river, creek,
mountainous crossing, the categories of towers listed above cannot be used
and the towers should be specially designed taking into consideration the
very long span lengths at times upto 1000 m, soil conditions at the location
etc. These are known as special towers. The river span crossing are usually
suspension towers and are provided with anchor (angle) towers on either
ends.
Transportation of power lines is required if the conductors are in horizontal

or vertical arrangement, to reduce the unbalance in the reactances. This is
primarily done to reduce the interference which power line produces in
neighbouring telecommunication circuits. Transposition involves changing
the relative positions of the 3 phase conductors cyclically without infringing
on clearances and other safety requirements. Transportation towers are
specially designed for this purpose and are provided at intervals of
approximately one third distance of the line length. Usually the medium
angle tower is used for this purpose.
19.8 Tower Loadings
19.8.1 Loads
Towers are designed to withstand under normal as well as broken wire
conditions the following loads :
a) Transverse loads act parallel to the longitudinal axis of the cross-arm

and are due to :
i) Wind on structure, conductors, insulators

ii) Transverse components of conductor tension due to deviation in
the line
b) Longitudinal load acts along the direction of the line and the
component of conductor tension at right angles to the longitudinal axis
of the cross arm is considered for design. Longitudinal load is due to
unbalance tension in the conductor produced either due to dead ending
of the conductor or due to broken wire - conditions. Unbalance tension
produces torsional loads causing twisting moments about the central
axis of the tower.
c) Vertical loads are applied at the point of conductor supports and they
are due to weight of conductors/groundwires, with ice if any, insulator
strings/accessories and weight of tower. An overload to be considered
for erection/maintenance at conductor cross-arm and lifting point is
usually 350 kg for weight of man with tools and tackles.
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d) Vertical eccentric loads act in the case of single circuit tower,

delta or right angle formation.
e) Earthquake forces are usually not considered since earthquake

and maximum wind are unlikely to occur together and the wind
load is the major load for transmission line towers.
f) All loads are considered simultaneously.
19.8.1.1 Following broken wire conditions may be assumed in the design.
a) All single circuit towers and Any one power or earthwire broken
double circuit suspension towers whichever is more stringent
b) Double circuit, small and medium Any two power conductors or one
angle towers power and one earth wire broken on
the same span, whichever
combination is more stringent.
c) Double circuit, large angle (30o to Three power conductors or two

60o ) and dead-end towers power conductors and one earth
wire broken on the same span,
whichever combination is more
stringent.
d) Cross Arms In all types of towers, the power and

earthwire supports shall be designed
for the broken wire conditions also.
19.8.2 Codes
The application of the tower loads are governed by the following codes
stipulated in IS 802 (P1) and factors of safety given in I.E. Rules :
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19.8.2.1
Minimum Factor of
Safety
i. Metal supports, based on crippling load , (steel 2.0
to IS 226, has yield strength 26 kg/mm2)
ii. Same but under broken wire condition 1.5
The strength of the supports in the direction of

the line has to be not less than 1/4 the strength
required in transverse direction.
iii. Conductor maximum tension based on ultimate 2.0

tensile strength
iv. Conductor tension, based on ultimate tensile

strength, at 32oC
• Initial unloaded tension 35 percent

• Final unloaded tension 25 percent
19.8.2.2 Basis of the loads
(a) Wind Load
Wind pressure shall be the maximum wind pressure, based on the wind
zones map of India, and the separate values of the wind pressure on
towers and conductors shall be as given in IS 802. This map is given in
Fig. 19. The maximum tension will be when the maximum wind
pressure on the conductor in assumed to act at minimum temperature of
the region.
The wind load shall be computed as acting on
i. Full projected area of conductor/earthwire, including each conductor in

a bundle conductor.
ii. 50 percent of projected area of the insulator with diameter equal to that
of insulator skirt. The pressure shall be assumed as for tower.
iii. For towers, 1.5 times the projected area of the tower members on the
wind-ward face.
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TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS SECTION: SKETCH
FOR DETAILS REFER HARDCOPY
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iv. The wind span of conductors and earth wires. The wind span is
the sum of the two half spans adjacent to the tower support and it
s considered equal to the normal span. Under broken wire
conditions, 50% of the normal span and 10% of the broken span
shall be assumed as the wind span for both suspension and angle
towers.
(b) Longitudinal Load
Under normal conditions this load is nil, except equal to the tension of
conductors and earth wires for dead-end towers. The unbalanced pull
due to broken conductor, in the case of suspension string towers, is
assumed as equal to 50% and 100% of the respective maximum
tensions of the conductor and earthwire. In the case of tension string
towers, for conductor and earth-wire broken conditions, the component
of the respective maximum tensions of the conductor and earthwire
corresponding to the relevant angle of deviation is to be considered for
tower loading.
(c) Deviation (Transverse) Load
Under normal conditions, this load is the transverse components of the

respective tensions of the conductors and ground wires corresponding
to the angle of deviation, including spans on both sides of the tower.
Under broken wire condition, for suspension towers, this load is the
transverse component of 50% and 100% of conductor and groundwire
tensions respectively, corresponding to the 2o angle of deviation. In the
case of tension towers, for conductor and groundwire, the transverse
component of 100% of the respective tension corresponding to the
angle of deviation, is to be considered for tower loading.
(d) Vertical Load
i. Vertical load of conductors and earth wires will be based on

appropriate weight spans. The weight span is the horizontal
distance between the lowest points of the conductor/earth-wire,
on the spans adjacent to the tower. The lowest or null point is
defined as the point at which the tangent to the sag curve or to the
sag-curve produced, is horizontal. In hilly regions, the changes in
profile imposes downward or uplift loads. In most case it is a
downward pull, any tendency to uplift is counter-balanced by the
weight of the conductor and insulator assembly. The weight
spans are illustrated in Fig. 20.
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Consider conductors to be horizontal at points ‘x’ at distance a

and b from the right and left sides respectively of tower support
B.
Weight span = a + b for tower B or = - a - b, i.e. -(a+b)
Vertical load = (Weight span in metres) x

= (Weight of conductor + ice if any, per metre run)
The weight span can be obtained graphically from line profile or

analytically, as shown in Fig. 20. If the sum of a + b for a
particular tower is negative, the tower is under uplift. For the
design of uplift the worst condition is that corresponding to the
minimum weight span. The suspension towers shall be checked
for uplift under normal conditions, that is both adjacent spans
intact. The angle towers shall be checked for uplift under both
normal and broken wire conditions. The maximum upward or
downward pull are obtained when conductor tension is maximum
(i.e. under conditions of full wind and minimum temperature.)
ii. For tower design following estimated values of weight span are
used :
Maximum - 1.5 x normal span (to cover the weight at hill top
positions)
Minimum - 0.7 to 0.8 x normal span (to cover rapidly rising

ground from an intermediate tower).
For cross arm of heavy angle tower 3 x normal span.
iii. Under broken wire conditions, for suspension towers 60% of

maximum/ minimum weight span of conductor and ground wire
and for tension towers 60% of maximum weight span of
conductor and ground wire shall be considered.
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20.0 RIGHT - OF WAY
20.1 Installation of overhead line involves clearing of the work site and the line
route prior to detailed survey.
This is required to be done both legally and physically. The line alignment
should involve least amount of tree cutting as laid down by Government
authorities. Minimum width should cover safety clearances and requirements
of transport of equipment/material for construction and maintenance.
20.2 For the purpose of computing minimum horizontal safety clearance, the
maximum deflection shall be calculated on the basis of the maximum
regional wind pressure or may be taken as 35o, which is greater. The angle of
swing of the conductors in wind is obtained from total wind on the conductor
(loaded with ice, if any) and the total weight of the conductor (with ice, if
any).
(Wind load per metre run of

This gives tan φ = Conductor) x ( wind span)
(Weight per metre of
Conductor) x (weight span)
20.3 The line clearance requirements is shown in Fig. 21. The following right-of-
way width are recommended in IS 5613 (P2 Section 2).
Line Voltage (kV) Width of Right-of-way (Metres)
66 18
110 22
132 27
220 35
400 (as applied, not in IS) 52
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

21.0 TOWER SPOTTING
21.1 The line clearing and survey work locates all the tension/angle/terminal/river
crossing anchor towers taking into consideration the desired section lengths,
site conditions, etc. and the levels of the ground along the route are
measured. From this field data, the Route Plan and Profile drawing (also
known as Survey charts) for each section is plotted and prepared to the scales
of 1 in 200 horizontal and 1 in 200 vertical on square paper. Locating the
intermediate towers along the profile of the ground is called tower spotting.
A very important factor to be considered for tower spotting is the span,
which in practice and for design purpose is taken as the horizontal distance
between centre lines of adjacent towers between which the conductor is
freely suspended. The span consideration is dealt with in detail as follows :
21.2 Span
The choice of a suitable span is based mainly on economics. Long spans

increase the mechanical loadings and thereby the cost of conductors and
supports. On the other hand, they decrease the total number of supports,
insulators and hardware required for a given line length. Over the years of
experience optimum span lengths have been evolved based on standard tower
strengths and the required conductor clearances. Following are the span
lengths, as given in IS 5613 (P2-Sec 1), which are normally adopted.
Nominal System
No. of Circuits Span Range (m)
Voltage kV (rms)
66 1 204 - 305
2 240 - 320
110 1 or 2 305 - 335
132 1 305 - 335
2 305 - 380
220 1 or 2 320 - 380
400 1 350 - 400
(not in IS applied)
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

21.2.1 Basic Span
(a) One of the above spans is initially selected as the Basic Span,
depending on line voltage, terrain conditions, ease and cost of
construction and maintenance. The Basic Span is also referred as
Design Span, Ruling span or Normal span. The basic span length is the
maximum distance between standard towers on level ground so that the
requisite statuary ground clearance is obtained at the maximum
specified temperature. This will determine the height of the standard
tower from level ground upto the bottom conductor attachment.
(b) In actual practice, due to the changing profile of the ground, any
section of an overhead line route will consist of a number of spans of
variable length. Since, at any time, only one tension can be applied at
the tensioning positions of any section, this applied tension will be
constant and uniform throughout the whole section, irrespective of the
span lengths. This uniform tension for the whole section will produce a
specific sag on a specific basic (design) span at a given temperature.
The sags and tensions at various temperatures (in the specified
temperature range) are calculated on this basic span. Then the sags on
the other spans in the line section at the same uniform applied tension
corresponding to a particular stringing temperature, are correlated as
follows :
Sag for any span X = (Span length X)2 x Sag for basic span
Basic span length
or in terms of the uniform tension
Sag on Span X = Weight of conductor per metre x Span length X2

8 x uniform tension
The uniform applied tension for the entire line section is based on the
calculations of sag-tension versus temperature on the basic span. A
specimen stringing chart is shown in Table 7.
(c) One basic (ruling span should normally be selected for the entire line,
except for certain sections where, on account of exceptionally rough
profile, long and short spans cannot be avoided. In such cases, a longer
or shorter basic span should be used and separate sag template are to be
prepared. The conductor must be dead-ended at the point where a
change in basic span occurs, because with variations in temperature
and loading, the horizontal tensions in sections of line with different
basic spans do not vary by the same amounts and unbalanced tensions
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

will therefore result between sections of different ruling spans. In

isolated long spans, such as at river crossing, which are dead-ended at
each end, the basic span is made equal to the actual span.
(d) Since the basic span is used as a basis for calculating the sag-template,
it must be assumed before the towers are “spotted” (i.e. located). Dead-
ending for the purpose of changing the basic span is costly. A
representative basic span should be so selected that it can be applied to
the whole line length so far as is practical. An equivalent hypothetical
span which would give uniform tension for all the spans in the line
section is given by the formula.
_____________________
LR = / L31 + L32 + L33 + ........
√ L1 + L2 + L3 +.........
LR = Ruling or Basic Span
L1 , L2 = Different spans in a section
Another formula often used which gives a fairly close estimate is as

follows :
Ruling Span = 1/3 Average Span + 2/3 Maximum Span
For each ruling span selected the sag and tensions for the minimum
and maximum span lengths should be checked for the loadings and
temperatures specified. Any individual maximum span should not
exceed the ruling span by more than 50 percent.
The initially selected basic (ruling) span may require to be changed

after the preliminary tower spotting, based on the above formulae. In
that case, a new stringing chart and sag template has to be made and
tower spotting is redone to finalise the tower locations.
21.3 Tower Spotting Requirements
21.3.1 It is necessary to obtain the tower design data indicating the limits of the
normal span, weight span, maximum tension of conductor etc. which are not
to be exceeded. A specimen tower spotting design data sheet is given in
Table 8.
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

TYPICAL TOWER SPOTTING REQUIREMENT
(REF. TCE. MANUAL)
TABLE 8
IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIELD ENGINEERS
It will be absolutely essential to ensure tower spotting as per limitations

tabulated below which has to be checked during stringing operations . That
the design criteria for each tower type, is not exceeded.
A. Tower Spotting Requirements Normal span 400 metres

All span in meters
All load in kgs
Sl.No Tower Type Suspension Angle Angle Angle

. ‘A’ ‘B’ ‘C’ ‘D’
1 Vertical load of individual span Not to act Downward only

upwards
2 Deviation not to exceed 2o 15o 30o 60o

(Dead
end)
3 Vertical load limitations:
max. weight span
G W effect both spans 600 (540*) 600 600 600
G W effect one span 320(290*) 320 320 320
Conductor effect both spans 600(540*) 600 600 600
Conductor effect one span 320(290*) 320 320 320
Minimum weight Span
GW effect both spans 320 320 320 320
G W effect one span 160 0 0 0
Conductor effect both spans 320 320 320 320
Conductor effect one span 160 0 0 0
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

TABLE - 8 (CONTD.)
Sl. Tower Type Suspension Angle Angle Angle
No ‘A’ ‘B’ ‘C’ ‘D’
.
4 Permissible sum of adjacent spans 2o 800 15o 800 30o 800 60o 800
for various deviation angles.
1o 902 14o 902 29o 897 59o 888
0o 1003 13o 1003 28o 995 58o 978
12o 1105 27o1096 57o
1066
11o 1206 26o 56o
1198 1155
o
10 1308 25o 55o 1244
1295
5. a) Design long tension GW 1358 1346 1312 1176
(Bracketed figures are or CASE-I) (1381) (1369) (1334) (1196)
Cdt 4323 8568 8352 7487
(4139) (8203) (7997) (7169)
b) Broken wire condition Any one GW or any one bundle conductor broken
Remarks : For calculating wt. span following are considered.
i. G K Clamp weight : 10 kg
ii. Insulators with hardware : As per specification
iii. Weight of men with tools at each conductor cross -arm point : 150
kg
iv. The cross-arms medium and heavy angle towers types C & D are
designed for a wt. span of 3 times the normal span.
v. Erection load of 350 kg is considered at conductor cross arms and

lifting points for tower types A.B,C & D.
vi. Erection load of 1045 kg is considered for tower type ‘A’

alongwith weight of conductor 2520 kg at 450 mm away from
cross arm tip.
Figures with (*) asterisk mark for span with double suspension insulator
Note : 1. Case - I - 32oC & full wind
2. Case - II - O°C & 2/3 full wind
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

21.3.2 While locating intermediate towers it is necessary to ensure the following

criteria.
a) Maximum length of section should not exceed 15 spans of 5 km in

plain terrain or 10 spans/ 3 km in hilly terrain.
b) The intermediate spans should be as near as possible to the design

span. In certain cases, due to rise in elevation and undulations in
ground profile or at road/railway / other line crossings, it is not possible
to get sufficient ground clearance for a span length near to normal
design span. In such cases the heights of one or more line supports of
the section should be extended by inserting to the base of the towers,
standard extension pieces to bring the intermediate span as near as
possible to the design span. The standard extensions are in 3, 6 and 9
metre heights. This method is more economical than reducing the span
or providing an extra tower.
c) There should be no upward force i.e. uplift on suspension towers under

normal working conditions, and the suspension tower should support
the minimum weight span as provided in the design. In case uplift is
unavoidable, it should be examined if the same could be overcome by
adding tower extensions, failing which, tension towers designed for the
purpose should be employed at such locations.
d) The weight and wind span on any tower should be within design limits.
These terms are as explained in Item 19.
e) The tower data sheets should also indicate the loading capability range
of each category of tower for various deviation angles. That is, if 60o
tower is used for a deviation of 45o, the extra available wind and,
weight span can be utilised. This helps in deciding the type of tower to
be used in various conditions.
f) The ground clearance under expected maximum temperature should be

within the statutory limits.
21.4 Sag Template
21.4.1 The use of sag template facilitates locating the towers on the line profile
correctly and economically. The template for sag versus span curves is
prepared for maximum and minimum temperatures of the region through
which the line passes, on the same scale as profile charts, i.e. scales of
1:2000 for horizontal and 1:200 for vertical distances. The sag template is
made out of transparent celluloid sheet of about 1 mm thick. A typical sag
template is shown in Fig. 22.
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

21.4.2 Template Curves
The template comprises of following curves :
a) Hot curve or maximum sag curve corresponding to the maximum

temperature, in still air (or at 0oC with ice-load), including sag
tolerance of 4 percent to account for tolerance in stringing.
b) Ground clearance curve at a distance equal to the minimum specified

ground clearance from any point on the maximum sag curve.
c) Cold or uplift curve corresponding to the vertical component of sag at

worst load conditions of wind at minimum temperature, i.e. minimum
sag conditions. This curve is used for checking any uplift on an
intermediate support.
d) Support foot curve at a distance equal to the bottom conductor height at

tower support from ground level, from any point on the hot curve.
21.4.3 Preparation method
a) The hot curve is plotted as a parabola on the maximum sag of the

ruling span (also called basic or normal design span) which is extended
by correlating the sags as proportional to the square of the spans for
other shorter and longer spans than the ruling span, as explained in
item 21.2.1(b). Any particular span is considered spread out by half of
its value on either side of origin ‘O’. The curve shall be extended for
twice the ruling span so that all slopes on the profile may be scaled
with ease.
b) The ground clearance is drawn through the origin ‘O’ at the centre line
of the template, parallel to the maximum sag curve.
c) The cold curve is normally drawn through the origin ‘O’ as a parabola
on the minimum sag of the ruling span and extended as explained for
the hot curve.
d) The support foot curve is drawn parallel to the hot curve and at a
distance equal to the bottom conductor height at the tower support.
21.4.4 Application Method
The method of using the sag template for spotting the tower positions on the
line profile is shown in Fig. 22. The tower spotting is carried out section by
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

section, i.e. from one terminal or angle tower to the next angle tower and so
on.
The height of the lowest conductor attachment point is marked on the

terminal/angle tower whose location is already fixed on the profile. The
template is placed on the profile with its vertical axis parallel to the Y axis of
the profile and so adjusted that when the ground clearance curve is just
touching the ground profile, the tower footing curve passes through the
location point of the terminal/angle tower and at the same time the hot curve
passes through the conductor anchor point already marked on the profile. In
this position the tower footing curve will intersect the ground profile in one
more point and this is the location where the next intermediate tower has to
be located for getting the minimum required ground clearance. The location
is marked on the profile and the span is measured. If the span is more, the
same is reduced to near normal span by suitably relocating the tower with the
application of the template. The ground clearance at this new position will be
more than the minimum required. For spotting the next tower, the height
above the base of the tower to the point of lowest conductor is marked at the
location of the spotted tower. The above procedure is then repeated to locate
the next tower. The ground clearance curve shall not only clear the route
centre line profile, but also the profile to the left and right of the centreline
upto a distance equal to the maximum swing of conductor including cross-
arm spread on either side.
The weight span on either side of the tower is obtained by marking the low
points of the sags in the two adjacent spans.
On steeply inclined slope, the upward pull exerted by the conductor in the
uphill span should be counter balanced by the weight of the conductor from
the lower tower to the low point in the sag. Should the upward pull of the
uphill span be greater than the downward load of the next adjacent span,
actual uplift would be caused. For an easy check whether a tower is under a
uplift or not, the template is applied horizontally until the tops of alternate
supports coincide with the cold curve. If the curve is above the intermediate
support, it indicates that the support would be under uplift during the cold
season. This can be overcome by extending the intermediate support until it
touches the cold curve.
The tower spotting is continued upto the tower just prior to the next fixed
angle point location of the line section. If the last span turns out to be bigger
or much smaller than the design span, then the previous spans are to be
suitably readjusted.
The minimum number of towers and thus the cost of the transmission line
will depend on a careful and judicious application of the template for
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

spotting of the towers. With some practice and experience, it is possible to

make the best possible use of the template for tower spotting.
Minor changes if required, could be made at site while actually locating the
towers, for providing stable foundation and minimise avoid additional civil
works, viz. protection, excavation, etc. depending on actual site condition
prevailing at the time of construction. However, these changes should be
rechecked by sag template and incorporated in the profile drawing.
22.0 REFERENCES
22.1 EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and

above
(Edison Electric Institute)
22.2 GEC
EHV Transmission Line Reference Book
22.3 TNEB Power Engineers Hand book
22.4 CBIP Design and Protection of 400 kV Transmission

Lines and Sub-stations : Vol. I & II, Design of
Transmission Lines, March 1978.
22.5 CBIP Manual on Transmission Line Towers, Technical

Report No.9, March 1977.
22.6 McCOMBE Overhead Line Practice
22.7 CEA Report of Committee for Specifications of 400 kV

Sub-station Equipment and Transmission Line
Materials
22.8 R D BEGAMUDRE Extra High Voltage A.C Transmission

Engineering
22.9 TCE Construction Manual, 132 kV and 220 kV Trans-

mission Lines, October, 1988
22.10 NGK Insulators Catalogue
22.11 The Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 alongwith CEA Regulations, 1979.
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

23.0. INDIAN STANDARDS
23.1 IS : 398 : Specification for aluminium conductors for

overhead transmission purposes (ACSR)
(Part I-V)
23.2 IS : 731 : Specification for porcelain insulators for overhead
power lines with nominal voltage greater than
1000V.
23.3 IS : 802 : Code of Practice for use of structural steel in

overhead transmission line towers
(Part I - III)
23.4 IS : 2071 : Method of high voltage testing
(Part I - III)
23.5 IS : 2121 : Specification for conductors and earth wire
accessories for overhead power lines
(Part I & II)
23.6 IS : 2165 : Specification for insulation co-ordination
(Part I & II)
23.7 IS : 2486 : Specification for insulator fittings for overhead
power lines with nominal voltage greater than
(Part I & IV)
3.3 kV.
23.8 IS : 2629 : Recommended practice for hot dip galvanising of

Iron and Steel.
23.9 IS : 3188 : Characteristics of string insulator units
23.10 IS : 3716 : Application guide for insulation co-ordination
23.11 IS : 3835 : Specification for aluminised steel core wire for

aluminium conductors (ACSR)
23.12 IS : 4091 : Code practice for design and construction of

foundation for transmission line tower and poles
23.13 IS : 4826 : Specification for galvanised coating on round

steel wires
23.14 IS : 5216 : Guide for safety procedure and practices in

electrical work
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

23.15 IS : 5561 : Specification for electrical power connectors
23.16 IS : 5613 : Specification for design, installation and

maintenance of lines above 11 kV and upto
(Part 2-Sec1/2) including 220 kV
23.17 IS : 8263 : Specification for methods for radio interference

tests on HV insulators
23.18 IS : 8269 : Specification for methods for switching impulse

tests on HV insulators
23.19 IS : 8704 : Method for artificial pollution tests on high

voltage insulators for use on AC system
23.20 IS : 10162 : Specification for spacers and spacer dampers for

twin horizontal bundle conductors.
23.21 IS : 12360 : Voltage and frequency for AC transmission and

distribution system.
ISSUE
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FORM NO. 120 R1

Design Guide (NO. TCE.M6-EL-TL-G-750-6801 FOR: Tata Consulting Engineers

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Design Guide (NO. TCE.M6-EL-TL-G-750-6801 FOR: Tata Consulting Engineers

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TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS SECTION: TITLE

TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS

INITIALS SIGN INITIALS SIGN INITIALS SIGN INITIALS SIGN R2

PPD.BY KCD LRP Sd/-

CKD.BY RKC SNM Sd/-

APP.BY PKS UAK Sd/-

DATE 94/4/25 1999-07-21

FORM NO. 020R2

REV. NO. DATE DESCRIPTION

R2 1999-07-21 Revised and converted to MS Word

FORM NO. 120 R1

ITEM NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

2.0 TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES 1

TABLE 1 FORMAT FOR PRELIMINARY STUDY 2

3.0 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL 3

4.0 TYPE OF CONDUCTOR 4

TABLE 2 TECHNICAL DATA OF ACSR CONDUCTOR 5

5.0 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 6

6.0 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 11

7.0 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR SIZE 14

8.0 CORORNA EFFECTS 18

TABLE 3 CORONA LOSS IN RAIN 19

9.0 OPTIMISATION OF CONDUCTOR 23

10.0 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTOR SELECTION 24

11.0 EARTH WIRE 27

13.0 PARALLELISM WITH COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS 32

14.0 LINE INSULATION 33

FIG.1 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE BETWEEN TWO EARTH RETURN 34

FIG.2 SWITCHING SURGE FLASHOVER VOLTAGE CURVES 37

FIG.3 POWER FREQUENCY AND LIGHTING FLASHOVER 38

FORM NO. 120 R1

ITEM NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

15.0 INSULATION DESIGN APPROACH 42

TABLE 4 INSULATION LEVELS AND MINIMUM AIR CLEARANCES 43

FIG.4 LIGHTNING TRIP-OUT CURVES 49

TABLE 5 TECHNICAL DETAILS OF DISC INSULATORS 54

TABLE 6 STRING INSULATOR CHARACTERISTICS 56

17.0 LINE HARDWARE 60

FIG.5 SUSPENSION STRING COMPONENTS 61

FIG.6 TENSION STRING COMPONENTS 62

18.0 OTHER HARDWARE 68

FIG.9 110 kV SUSPENSION TOWER OUTLINE (S.C.) 74

FIG.10 110 kV ANGLE TOWER OUTLINE (D.C) 75

FIG.11 110 kV ANGLE TOWER OUTLINE (S.C) 76

FIG.12 110 kV SUSPENSION, RIVER CROSSING TOWER (D.C) 77

FIG.13 220 kV ANGLE TOWER OUTLINE (D.C) 78

FIG.14 220 kV SUSPENSION TOWER OUTLINE (D.C) 79

FIG.15 400 kV SUSPENSION TOWER OUTLINE (S.C) 80

TABLE 7 SPECIMEN STRINGING CHART 84

FIG.16 TOWER CLEARANCES 88

FORM NO. 120 R1

ITEM NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

FIG.17 CONDUCTOR ARRANGEMENT (S.C) 92

FIG.18 CONDUCTOR ARRANGEMENT (D.C) 93

FIG 19 WIND MAP OF INDIA 97

FIG.20 WEIGHT SPANS 100

20.0 RIGHT OF WAY (R.O.W) 101

FIG.21 LINE CLEARANCE (R.O.W) 102

21.0 TOWER SPOTTING 103

TABLE 8 TYPICAL TOWER SPOTTING REQUIREMENT 106

FIG.22 SAG TEMPLATE AND ITS APPLICATION REFERENCES 109

22.0 REFERENCE 113

23.0 INDIAN STANDARD 114