Electric and Electronic Measurements

Lecture-5:Measurement Errors

Dr. Omar A. Hafez

Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering & Islamic Architecture
Umm Al-Qura University
oahafez@uqu.edu.sa

1
 Introduction
• Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown
quantity with an accepted standard quantity. It involves
connecting a measuring instrument into the system under
consideration and observing the resulting response on the
instrument.

• Any measurement is affected by many variables, therefore the

results rarely reflect the true value (expected value).

• The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value

is expressed in terms of the error of measurement.

2
 Absolute Errors and Relative Errors
Error: The deviation of the true value from the measured value.
Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the
expected value of the variable and the measured value of the
variable:
e = absolute error
e = Yn - X n Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value
Yn - X n
Relative Error (%Error ) = ´ 100%
Yn
3
Absolute Errors and Relative Errors
It is more frequently expressed as accuracy rather than error.
Yn - X n
A = 1-
Yn

A is the relative accuracy.

Accuracy is expressed as % accuracy

a = 100% - %error
a = A ´ 100%

a is the % accuracy.
4
Example The expected value of the voltage across
a resistor is 50 V. However, the measurement gives
a value of 49 V. Find:
a) Absolute error
b) % error
c) Relative accuracy
d) % accuracy

5
Solution

a) e = X t - X m = 50V - 49V = 1V
X t -X 50V - 49V
b) %Error = m
´100% = ´ 100% = 2%
Xt 50V
c) A = 1 - %Error = 1 - 2% = 0.98
d) %A cc = 100% - 2% = 98%

6
Example The expected value of the current through
a resistor is 20 mA. However, the measurement
yields a current value of 18 mA. Calculate:
a) Absolute error
b) % error
c) Relative accuracy
d) % accuracy

7
Solution

𝑎) 𝑒 = 𝑋' − 𝑋) = 20 – 18 = 2 mA

*+ ,*-
b) ﹪Error = ☓100% = 10%
*+

c) A= 1- ﹪Error = 1- 0.1= 0.90

d) % Acc =100%- 10% = 90 %

8
 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and
Significant Figures
Instrument: A device or mechanism used to determine the present value
of the quantity under measurement.

Measurement: The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity

by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the
system units being used.

Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared

to the true (expected) value.

Expected value: The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations
indicate one should expect to measure.
9
 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and
Significant Figures
Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurement, i.e.
successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument
output for a given value of input).

Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable that can be observed.

If the measured quantity increases or decreases
by 1 mV, the reading becomes 8.136 V or 8.134
V respectively. Therefore, the voltage is
measured with a resolution of 1 mV.

10
 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and
Significant Figures
The precision of a measurement is a numerical indication of the closeness
with which a repeated set of measurement of the same variable agree with
the average set of measurement.

Where The value of the nth measurement

The average set of measurement

11
Example Table 1 gives the set of 10 measurement that were
recorded in the laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 5th
measurement.
Measurement number Measurement value Xn

1 98

2 101

3 102

4 97

5 101

6 100

7 103

8 98

9 106
12
10 99
 Types of Errors

1. Gross Errors or Human Errors

• These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading
or in using instruments or errors in recording observations.

• If the accuracy of an instrument has not been calibrated.

• With analog instruments if the pointer has not been

adjusted before use.

• Gross errors can be avoided with care.

13
2. Instrumental Errors
Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because
of their mechanical structure. For example, friction in the bearings
of various moving components, or overloading of the instrument.

Instrumental errors can be avoided by:

• Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement

applications.

• Calibrating the instrument against a standard.

14
3. Environmental Errors
Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the
measuring device, including conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument, such as the effects of change temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.

Environmental errors can be avoided by:

• Air conditioning.

• Using magnetic shields.

• Hermetically sealing certain components in the instruments.

15
 Arithmetic Mean Value

§ When a number of measurements of a quantity are made

and the measurements are not exactly equal, the best
approximation to the actual value is found by calculating
the average value of the results.

is the arithmetic mean

is nth reading taken
n is the total number of readings 16
 Deviation
§ Deviation: The difference between any one measured
value and the arithmetic mean of a series of
measurements.
The deviation from the mean can be expressed as:

§ The average deviation may be calculated as the average

of the absolute values of deviations, neglecting plus and
minus sign.

17
 Standard Deviation
§ The mean-squared value of the deviations can also be
calculated by first squaring each deviation value before
determining the average, which gives a quantity known as
variance.
Variance: the mean-squared value of the deviations
2 2 2
d + d + ...+ d
s2 = 1 2 n
n
§ Standard deviation: Taking the square root of the variance
produces the root mean square (rms) value.

18
Example The accuracy of five digital voltmeters are
checked by using each of them to measure a standard
1.0000V from a calibration instrument.
The voltmeter readings are as follows:
V1 = 1.001 V,
V2 = 1.002,
V3 = 0.999,
V4 = 0.998, and
V5 = 1.000.
Calculate the average measured voltage, the average
deviation, and the standard deviation.
19
Solution

V 1 +V 2 +V 3 +V 4 +V 5
V av =
5
1.001 + 1.002 + 0.999 + 0.998 + 1.000
= = 1.000V
5

d 1 =V 1 -V av = 1.001 - 1.000 = 0.001V & d 2 =V 2 -V av = 1.002 - 1.000 = 0.002V

d 3 =V 3 -V av = 0.999 - 1.000 = - 0.001V & d 4 =V 4 -V av = 0.998 - 1.000 = - 0.002V
d 5 =V 5 -V av = 1.000 - 1.000 = 0V
d 1 + d 2 + ... + d 5 0.001 + 0.002 + 0.001 + 0.002 + 0
D = = = 0.0012V
5 5

( 0.001) + ( 0.002 ) + ( 0.001) + ( 0.002 ) + 0

2 2 2 2
d + d 2 + ... + d 5
2 2 2
s = 1
= = 0.0014V
5 5

20
 Measurement Error Combinations
§ Sum of Quantities
o When a quantity is determined as the sum of two
measurements, the total error is the sum of the
absolute errors in each measurement.

21
Measurement Error Combinations
§ Difference of Quantities
o The error of the difference of two measurements are again
additive

22
 Measurement Error Combinations
§ Product of Quantities
o When a calculated quantity is the product of two or more
quantities, the percentage error is the sum of the percentage
errors in each quantity.
P = EI
= ( E ± ΔE ) ( I ± ΔI )
= EI ± EΔ I ± IΔ E ± ΔEΔI
since DE DI is very small,
P » EI ± ( EΔ I ± IΔ E )
E DI + I DE
percentage error = ´ 100%
EI
æ DI ö æ DE ö
=ç ÷+ç ÷ ´ 100%
è I ø è E ø

% error in P = ( % error in I ) + ( % error in E )

23
Measurement Error Combinations
§ Quotient of Quantities

E
% error in = (% error in E ) + (% error in I )
I

§ Quantity Raised to a Power

% error in A B = B (% error in A )

24
 Measurement Error Combinations
Example: An 820Ω resistance with an accuracy of ±10% carries a current
of 10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25mA
range with an accuracy of ±2% of full scale. Calculate the power dissipated
in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result.

Solution:
P = I 2 R = (10 mA) ´ 820W
2

= 82 mW
error in R = ± 10 %
error in I = ± 2% of 25 mA
= ± 0.5 mA
± 0.5 mA
= ´ 100% = ± 5%
10 mA
%error in I 2 = 2(± 5% ) = ± 10%
( )
%error in P = %error in I 2 + (%error in R )
= ± (10% + 10% ) = ± 20% 25
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Dr. Omar A. Hafez

oahafez@uqu.edu.sa 26