Lecture 1111

Electronics 2
1. Operational Amplifiers
Dr. Abdessattar Bouzid

Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering & Islamic Architecture
Umm – Al Qura University
abdessattar_bouzid@yahoo.fr
Umm Al-Qura
Faculty of Engineering and Islamic Architecture
Electronics 2 – Dr. Abdessattar Bouzid 1
Chapter Outline
• Introduction to Operational Amplifiers.

• Op-Amp Input Modes and Parameters.
• Negative Feedback.
• Op-Amps with Negative Feedback.
• Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Responses.
• Closed-Loop Frequency Response.
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Electronics 2– Dr. Abdessattar Bouzid 2
Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc

coupled amplifiers with differential inputs. One of the
inputs is called the inverting input (-); the other is called
the noninverting input. Usually there is a single output.
Most op-amps operate from plus and
minus supply voltages, which may or
may not be shown on the schematic
symbol.
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Op-Amp Applications
• Audio amplifiers
Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones, computers,
mpg players, etc.
• Instrumentation amplifiers
Biomedical systems including heart monitors and oxygen
sensors.
• Analog computers
Combination of summing, integrators, and differentiators.
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The Ideal Op-Amp
The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify the analysis of

op-amp circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage gain,
infinite bandwidth, and infinite input impedance. In addition, the
ideal op-amp has zero output impedance.
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The Practical Op-Amp
Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated as

ideal for certain situations, but can never actually attain ideal
characteristics. In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, and input
impedance, they have other limitations.
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Block Diagram
Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a voltage
amplifier, and a push-pull output. The differential amplifier is the
input stage for the op-amp and it amplifies the difference voltage
between the two inputs. The second stage is usually a class A
amplifier that provides additional gain. A push-pull class B
amplifier is typically used for the output stage.
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Signal Modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode

or in common-mode.
Differential-mode signals are applied either as single-ended (one
side on ground) or double-ended (opposite phases on the inputs).
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Signal Modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode

or in common-mode.
Common-mode signals are applied to both sides with the same
phase on both.
Usually, common-mode signals are from unwanted sources, and

affect both inputs in the same way. The result is that they are
essentially cancelled at the output.
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Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and reject

common-mode signals is called the common-mode rejection
ratio (CMRR).
Aol
CMRR is defined as CMRR =
Acm
where Aol is the open-loop differential-

gain and Acm is the common-mode gain.
 Aol 
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR = 20log  
 cm 
A
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Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.
 Aol 
CMRR = 20log  
 cm 
A
200, 000
= 20 log = 90 dB
6.3
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Voltage and Current Parameters
VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined

by the op-amp and the power supply voltages.
VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage

required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts.
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Impedance Parameters
–
ZIN(d) : The differential input impedance
ZIN(d)
is the total resistance between the inputs.
+
–
ZIN(cm) : The common-mode input
impedance is the resistance between ZIN(cm)
each input and ground. +
–
Zout: The output impedance is the Zout
resistance viewed from the output of the

circuit. +
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Slew Rate
Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of

the output voltage in response to a step input voltage.
Vout
Slew Rate =
t Vout (V)
13
12
Determine the slew rate for the output
response to a step input. 0 t
–12
–13
4.0 ms
Vout ( +12 V ) - ( -12 V )
Slew Rate = =
t 4.0 μs
= 6 V/ms
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Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of

the output signal to the input with a phase angle that opposes
the input signal.
The advantage of negative

Vin +
feedback is that precise Vout
values of amplifier gain can Vf –
be set. In addition, bandwidth Internal inversion makes Vf

180° out of phase with Vin.
and input and output Negative
feedback
impedances can be controlled. circuit
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Closed-Loop Voltage Gain
The closed-loop voltage gain, Acl is the voltage gain of an

op-amp with external feedback.
The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an
external negative feedback circuit that connects the output to
the inverting input.
The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external
component values and can be precisely controlled by them.
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Typical Op-Amp Parameters
Parameter Variable Typical Ideal Values

Ranges
Open-Loop
Voltage Gain
Aol 105 to 108
∞
105 to 1013 Ω
Input
Resistance
Ri
∞Ω
Output RO 10 to 100 Ω 0Ω
Resistance
Supply Voltage Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A
-Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A
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How to Find These Values
▪ Component Datasheets.
- Many manufacturers have made these freely available
on the internet.
• Example: LM 324 Operational Amplifier.
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Electronic Circuits – Dr. Abdessattar Bouzid 19
Model of an Ideal Op-Amp
• The input impedance is infinite - i.e. no current ever flows

into either input of the op-amp.
• The output impedance is zero - i.e. the op-amp can drive
any load impedance to any voltage.
• The open-loop gain (Aol) is infinite.
• The bandwidth is infinite.
• The output voltage is zero when the input voltage
difference is zero.
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Consequences of the Ideal
Infinite input resistance means the input current

is zero:
i+ = i- = 0
Infinite gain means the difference between v+
and v– is zero:
v+ – v– = 0
v+ = v–
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Op-Amp Circuit Analysis
To analyze an op-amp feedback circuit:
▪ Write node equations at + and - terminals (I+ =

I- = 0).
▪ Set V+ = V-.
▪ Solve for Vout (Kirchoff’s Law).
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Non-Inverting Amplifier
A non-inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the

input signal is on the non-inverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.
Feedback forces Vf to be +
equal to Vin, hence Vin is Vout
across Ri. With basic Vin –
Rf
algebra, you can show that Vf Feedback
circuit
the closed-loop gain of the Ri
non-inverting amplifier is
Rf
Acl (NI) = 1 +
Ri
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Non-Inverting Amplifier
Determine the gain of the non-inverting amplifier shown.
Vin +
Vout
– Rf
Rf
Acl (NI) = 1 +
82 kW
Ri
82 kW
Ri
= 1+ 3.3 kW
3.3 kW
= 25.8
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Voltage-Follower
The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the

non-inverting amplifier where all of the output voltage is fed
back to the inverting input by a straight connection.
The most important features of the

voltage-follower configuration are
its very high input impedance and
its very low output impedance.
These features make it a nearly
ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing
high-impedance sources and low-
impedance loads.
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Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the non-

inverting input is grounded and the signal is applied through a
resistor to the inverting input.
Rf
Feedback forces the inputs
to be nearly identical; hence
Ri
the inverting input is very –
close to 0 V. The closed- Vout
loop gain of the inverting Vin +
amplifier is
Rf
Acl (I) = -
Ri 0 V (virtual ground)
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Inverting Amplifier
Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.
Rf
Rf 82 kW
Acl (I) = -
Ri Ri
–
82 kW 3.3 kW
=- Vout
3.3 kW Vin +
= -24.8
The minus sign

indicates inversion.
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Frequency Response (Open Loop)
The open-loop gain (Aol) mentioned before is

the open loop gain at DC (zero frequency).
At higher frequencies, the gain will be

smaller. This is because the op-amp contains
low-pass circuits.
V out  1/ j C 1 1
  = = =
 V in RC R + 1/ j C 1 + j 2 fRC 1 + jf / f C
1
where f C = is called the critical frequency
2 RC
V out Aol ( DC )
Aol = Aol ( DC ) =
V in RC 1 + (f / f C ) 2
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• The gain in dB (AdB) is defined as:

Aol ( DC )
AdB = 20 log(A) Aol =
1 + (f / f C ) 2
• Note that at f = fC: A ≈ ADC – 3, so, it is
called the 3 dB frequency.
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An RC circuit causes a propagation delay from input to output,

thus creating a phase shift between the input signal and the
output signal.
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V out 1
=
V in 1 + jf / f C
f 
 = - tan   -1
 fC 
The negative sign indicates that the output lags the input. This
equation shows that the phase shift increases with frequency and
approaches -90° as f becomes much greater than fc.
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Frequency Response (Closed Loop)
The product of the gain and bandwidth are constant:
Acl fc(cl) = Aol fc(ol)
The gain-bandwidth product is also equal to the unity gain

frequency. That is fT = Acl fc(cl), where fT is the unity-gain
bandwidth.
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Electronics 2

Dr. Abdessattar Bouzid

• Introduction to Operational Amplifiers.

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc

The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify the analysis of

Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated as

The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode

The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode

Usually, common-mode signals are from unwanted sources, and

The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and reject

where Aol is the open-loop differential-

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined

VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage

each input and ground. +

resistance viewed from the output of the

Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of

Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of

The advantage of negative

values of amplifier gain can Vf –

be set. In addition, bandwidth Internal inversion makes Vf

The closed-loop voltage gain, Acl is the voltage gain of an

Parameter Variable Typical Ideal Values

• The input impedance is infinite - i.e. no current ever flows

Infinite input resistance means the input current

To analyze an op-amp feedback circuit:

▪ Write node equations at + and - terminals (I+ =

▪ Solve for Vout (Kirchoff’s Law).

A non-inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the

Determine the gain of the non-inverting amplifier shown.

The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the

The most important features of the

An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the non-

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

The minus sign

The open-loop gain (Aol) mentioned before is

At higher frequencies, the gain will be

• The gain in dB (AdB) is defined as:

An RC circuit causes a propagation delay from input to output,

The gain-bandwidth product is also equal to the unity gain

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