Agni College of Technology

Thalambur, Chennai 600 130

Office of Examcell
Question Bank for Unit -1
Sub Name : Sensors and Instrumentation Department : Mechatronics
Sub Code : MT8591 Year & Sec : III

PART – A
1. Differentiate accuracy and precision of measuring instruments.
Basis for Accuracy Precision
comparison
Accuracy refers to the level of Precision implies the level of
agreement between the actual variation that lies in the values
Meaning
measurement and the of several measurements of the
absolute measurement. same factor.
How closely the results agree How closely the results agree
Represents
with the standard value? with one another?
Degree Degree of conformity Degree of reproducibility
Factor Single factor Multiple factors
Measure of Statistical bias Statistical variability
Concerned with Systematic Error Random Error

2. What is an active transducer? Give an example.

Active transducers are those which do not require any power source for their
operation. They work on the energy conversion principle. They produce an electrical
signal proportional to the input (physical quantity). For example, a thermocouple is
an active transducer

3. If a first-order instrument has a time-constant of 2.4 sec, find the 2% settling time in
the step response
Solution:
Ts = 4T
= 4 X 2.4
= 9.6 sec
4. Define the term “Resolution”
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-Zero) input value, it
will again be found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is
exceeded. This increment is called as Resolution or discrimination of the instrument.

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5. Instrument needs calibration, Justify it.
Calibration of your measuring instruments has two objectives. It checks the
accuracy of the instrument and it determines the traceability of the measurement. The
accuracy of all measuring devices degrades over time. This is typically caused by
normal wear and tear. However, changes in accuracy can also be caused by electric or
mechanical shock or a hazardous manufacturing environment (oils, metal chips etc.).
Depending on the type of the instrument and the environment in which it is being
used, it may degrade very quickly or over a long period of time. The bottom line is
that, calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device. Accurate measuring
devices improve product quality.

6. Assume that a particular temperature probe approximates first-order behavior in a

particular application, that it has a time constant of 6s and that it is suddenly
subjected to a temperature step from 75F to 300 F. what temperature will be
indicated in 10s after the process has been initiated.
Solution:

7. Define the term precision.

It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements i.e., given fixed value
of a quantity. Precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurement. The high precision means the result of the measurements are consistent
or the repeated values of the reading are obtained. The low precision means the value
of the measurement varies. But it is not necessary that the highly precise reading gives
the accurate result.

8. What are systematic and random errors? Give an example for each.
Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured
data due to the precision limitations of the measurement device. Random errors
usually result from the experimenter's inability to take the same measurement in
exactly the same way to get exact the same number. Any can measure the mass of a
ring three times using the same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g, 17.42
g, 17.44 g

Systematic errors, by contrast, are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently

in the same direction. Systematic errors are often due to a problem which persists
throughout the entire experiment. The electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g too high
for all your mass measurements (because it is improperly tared throughout your
experiment).

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9. Compare active and passive transducer.

Basis For Comparison Active Transducer Passive Transducer

What is The transducer which The passive transducer means
generate the output in the the transducer whose internal
form of voltage or current, parameters like capacitance,
without any external resistance & inductance
energy source is known as changes because of the input
active transducer. signal.
Additional Energy Source Not Require Require
Working Principle Draw energy from the Take power from the external
measurand source. source which changes the
physical properties of
transducer.

10. List the various input test signals.

There are four types of typical test signals
1. Impulse input
2. Step input
3. Ramp input
4. Parabolic input
11. State the causes of instrumental errors.
1. Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument.
2. Due to misuse of the instruments.
3. Due to loading effects of instruments.
12. Give two examples of active and passive transducers.
Active Transduces: Tachogenerator, Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell etc.

Passive Transducers: Thermistor, Differential transformer, Photovoltaic

cell, Photomultiplier tube,

13. How is linearity of a transducer specified?

Linearity error is the deviation of the sensor output curve from a specified
straight line over a desired pressure range. This linearity error is also defined as non-
linearity. The linearity error value is normally specified as a percentage of the
specified pressure range. If a sensor is only used over half the specified range and you
are able to set the maximum value to be used then the linearity error is calculated
from this value, which of course is going to provide improved accuracy over that
specified by the manufacturer. There are two common ways of specifying the linearity
error:

1. BFSL - Best Fit Straight Line

2. TBL - Terminal Base Linearity or end-point linearity.

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14. Define probable error with respect to measurement.
Probable error is the coefficient of correlation that supports in finding out about
the accurate values of the coefficients. It also helps in determining the reliability of the
coefficient.
0.4764
𝑟=
ℎ
15. List and sketch the different standard inputs for analyzing the dynamic
characteristics of a system.
The standard test input signals commonly used for analysis are the step input,
Ramp input and the parabolic input.

16. What are the factors to be considered in the selection of transducers?

1. Operating principle
2. Sensitivity
3. Operating range
4. Accuracy
17. To which of the characteristic type of a transducer, the characteristic “speed of
response” belongs to? Why?
Speed of response belongs to dynamic characteristics of a transducer. Because, it
functions as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in
the measured quantity.
18. Define ODDs.
The specification of limiting error is in itself uncertain because the manufacture
himself is not sure about the accuracy because of the presence of random errors.
ODDs is the number of chances that a particular reading will occur when the error
limit is specified.
19. Mention the purpose of the measurement.
1. To understand an event or an operation.
2. To monitor an event or an operation.
3. To control an event or an operation.
4. To collect data for future analysis.
5. To validate an engineer design.

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20. Draw the functional block diagram of a measurement system.

PART B
1. Describe about the elements of generalized measurement system with its block
diagram.

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2. Explain the causes and rectifying methods for each type of instrumentational errors.

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3. Explain the various error analysis techniques with an example.

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4. Explain the various static and dynamic characteristics of a transducer.

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5. i. Define and explain the sensitivity and linearity and give its importance in design
of measurement system.

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5.ii. Derive the response of an under-damped second order system for a unit step unit. Also draw
the nature of response.

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6.i. Write the significance of ODDS and uncertainity.

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6.ii. Derive the response of an undamped second order system for a unit step unit. Also
draw the nature of response.

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7. Explain the classification of transducer with an example on each.

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8.i. In a test temperature is measured 100 times with variations in apparatus and
procedures. After applying the corrections, the results are:
x 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
Freq 1 3 12 23 37 16 4 2 2

Calculate arithmetic mean, mean deviation, standard deviation, the probable error on
one reading, the standard deviation and the probable error of the mean, the standard
deviation of the standard deviation.

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 Agni College of Technology
Thalambur, Chennai 600 130
Office of Examcell
Question Bank for Unit -1
Sub Name : Sensors and Instrumentation Department : Mechatronics
Sub Code : MT8591 Year & Sec : III

PART – A

1. Name any two resistive transducers with their measured output variable.
1. Potentiometer - Displacement
2. Thermistor - Temperature
3. Strain gauge - Force
2. Specify any four displacement transducers.
1. Resistive potentiometers
2. Variable inductance transducers
3. Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT)
4. Rotary variable differential transformers (RVDT)
5. Synchro
6. Shaft encoders
3. List the applications of potentiometer.
1. The potentiometer is used as a voltage divider in the electronic circuit.
2. The potentiometer is used in radio and television (TV) receiver for volume
control, tone control and linearity control.
3. The potentiometer is used in medical equipment.
4. It is used in wood processing machine.
5. It is used in injection mold machines.
6. Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide
variety of equipment functions.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LVDT?
Advantages:
1. High range
2. Friction and electrical Isolation
3. Immunity from external effects
4. High input and high sensitivity
5. Ruggedness
6. Low hysteresis
7. Low power consumption

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 Disadvantages:
1. Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable differential output
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible
3. Many a times, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on a.c
5. The dynamic response is limited � Temperature affects the performance of the
transducer.
5. Illustrate the principle of accelerometer.
Most accelerometers are Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensors (MEMS). The basic
principle of operation behind the MEMS accelerometer is the displacement of a small
proof mass etched into the silicon surface of the integrated circuit and suspended by
small beams. Consistent with Newton's second law of motion (F = ma), as an
acceleration is applied to the device, a force develops which displaces the mass. The
support beams act as a spring, and the fluid (usually air) trapped inside the IC acts as
a damper, resulting in a second order lumped physical system. This is the source of
the limited operational bandwidth and non-uniform frequency response of
accelerometers.
6. Explain the basic principle of capacitive liquid level sensor.
The capacitance of the probe is measured between the inner rod and the outer
shell with the aid of a capacitance bridge. In the portion out of the liquid, air serves as
the dielectric between the rod and the outer shell. In the immersed section, the
dielectric is that of the liquid that causes a large capacitive change as the level of
liquid changes. If the tank is made of metal it can serve as the outer shell. The
capacitance change is directly proportional to the level of the liquid. The dielectric
constant of the liquid must be known for this type of measurement.
7. Explain how absolute encoder is different from incremental encoder.
Absolute rotary encoders are capable of providing unique position values from
the moment they are switched on. Whereas, Incremental encoders generate an
output signal each time the shaft rotates a certain amount. (The number of signals
per turn defines the resolution of the device.) Each time the encoder is powered on it
begins counting from zero, regardless of where the shaft is.
8. How to minimize null voltage in LVDT?
The null voltage, however, is insignificant after demodulation. When the core
moves to one side of null, the voltage across that coil increases as the other decreases.
This results in a steadily increasing voltage across the output leads. This AC voltage is
usually rectified or demodulated to produce a DC output voltage that increases with
the distance of the core from null, and with a polarity.

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9. What is null voltage?
When the physical center of the core is in line with the electrical center of the
coils, the voltage in each secondary is equal in magnitude, but opposite in phase.
Differencing the two secondary voltages results in “zero” output volts. This is the null
position of the LVDT. In reality, there is a small residual voltage left due to factors like
winding capacitance and variances in the magnetic materials. This residual voltage is
called null voltage.

10. What are all the desirable features of capacitive transducers?

1. Its force requirements are very small
2. As the moving plates have very little mass, design of transducer with fast
response characteristics is possible
3. There is no physical between moving and stationary parts
4. Does not depends the conductivity of the metal electrode
5. Shielded against the effect of external electric stray fields.
11.Mention any four applications of LVDT.
1. Displacement measurement and LVDT Gage heads LVDT pneumatic servo
follower
2. LVDT Load cells
3. LVDT Pressure Transducer
4. It act as a secondary transducer, it is used to measure force, weight and pressure.
12.Explain the principle of magnetic encoders.
In a magnetic encoder, a large magnetized wheel spins over a plate of magneto-
resistive sensors. Just as the disk spins over the mask to let light through in
predictable patterns, the wheel causes predictable responses in the sensor, based on
the strength of the magnetic field. The magnetic response is fed through a signal
conditioning electrical circuit. The number of magnetized pole pairs on the wheel
pole, the number of sensors, and the type of electrical circuit all work together to
determine the resolution of the magnetic encoder.

13.Mention some applications of accelerometers.

1. Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration.
2. Accelerometers can be used to measure vibration on cars, machines,
buildings, process control systems and safety installations.
3. They can also be used to measure seismic activity, inclination, machine vibration,
dynamic distance and speed with or without the influence of gravity.
4. Applications for accelerometers that measure gravity, wherein an accelerometer
is specifically configured for use in gravimetry, are called gravimeters.

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14. Illustrate the principle of resolver.
A typical resolver has three windings – a primary winding and two secondary
windings. The windings are created using copper wire and are formed on the
resolver’s stationery element – the stator. The primary wire acts as the input for an
AC drive signal and each of the secondary windings are used as pick up or receive
windings. In the diagram above, the rotor is made from a material such as steel or
iron and is arranged relative to the windings such that it will couple varying amounts
of energy into the secondaries depending on its angle of rotation.
15. Illustrate the principle of capacitive transducer.
Capacitance is defined as the function of the geometric quantities, such as the
area of the conducting plate and the distance between them, and the permittivity of
the dielectric medium between them.

In a capacitance transducer, the change in the overlapping area and the distance
between the plates is attributed to the movement due to external force, typically used
to sense displacement, pressure, force. The change in dielectric medium is often
attributed to the displacement of the original medium which is often used in level
measurement for fluids.
16.Laser range sensors are most preferable in automobile. Justify the statement.
Laser range sensors is a surveying method that measures distance to a target by
illuminating the target with pulsed laser light and measuring the reflected pulses with
a sensor. Differences in laser return times and wavelengths can then be used to make
digital 3-D representations of the target
17.Differentiate the function of resolver and synchros.
Synchros and Resolvers aren’t all that different from electric motors. They share
the same rotor, stator, and shaft components. The primary difference between a
synchro and a resolver is a synchro has three stator windings installed at 120 degree
offsets, while the resolver has two stator windings installed at 90 degree angles.
18.List the various forms of potentiometers.
1. Linear type
2. Rotary type
3. Helix type
19. Mention the applications of RF beacons.
RF beacons have many applications, including air and sea navigation,
propagation research, robotic mapping, radio-frequency identification (RFID) / Near
Field Communication(NFC) and indoor guidance, as with real-time locating
systems (RTLS) like Syledis or simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM).
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 20. What are the uses of capacitive transducer?
1. Can be used for measurement of linear and angular displacement
2. Can be used for measurement of force and pressure
3. It can be used as pressure transducer
4. Measurement of humidity in gases
5. Commonly used for measurement of level, density, weight.

PART B
1. Explain in detail the construction, operation and characteristics of LVDT. Also explain how
displacement is measured using LVDT.

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2. Discuss the construction of an RVDT and explain how the displacement can be
measured from the transducer.
The RVDT stands for Rotary Variable Differential Transformer. It is one kind of
electromechanical transducer used to give the linear o/p which is proportional to the
i/p angular displacement. The main function of RVDT is to detect the angular
displacement and converts it into an electrical signal. The both the RVDT and LVDT
workings are similar, but LVDT employs the flexible iron core for displacement
measurement whereas in RVDT employs a cam type core. This core will turn among
the two windings of the transformer using the shaft.

RVDT Construction and Its Working

RVDT transducer has two windings similar to a normal transformer such as

primary winding and two secondary windings shown in the following RVDT
diagram. The two windings of the transformer wounded, where the two secondary
windings have an equivalent number of windings. These are located on both sides of
the primary winding of the transformer. A cam formed a magnetic core which is made
with a soft iron is coupled to a shaft. Thus, this core can be twisted among the
windings. The construction of both the RVDT and LVDT are similar but the main
difference is the shape of the core in transformer windings. This core will turn between
the two windings of the transformer due to the shaft.

RVDT Construction
The typical RVDTs are linear over a +40 or -40 degrees, Sensitivity is about 2mV
to 3mV per degree of rotation and the input voltage range is 3V RMS at frequency
ranges from 400Hz to 20kHz. Based on the movement of the shaft in the transformer,
the three conditions will be produced such asWhen the Core is at Null Position
 When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
 When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
 When the Core is at Null Position
In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the
induced e.m.f in the secondary windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus,
the differential o/p potential will be zero, and the condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 =
E1-E2 =0
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When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise;
more section of the core will enter across the primary winding. Therefore, the induced
e.m.f across the primary winding is higher than secondary winding. Hence, the
differential o/p potential is positive, and the condition will be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-
E2 = positive.

When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction

In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of anticlockwise,
more section of the core will be entered across the secondary winding. Thus, the
induced e.m.f across the secondary coil is higher than the primary coil. Hence, the
differential o/p potential is negative that means 1800 phase shift, and the condition will
be E1 < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.

RVDT Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of RVDT include the following.
 The consistency of RVDT is high
 The exactness of RVDT is high
 The lifespan is long
 The performance is repeatable
 The construction is compact and strong
 Durability
 Low cost
 Easy to handle electronic components
 Resolution is infinite
 Linearity is Excellent
 A wide range of dimension ranges
The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following

 The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the nozzle is not
possible for all time.
 The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40 degrees), so it
restricts the usability.

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3. Describe the principle of operation, construction details of potentiometer.
Tabulate different forms used for various application based on their construction.

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4. Explain the principle and application of following transducer.
1. RF beacons
2. Reflective beacons
3. Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR).
4. Bluetooth
Bluetooth

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5. Obtain the sensitivity of an air gap type capacitive displacement transducer for
1. Change in separation between two plates.
2. Change in overlapping area.

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6. Explain the principle of working and construction and characteristics of digital
encoders.

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7. Explain the construction, working principle and applications of the following
sensors.
1. Resolvers
2. Synchros
3. Microsync
4. Acclerometer

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Acclerometer

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8. Explain the principle of working and construction and characteristics of magnetic
encoders.

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