Chapter 5

5.1 Data transmission,

5.2 Data display and recording and
5.3 Data presentation

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5.1 Signal (data) transmission
• Signals that are measured has to be transmitted
over a long distance from the point of
measurement to the point where the signals
are recorded or further processed.
• Common methods for signal transmission:
1. Electrically-uses voltage or current
2. Optically-uses light
3. Pneumatically-uses air or gas
4. Telemetry-uses radio waves
• Formats: analog, digital
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5.1.1 Electrical data transmission

a) Transmission as a varying voltage

b) Transmission as a varying current
c) Transmission as a.c. carrier

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Electrical data transmission
a) Transmission as a varying voltage
– When signals are transmitted over a long
distance, then there will be loss of
information.
– We need signal transmitted has to be
maintained in the same form.
• Problems during data transmission
– Signal attenuation due to resistance
– Signal corruption through induced noise; due to
radiated electromagnetic field from electrical
machineries and power cables.
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Electrical data transmission
• To overcome such problems,
– Amplification before transmission; output
signal from transducers are very low; i.e;
compensation of the attenuated signal.
– Shielding of the signal wires: provides a high
degree of noise reduction

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Electrical data transmission
b) Transmission as a varying current
• This technique reduces the signal attenuation effect of
conductor resistance.
• It uses (4-20mA) current loop interface(voltage to
current converter);
+Ve
(Transducer data)Vi
Vo
I2=4-20mA(0-16mA)
I1
I1=4mA
Amplifier R -Ve

• Here there are two output signals of current

• a constant 4mA output: used as the power supply curren
• a variable 0-16mA output: can be scale up and
proportional to the input voltage level. 6
Electrical data transmission
Transmission as a varying current
• The minimum value of current that is free from error is
4mA, if the output current is less than 4mA, faulty of signal.
• After signal is reached to the required location, the current
has to be converted in to voltage by current-to-voltage
converter; so we use operational amplifier.
R

Iin= 0-16mA -
Vo
+

R The input current and the voltage

output are related by :V0=Iin*R.
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Electrical data transmission
C) Transmission as a.c. carrier

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5.1.2 Optical data transmission
• There are optical fiber and optical wireless.
• Fiber optics data transmission
– The technique uses light for data
transmission.
– The light (signal) is transmitted along a fiber
optic cable.
• Advantage
– Safe
– No noise corruption by electromagnetic fields.
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Fiber Optic data transmission Inner core(more R.I.)

Principle and construction: Outer cladding (Less R.I.)

Y
Transducer Transducer
Transmitter Fiber optic cable Receiver
LED Photo transistor
Y
• The cable consists of two parts with different refractive index.
• The central part (core) of the fiber optic is a light transmitting
glass fiber or plastic fiber.
• At input to the cable, the transducer(transmitter) converts the
electrical signal (voltage/current) in to light signal(LED).
• At the output transducer (receiver) the light signal is
converted in to electrical signal(Voltage) for further reading,
recording, and displaying.
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Fiber Optic data transmission
 Principle and construction:
External β2 R2 Cladding(R.I=n2)
Medium,
R.I=n0 R1 β1 β1
α1 R3 Core (R.I=n1)
α0

R1=LED: Converted signal from transducer

R2=Refracted light: is a portion of light
responsible for output signal attenuation(loss)
R3=Reflected light: a portion of light signal that
carries information(data).
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Fiber Optic data transmission
• Applying
  the law of refraction,
…..*
…….**
• Measure: to reduce the loss of signal(attenuation);
– For Β2>90 deg---total internal reflection occurs.
– For Β2=90 deg---light (R2) travels a long the boundary
between the core and cladding.
– The incident light angle α0, at which B2=90deg, is called
the critical angle(αc),
• Substituting in to equation **

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Fiber Optic data transmission
• From
  the figure,

Setting ; (from *)

Which is the critical angle at which the light signal

travels in a zigzag manner in the core-cladding
boundary.

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5.1.3 Pneumatic & Telemetry data transmission

• Reading assignment

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5.2 Data display and recording
• Measurement data of varying electrical voltage can be
displayed either in
– An oscilloscope
– An electrical meter(voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, etc

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5.3 Data presentation
• Data's(signals) can be presented in graphical or tabular
form; using either paper or computer monitor screen as a
display medium.

• The focus is on
– Mathematical regression for curve fitting: the best line
fitted through data points on a graph.
– Confidence tests: to asses the correctness of the line fitted.
– Correctness test: to determine the degree of association
b/n two sets of data when they are subjected to random
fluctuations. 16
Data presentation
• Mathematical regression
• Refers to finding a mathematical relationship between
measurement of two variables y and x, such that the value
of the variable y can be predicted from a measurement of
the other variable x.
• There are three best curve fittings
– Linear least square regression()
– Quadratic least square regression:
()
– Polynomial least square regression
(
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Data presentation-

•   Mathematical regression
 Linear least square regression
• If a linear relationship b/n y and x exists for a set of
n-measurments y1,y2,…..yn; x1,x2,….xn; then this
relationship can be approximated (expressed) as:

or
Where ym and xm are the mean values.

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Data presentation:
• Correlation coefficient-r
• It helps to know how good the curve fit is for
the correlation b/n y and x.
• It provides a measure of the association
between x and y as predicted by the form of the
curve fit equation(i.e, for correctness test).
• For linear polynomials a correlation coefficient r
can be found by
or
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Data presentation:
• Correlation coefficient-r
Where σy is the standard deviation of the output y given as,
and And
– We can also express as coefficient of determination.
– For a perfect fit,
• σxy=0, b/se there is no deviations between the data
and the straight line correlation. In this case r=1.0.
– If σy=σxy, we obtain r=0, indicating a poor fit or
substantial scatter around a straight line.
– This occurs when the data do not fit the straight line.

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Data presentation: Examples
Example 1: The characteristics of a Chromel-constantan
thermocouple is known to be approximately linear over
the range of 300-400deg cent.
Input(xi) T(deg 300 325 350 375 400
cen)
Output (yi) E(mv) 21 23.2 25 26.9 28.6

Using least square regression, fit a straight line to this sets of data
and compute the value of E @ T=310deg cent.
Sn xi yi xiyi
1 300 21 6300 90,000
2 325 23.2
3 350 25
4 375 26.9
5 400 28.6
44117.5 618750
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Data presentation: Examples
Solving
 
𝑥 𝑚=350 𝑦 𝑚=24.94
 

a1= 0.0756, and a0= -1.52

The linear function is, y=-1.52+0.0756x
E=-1.52+0.0756T

The value of E @ T=310 is, y=-1.52+0.0756*310

=21.916mv
Exercise: Compute the correlation coefficient r.

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Data presentation: Examples
•   Example 2: A velocity probe provides a voltage output
that is related to velocity, U, by the form . A calibration is
performed, and five data are recorded below. Find an
appropriate curve fit.

which has the linear form

Because at U=0 m/s, E=3.19 V, the value of a must be 3.19 V. 23
Data presentation: Examples
The values for Y and X are computed below with the corresponding
deviations from the resulting fit of 4 values:
 Substituting
the values for
Y and X into Equation

Exercise: Compute the correlation coefficient r.

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 Quiz
• List the most common methods of data
transmission and state their corresponding signal
variables that carries the data.

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