“Towards Global Technological Excellence”

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

AMRAVATI

(AN AUTONOMUS INSTITUTE OF GOVT. OF

MAHARASHTRA)

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication

Engineering

FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION LAB

Course Code – ETU707

Submitted by SHUBHAM KAILASH RATHOD

(ID - 17004017)

Semester VII
 Practical no.1

Aim: To verify analog and digital fiber optic link.

Apparatus: Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz, Oscilloscope Probes, Optical fiber
cable, Fiber Optic Trainer kit (ST2502), Connector wire, Function generator etc.
Theory:
Fibre Optic link: Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well
as analog signals. Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements, a
transmitter, an optical fiber and a receiver. The transmitter module takes the
input signal in electrical form and then transforms it into optical (light) energy
containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium which takes
the energy to the receiver. At the receiver light is converted back into electrical
form with the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.
Transmitter: Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver
and optical source. The buffer provides both an electrical connection and
isolation between the transmitter & the electrical system supplying the data. The
driver provides electrical power to the optical source. Finally, the optical source
converts the electrical current to the light energy with the same pattern.
Commonly used optical sources are light emitting diodes (LED s) and Laser
beam.
The transmitter section comprises of the following blocks:
1. Function Generator
2. Frequency Modulator &
3. Pulse Width Modulator block.
The Function Generator generates the input signals that are going to be used as
information to transmit through the fiber optic link. The output voltage available is
1 KHz sinusoidal signal of adjustable amplitude, and fixed amplitude 1 KHz
square wave signal. The modulator section accepts the information signal and
converts it into suitable form for transmission through the fiber optic link.
Fiber Optic Link: Emitter and Detector circuit on board form the fiber optic
link. This section provides the light source for the optic fiber and the light
detector at the far end of the fiber optic links. The optic fiber plugs into the
connectors provided in this part of the board. Two separate links are provided.
Receiver: The comparator circuit, low pass filter, phase locked loop, AC
amplifier circuits form receiver on the board. It is able to undo the modulation
process in order to recover the original information signal. In this experiment
the trainer board is used to illustrate one way communication between digital
transmitter and receiver circuits.
Block diagram:
a) For Analog Fibre optic link:

b) For Digital fibre optic link:

Procedure:
a) For Analog fibre optic link:
1) Connect the power supply to the board.
2) Ensure that all switch faults are OFF.
3) Make the following connections.
a. Connect the function generator 1 KHz sine wave output to the emitter 1’s
input.
b. Connect the fiber optic cable between the emitter’s output and detector’s
input.
c. Connect detector’s output to the AC amplifier 1’s input. 4. On the board
switch emitter 1’s driver to analog mode.
5) Switch ON the power.
6) Observe the input to emitter (TP 5) with output from AC amplifier 1 (TP 28)
and note that the two signals are same.
b) For Digital fibre optic link:
1) Connect the Power Supply to the board.
2) Ensure that all switched faults are
3) Make the following connections
a) Connect the 1 KHz square wave output to emitter l's input.
b) Connect the fiber optic cable between emitter output and detectors input.
c) Detector 1's output to comparator 1’s input. d. Comparator l's output to
AC amplifier l's input.
4) On the board, switch emitter 1's driver to digital mode.
5) Switch on the power.
6) Monitor both the inputs to comparator 1 (TP13 & 14). Slowly adjust the
comparators bias preset, until DC Level on the input signal (TP13) lies mid way
between the high and low level of the signal on the positive input (TP14).
Observation table: a) For Analog optic link: Input Signal: Sinusoidal Wave.
Input Voltage (Vi)=1V.
Sr. Frequency Output voltage (Vo) in Gain in db.
no. (Hz). volts. G=20log10(Vo/Vi)
1 300 3 9.54
2 500 3.5 10.88
3 1000 4 12.04
4 1500 4 12.04
5 1800 4 12.04
6 2000 4 12.04
7 2500 3.5 10.88
8 3000 3 9.54
Graph:

b) For Digital optic link:

Frequency TON (ms) TOFF (ms) T=TON+TOFF Bit Duty Cycle
(ms) rate(1/T) TON
TON+TOFF
1 kHz 1.5 1.5 3.0 333.33 50%
2 kHz 1.0 1.0 2.0 500 50%
3 kHz 0.5 0.5 1.0 1000 50%
Graph:

Result: Thus we have verified analog and digital fibre optic link.
Conclusion: From the above experiment we can conclude that, transmission of
digital as well as analog signals can be done using Fiber optic links by first
converting it to optical form from the electrical form and then transmitting it
through fibre to the receiver.
 Practical no.2

Aim: To study the Intensity Modulation technique using Analog input signal.
Apparatus: Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz, Oscilloscope Probes, Optical fiber
cable, Fiber Optic Trainer kit (ST2502), Connector wire etc.
Theory:
Modulation: In order to transmit information via an optical fiber communication
system it is necessary to modulate a property of the light with the information
signal. This property may be intensity, frequency, phase with either digital or
analog signals. The choices are indicated by the characteristics of optical fiber,
the available optical sources and detectors, and considerations of the overall
system.
Intensity modulation: In this system the information signal is used to control the
intensity of the source. At the far end, the variation in the amplitude of the
received signal is used to recover the original information signal. The audio
input signal is used to control the current through an LED which in turn controls
the light output. The light is conveyed to the detector 1 circuit by optic fiber.
The detector is a photo transistor which converts the incoming light to a small
current which flows through a series resistor. This gives rise to a voltage whose
amplitude is controlled by the received light intensity. The voltage is now
amplified within the detector circuit and if necessary, amplified further by
amplifier circuit.
Analog Bias Voltage: There are two problems using amplitude modulation with
an analog signal. The first is to do with the signal itself.

If you glance at the figure you will see that analog waveform moves positive &
negative of the zero line. The second problem is that it is the shape of the
waveform which carries the information. Ideally the emitter characteristic would be
a straight line. Even so we would lose the negative going half cycles as shown.
The answer is to superimpose the sinusoidal signal on positive voltage called
the bias voltage so that both halves of the incoming signal have an effect on the
light intensity. The combination of linear characteristic would be ideal but the
real characteristic is not completely straight. However, it does have a straight
section that we can use if we employ a suitable value of bias voltage. Figure 23
shows ideal and practical situations.
Digital modulation: Initially, input digital signal from the information source is
suitably encoded for optical transmission. The LED drive circuit directly
modulates the intensity of the light with encoded digital signal. Hence, a digital
optical signal is launched into the optical fiber cable. The photo transistor used
as detector is followed by an amplifier to provide gain. Finally the signal
obtained is decoded to give the original digital information.
Digital Bias Voltage: In case of a digital signal the only information which
needs to be conveyed is the ON state and OFF state. So, there is no negative
part of the signal to be lost and furthermore any distortion due to non-linearity
of the characteristic is of no importance all we need to know is whether the
signal is ON or OFF. There is no need therefore to generate a bias voltage.

When Amplitude modulation is used with digital input, we employ a

comparator at the receiving end of the fiber to make the waveform square again
called “cleaning it up”.
Block Diagram:
For Analog Intensity Modulation Technique:

For Digital Intensity Modulation Technique:

Procedure:
For Analog Intensity Modulation:

1) Connect the Power Supply to the board.

2) Make the following connections.
a. Connect the FG output marked 1KHz sine wave to input if emitter 1.
b. Plug in a fiber optic link from output of emitter 1 LED to the
phototransistor of the detector1.
c. Detector 1 output TP 10 to input of Amplifier TP 27.
3) In the emitter 1 block switch the mode select to analog.
4) Turn on the 1 KHz preset in function generator block to fully clockwise
(maximum amplitude) position.
5) Switch on the Power Supply.
6) With the help of dual trace oscilloscope observe the input signal at emitter 1
TP5 also; observe the output from the detector 1. It should carry a smaller
version of the original 1 KHz sine wave, illustrating that the modulated light
beam has been reconverted back into an electrical signal.
7) The output from detector 1 is further amplified by AC amplifier 1. This
amplifier increases the amplitude of the received signal, and also removes the
DC component, which is present at detector output. Monitor the output of
amplifier 1 TP28 and adjust the gain adjust 1 preset until the monitored signal
has same amplitude as that applied to emitter 1 Input TP 5.
8) While monitoring the output of Amplifier 1 TP 28 change the amplitude of
modulating sine wave by varying the 1 KHz preset in the function generator block.
Note that as expected, the amplitude of the receiver output signal changes.

For Digital Intensity Modulation:

1) Connect the Power Supply to the board.

2) Make the following connections.
a. Connect the 1 KHz square wave socket in function generator block to
emitter 1 input.
b. Connect an optic fiber link between emitter 1 output & Detector 1 input
with the help of connector provided.
c. Detector output to comparator l's non-inverting (+ve) input. 3. Switch the
mode switch in emitter block to digital mode. This ensures that signal applied to
the driver's input cause the emitter LED to switch quickly between ‘On’ & ‘Off’
states.
4) Examine the Input to emitter 1 TP 5 on an oscilloscope this 1 KHz square
wave is now being used to amplitude modulate emitter I emitter LED.
5) Examine the output of detector 1 TP 10. This should carry a smaller version
of original I KHz square wave illustrating that the modulated light beam has
been reconverted into an electrical signal.
6) Monitor both input to comparator 1, at TP 13 & 14 and slowly adjust the
Comparator bias 1 preset until the DC Level on the negative input TP 13 lies
midway between the high & low level of the signal on the positive input TP. 14.
This DC level is comparator's threshold level.
7) Examine the output of comparator 1 TP15 Note that the original digital
modulating signal has been reconstructed at the receiver.
8) Once again carefully flex the fiber optic cable we can see that there is no
change in output on bending the fiber.
The output amplitude is now independent of the bend radius of the cable and
that of length of cable, provided that detector output signal is large enough to
cross the comparator threshold level. This illustrates one of the advantages of
amplitude modulation of a light beam by digital rather than analog means. Also,
non-linearties within the emitter LED & photo transistor causing distortion of
the signal at the receiver output are the disadvantages associated with amplitude
modulating a light source by analog means.

Linearity is not a problem if the light beam is switched ‘On’ & ‘Off’ with a
digital signal, since the detector output is simply squared up by a comparator
circuit. To overcome problems associated with amplitude modulation of a light
beam by analog means, analog signals are often used to vary or modulate some
characteristic of a digital signal (e.g. frequency or pulse width.). The digital
signal being used to switch the light beam ‘On’& ‘Off’.

Observation Table:
For Analog Intensity Modulation:

Analog Input Signal

Input Signal (v) Output Signal (v) Time (ms)
2.4 3.2 1.2
3.2 4 1.2
3.6 4.8 1.2
4 5.2 1.2
4.4 6 1.2

For Digital Intensity Modulation:

Digital Input Signal

Input Signal(v) Output Signal (v) Frequency(kHz)
6 2.4 1
7.5 4.2 1
9 6.1 1
10 8.4 1
11 10 1
Graph:
For Analog Intensity Modulation:
For Digital Intensity Modulation:

Result: Thus we have studied intensity modulation technique for Analog and
Digital input signal.

Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, the Intensity
modulation is one of the simplest method to measure light intensity. because it
requires only the photo detector to measure the intensity of light coming from
the optic fibre.
 Practical no.3

Aim: To verify Frequency Modulation in optical fibre communication.

Apparatus: Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz, Oscilloscope Probes, Optical fiber
cable, Fiber Optic Trainer kit (ST2502), Connector wire, Function generator etc.
Theory: Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier
wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. The technology is
used in telecommunications, radio broadcasting, signal processing, and
computing. In analog frequency modulation, such as radio broadcasting, of an
audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous frequency deviation,
i.e., the difference between the frequency of the carrier and its centre frequency,
has a functional relation to the modulating signal amplitude.

Digital data can be encoded and transmitted with a type of frequency modulatio n
known as frequency-shift keying (FSK), in which the instantaneous frequency of
the carrier is shifted among a set of frequencies. The frequencies may represent
digits, such as 0 and 1. FSK is widely used in computer modems, such as fax
modems, telephone caller ID systems, garage door openers, and other low
frequency transmissions. Radioteletype also uses FSK. In radio transmission, an
advantage of frequency modulation is that it has a larger signal-to-noise ratio.
And therefore we can say that it rejects radio frequency interference better than
an equal power amplitude modulation (AM) signal. For this reason, most music
is broadcast over FM radio. Frequency modulation and phase modulation are the
two complementary principal methods of angle modulation; phase modulation is
often used as an intermediate step to achieve frequency modulation. These
methods contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave varies, while the frequency and phase remain constant.

To generate a frequency modulated signal, the frequency of the radio carrier is

changed in line with the amplitude of the incoming audio signal.
When the audio signal is modulated onto the radio frequency carrier, the new
radio frequency signal moves up and down in frequency. The amount by which
the signal moves up and down is important. It is known as the deviation and is
normally quoted as the number of kilohertz deviation. As an example, the signal
may have a deviation of plus and minus 3 kHz, i.e., ±3 kHz. In this case the
carrier is made to move up and down by 3 kHz. Broadcast stations in the VHF
portion of the frequency spectrum between 88.5 and 108 MHz use large values
of deviation, typically ±75 kHz. This is known as wide-band FM (WBFM).
These signals are capable of supporting high quality transmissions, but occupy a
large amount of bandwidth. Usually, 200 kHz is allowed for each wide-band
FM transmission. For communications purposes less bandwidth is used. Narrow
band FM (NBFM) often uses deviation figures of around ±3 kHz. It is narrow
band FM that is typically used for two-way radio communication applications.
Having a narrower band, it is not able to provide the high quality of the
wideband transmissions, but this is not needed for applications such as mobile
radio communication.

Advantages of frequency modulation:

• Resilience to noise.
• Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of the transmitter.
• It is possible to use efficient RF amplifiers with frequency modulated
signals.
Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation:
• FM has poorer spectral efficiency than some other modulation formats.
• Requires more complicated demodulator.
• Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency.

Block Diagram:
Procedure:
1) Connect Power Supply to the board.
2) Ensure that all switched faults are ‘Off’.
3) Make the following connections.
a. Connect Function generator 1KHz sine wave signal to frequency
modulator input.
b. Frequency modulator output TP2 to the emitter 1 input at TP5.
c. Connect the optic fiber between the emitter 1 circuit and the detector 1circuit.
d. Detector 1 output TP10 to comparator 1 input at TP14.
e. Comparator 1 output TP15 to the PLL detector input at TP23.
f. PLL detector output at TP26 to the low pass filter 1 input at TP19
g. Low Pass Filter 1 output TP20 to A C amplifier 1 input at TP27
4) Switch emitter l's driver to digital mode. This ensures that fast changing
digital signal applied to the drivers input causes the emitter LED to switch
quickly between ‘On’ & ‘Off’ states.
5) Turn the 1 KHz preset in the function generator block to fully anticlockwise
(Zero amplitude) position.
6) Switch on the Power Supply.
7) Monitor the output of the voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) in the
frequency modulator block TP2. Note that the frequency of this digital signal is
at present constant, since the modulating 1 KHz sine wave has zero amplitude.
8) Examine the output of detector 1 (TP10 and check that the transmitted digital
pulses are successfully detected at the receiver).
9) With the help of dual trace oscilloscope or CRO monitor both inputs to
comparator-1. Now adjust the bias 1 preset until the bias input at TP13 is
halfway between the top and bottom of the square wave on TP14. You will
remember that the function of the comparator is to clean up the square wave
after its transmission through the fiber optic link.
10) The output of comparator 1 drives the input of the PLL detector which
produces a signal whose average level is proportional to the frequency of the
digital stream. This average level is then extracted by low pass filter 1, and
amplified by AC Amplifier-1 to produce the original analog signal at the amplifiers
output TP28. Examine TP28 and note that the output voltage is zero. This is
expected since there is currently no modulating voltage in the transmitter.
11) While monitoring the input to the frequency modulator block TP1 and the
output from AC amplifier 1 TP28 turn the 1KHz preset to its fully clockwise
maximum amplitude) position. Note that the modulating1KHz signal now
appears at the amplifiers output. If necessary, adjust the amplifiers gain, adjust
1preset until the two monitored signal are equal in amplitude.
12) In order to fully understand how this frequency modulation transmitter/
receiver system works, examine the inputs and outputs of all functional blocks
within the system, using an Oscilloscope.
Observation table:
Sr. No Message F= Fmax-Fmin Modulation index
frequency Fm (KHz) β
(KHz)
1. 4.2 21 5
2. 3.9 23 5.89
3. 3.8 23.5 6.18
4. 4.1 29 7.07

Fm=4KHz.
Fc=45KHz.
T=2*0.3*10^(-3) sec.
Modulation index >1.
Graph:
For Frequency modulation:

Result: Thus we have verified the frequency modulation in optical fibre from
the graph obtained.
Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, the frequency
modulation is carried out by encoding of the signal in to the carrier signal and it
is carried out by varying the frequency of the signal. It is most widely use
modulation technique because of its wide spectrum commercial use.
 Practical no.4

Aim: To verify Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) in optical fibre communication.

Apparatus: Scientech 2502 Tech book with power supply chord, Optical
Fiber Cable, CRO with necessary connecting probes, connecting wires etc.
Theory:
Pulse width modulation (PWM) uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse
width is modulated resulting in the variation of the average value of the
waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform f(t), with period T, low value ymin,
a high value ymax and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value of the
waveform is given by:

As f(t) is a pulse wave, its value is ymax for 0<t<D. T and ymin for D. T<t<T.
The above expression then becomes:

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where

can be written as
From this, the average value of the signal (y’) is directly dependent on the duty
cycle D.
The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which
requires only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a
simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the
red sine wave in figure 2) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the
PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.
Three types of pulse-width modulation (PWM) are possible:
• The pulse center may be fixed in the centre of the time window and
both edges of the pulse moved to compress or expand the width.
• The lead edge can be held at the lead edge of the window and the
tail edge modulated.
• The tail edge can be fixed and the lead edge modulated.
Applications:
• Servos.
• Telecommunications.
• Power delivery.
• Voltage regulation.
• Audio effects and amplification.
• Electrical.
• Soft blinking LED indicator.

Block Diagram:
For generalized PWM concept:
Basic diagram of PWM system:

Waveform of PWM:

Procedure:
1) Connect the power supply chord to the main power plug and to Techbook
Scientech 2502.
2) Ensure that all the switched faults are set to “off”.
3) FG’s 1KHZ sine wave signal to the pulse width modulator input TP3.
4) Pulse width modulator output TP4 to emitter1 input TP5.
5) Connect the optical fiber between the emitter1 ckt and detector1 ckt.
6) Detector1 output TP10 to comparator and input at TP14.
7) Comparator1 output TP15 to LPF1 at TP19.
8) LPF1 outputs TP20 to AC Amplifier2 to input at TP27.
9) Turn the 1khz pre-set of function generator block to fully in anticlock position.
10) Switch on the power supply of the Techbook and oscilloscope.
11) Monitor the output of the pulse width modulator block TP4.
12) Examine the output detector TP10 and check that the transmitted pulse is
successfully detected at the receiver.
13) Monitor both the input comparator1 TP13 and TP14 and if necessary,
slowly adjust the comparator’s bias pre-set, until the dc level on the negative
input TP13 lies midway between the high and low level of the signal on the
positive input TP14.
14) Examine all the inputs and outputs of all functional blocks within the
system using an oscilloscope.

Output waveform:

Result: Thus we have studied PWM in optic fibre communication from the
output waveform.
Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, The pulse width
modulation (PWM) technique has been revisited and analyzed to evaluate its
merits for application to analog signal transmission in fiber optic links.
 Practical no.5

Aim: To verify propagation loss and bending loss in optical fiber.

Apparatus: Optical fiber Kit, function Generator, optical fiber cable of different
length, mandrel.
Theory:
Propagation Losses:
Attenuation is loss of power. During transit light pulse lose some of their
photons thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber is usually
specified in decibels per km. For commercially available fibers, attenuation
ranges from 1db/km for premium small core glass fibers to over 2000 dB/km for
a large core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In common
usage, discussions of loss omit the negative sign. The basic measurement for
loss in a fiber is made by taking the logarithmic ratio of the input power (P i) to
the output power (Po).
α (dB) = 10 log10
Pi/P0 Where α is Loss in dB/meter.
Another impairment to the signal, besides attenuation is called dispersion. This
effect limits the highest frequency that can transmitted through a certain length of
fiber, and one of its causes (called ‘mode’ dispersion) results from the fact that
there are different path lengths for each ray – those rays with larger values of angle
of incidence travel less distance than those with smaller angle of incidence. Since
the light in a fiber contains rays with all angels up to the critical angle, the time of
arrival at the receiver of a short-transmitted pulse will be spread over a time that is
determined by the path lengths over which the individual rays travel, as the speed
over a time that is determined by the path lengths over which the individual rays
travel, as the speed of the light is the same in all directions.
Bending Losses:
The losses occur due to the bending of optical fiber is known as bending losses.
There are two types of bends in optical fibers.
(a) Macro bending loss (having larger radii than that of the fiber diameter).
(b) Micro bending loss (random microscopic bends of the fiber axis).

The diagram of Bending losses in optical fiber is given below:

Macro bending Loss:
For slight bends, the loss is extremely small and is not observed. As the radius
of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at a certain critical
radius of curvature loss becomes observable. If the bend radius is made a bit
smaller once this threshold point has been reached, the losses suddenly become
extremely large. It is known that any bound core mode has an evanescent field
tail in the cladding which decays exponentially as a function of distance from
the core. Since this field tail moves along with the field in the core, part of the
energy of a propagating mode travels in the fiber cladding. When a fiber is bent,
the field tail on the far side of the centre of curvature must move faster to keep
up with the field in the core, for the lowest order fiber mode. At a certain critical
distance xc, from the centre of the fiber; the field tail would have to move faster
than the speed of light to keep up with the core field. Since this is not possible
the optical energy in the field tail beyond xc radiates away.
The amount of optical radiation from a bent fiber depends on the field strength
at xc and on the radius of curvature R. Since higher order modes are bound less
tightly to the fiber core than lower order modes, the higher order modes will
radiate out of the fiber first.
Micro bending Loss:
Another form of radiation loss in optical waveguide results from mode coupling
caused by random micro bends of the optical fiber. Micro bends are repetitive
small-scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis. They are
caused either by non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by non-
uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber. An increase in
attenuation results from micro bending because the fiber curvature causes
repetitive coupling of energy between the guided modes and the leaky or non -
guided modes in the fiber.
Micro bending losses can be minimized by placing a compressible jacket over
the fiber. When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will
be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight.
Block Diagram:
For study of Propagation losses

For study of Bending losses

Procedure:
For Propagation Losses:
1) Connect the power supply to the board.
2) Make the following connections
a) Function generators 1KHz sinewave output to input 1 socket of emitter 1
circuit via 4mm lead.
b) Connect 0.5m optic fibre between emitter 1 output and detector 1’s input.
c) Connect detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4mm lead.
3) Switch ON the power supply.
4) Set the oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5V /div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by
using x1 probe with the help of variable pot in function generator block input 1
of emitter 1.
5) Observe the output signal from detector t p 10 on CRO.
6) Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the
help of gain adjust pot in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude and name it
V1.
7) Now replace the previous FO cable with 1m cable without disturbing any
previous setting.
8) Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1
socket tp 28. Note this value and name it V2.
9) Calculate propagation (attenuation) loss with the help of following formula
 V1/V2 = exp(-α(L1+L2))
Where α is loss in nepers/m 1 neper = 8.686dB.
L1 = length of shorter cable (0.5m).
L2 = length of longer cable (1m).

For Bending Losses

1) Repeat all steps from 1-6 of the above procedure using 1m cable.
2) Wind FO cable on the Mandrel and observe the corresponding AC amplifier
output on CRO. It will be gradually reducing showing loss due to bends.

Observation table:
For propagation loss in optical fiber:
Length of the optical Input Voltage Output Voltage
Fiber
1m 5V 4.6V
5m 5V 1.7V

Calculations:
V1/V2 = exp (-α (L1+L2))
4.6/1.7 = exp (-α (1+5))
2.71 =exp (-6α)
α = -0.166 nepers/meter.

For bending loss in optical fiber:

Length of optical Bending of Input voltage Output Voltage

fiber optical fiber Vp-p
1m For 1 st bend 6.5V 6V
For 2nd bend 5.5V
st
5m For 1 bend 0.8V 0.7V
For 2nd bend 0.5V

Result: Thus we have verified the propagation and bending losses in optical fiber.

Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, when the length of
the optical fiber goes on increases then the output voltage will start to decrease
and for bending loss, if the number of bends increases, the bending losses are
also increased with respect to the length of fiber.
 Practical no.6

Aim: To measure optical power at 660nm and 950nm.

Apparatus: Scientech 2502 Tech Book with power supply chord, Optical fiber
cable, Power meter Scientech 2551 with power supply chord etc.

Theory:
Optical Power
The most basic fiber optic measurement is optical power from the end of a
fiber. This measurement is the basis for loss measurements as well as the power
from a source or presented at a receiver. Typically, both transmitters and
receivers have receptacles for fiber optic connectors, so measuring the power of
a transmitter is done by attaching a test cable to the source and measuring the
power at the other end. For receivers, one disconnects the cable attached to the
receiver receptacle and measures the output with the meter.

While optical power meters are the primary power measurement instrument,
optical loss test sets (OLTSs) and optical time domain reflectometers (OTDRs)
also measure power in testing loss.
TIA standard test FOTP-95 covers the measurement of optical power. Optical
power is based on the heating power of the light, and some optical lab
instruments actually measure the heat when light is absorbed in a detector.
While this may work for high power lasers, these detectors are not sensitive
enough for the low power levels typical for fiber optic communication systems.
Whenever tests are performed on fiber optic networks, the results are displayed
on a meter readout in “dB” Optical loss is measured in “dB” while optical
power is measured in “dBm.” Loss is a negative number (like –3.2 dB) as are
most power measurements. When we make fiber optic measurements, we are
measuring the power in the light.
The standards we use for power measurements, maintained by NIST (the US
National Institute of Standards and Technology,) are actually determined by the
heating effect of the light as it is absorbed in a detector. Every fiber optic power
meter sold is calibrated traceable to the NIST standard so different meters
should measure the same power, within the limits of calibration uncertainty.
Optical power in fiber optics is similar to the heating power of a light bulb, just
at much lower power levels. While a light bulb may put out 100 watts, most
fiber optic sources are in the milliwatt to microwatt range (0.001 to 0.000001
watts), so you won’t feel the power coming out of a fiber and it’s generally not
harmful. Loss measurements were generally measured in dB since dB is a ratio
of two power levels, one of which is considered the reference value. The dB is a
logarithmic scale (remember “logs” from high school math?) where each 10 dB
represents a ratio of 10 times. The actual equation used to calculate dB is dB =
10 log (measured power / reference power). Connection Diagram:
Procedure:
1) Connect the Power Supply to the board. Ensure that all switched faults are Off.
2) Connect the fiber optic cable between emitters 1's output & power meter's
input.
3) On the board, switch emitter l's driver to analog mode. Keep the power
meter's wavelength selector switch in 660 nm
4) Switch on the power. Note the reading displayed in power meter.
5) Switch the wavelength selector switch to 950 nm positions. & note the
reading displayed on power meter.
6) Perform the same experiment with emitter 2.

Observation Table:

Sr. Length of cable Wavelength Optical Power

No in dBm
1. 0.5m 660nm -6.6
950nm -12
2. 1m 660nm -6.8
950nm -12.2
3. 20m 660nm -11.4
950nm -17.0

Result: Thus we have measured the optical power using Optical power meter.
Conclusion: From the above practical, we can conclude that optical power
measured at 650nm is less and it is greater at 950nm.
 Practical no.7

Aim: To measure propagation loss in optical fiber using Optical power meter.
Apparatus: Scientech 2502 Tech Book with power supply chord, Optical fiber
cable, Power meter, Scientech 2551 with power supply cord etc.
Theory: Fiber optic system face some losses in communication, which losses
accrued from material, cable length, couple the more no. of fiber optic cable,
splicing the fiber cable etc., in propagation loss, cable length act as a loss in
Fiber Optic System. In this loss identify from using long distance fiber optic
cable in communication and it will be attenuate the signal gain and strength.
Attenuation loss (or path propagation loss) is the reduction in power
density(attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space.
Attenuation loss is a major component in the analysis and design of the link
budget of a telecommunication system.
Attenuation occurring as a result of either a bend in an optical fiber that exceeds
the minimum bend radius or an abrupt discontinuity in the core/cladding
interface is called bending loss. The incident light rays strike the boundary
between the core and the cladding at an angle less than the critical angle and
enter the cladding, where they are lost.
Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are
usually selected by taking into account their absorption characteristics for
different wavelengths of light. In case of optical fiber, since the signal is
transmitted in the form of light, which is completely different in nature as that
of electrons, one has to consider the interaction of matter with the radiation to
study the losses in fiber. Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons.
As light propagates from one end of fiber to another end, part of it is absorbed
in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also, part of the light is reflected
back or in some other directions from the impurity particles present in the
material contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber. In
general terms it is known as propagation loss.
Plastic fibers have higher loss of the order of 180 dB/Km. whenever the
condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are
introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to
bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss.
Another loss is due to the coupling of fiber at LED and photo detector ends.

Connection Diagram:

Procedure:
1) Connect the Power Supply to the board. Ensure that all switched faults
are ‘Off’.
2) On the board, switch emitter l's driver to analog mode.
3) Connect the 1m fiber cable between the emitter LED and input of power
meter.
4) Switch on the power. Note the reading displayed in power meter.
5) Switch the wavelength selector switch to 650 nm positions. & note
the reading displayed on power meter.
6) Replace the 1m fiber cable with the 20m cable without disturbing any
setting. Again, note down the reading.
7) Perform the same experiment with emitter 2.
Observation Table:
Sr. Length of cable Wavelength Propagation Loss in
No dB
1. 1m 660nm 6.2
950nm 11.4
2. 20m 660nm 11.0
950nm 16.4

Result: Thus we have measured propagation loss in optical fiber using

optical power meter.
Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, as the length of
optical fiber goes on increasing the propagation losses is also increased. Also, as
the wavelength increases loss is also increased.
 Practical no.8

Aim: To measure the numerical aperture of optical fiber.

Apparatus: Aluminium extruded rail type optical bench 1m long, Laser diode
with power supply, Kinematic mount, Fiber optics chuck, Fiber holder, Optical
fiber 1m long, Objective 10x or 20x, Screen etc. Theory:

Optical fibers are fine transparent glass or plastic fibers which can propagate light.
They work under the principle of total internal reflection from diametrically
opposite walls. In this way light can be taken anywhere because fibers have
enough flexibility. This property makes them suitable for data communication,
design of fine endoscopes, micro sized microscopes etc. An optic fiber consists of
a core that is surrounded by a cladding which is normally made of silica glass or
plastic. The core transmits an optical signal while the cladding guides the light
within the core. Since light is guided through the fiber it is sometimes called an
optical wave guide. The basic construction of an optic fiber is shown in figure

In order to understand the propagation of light through an optical fiber, consider

the figure as shown below. Consider a light ray (i) entering the core at a point
A, travelling through the core until it reaches the core cladding boundary at
point B. As long as the light ray intersects the core-cladding boundary at a small
angle, the ray will be reflected back in to the core to travel on to point C where
the process of reflection is repeated i.e., total internal reflection takes place.
Total internal reflection occurs only when the angle of incidence is greater than
the critical angle.
Consider an optical fiber having a core of refractive index n 1 and cladding of
refractive index n2. Let the incident light makes an angle i with the core axis as
shown in figure (3). Then the light gets refracted at an angle θ and fall on the
core-cladding interface at an angle were,
---------------------- (1)

By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get,

-------------------- (2)

Where n 0 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber. For air n 0 =1.
When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium
and so it may be totally reflected back to the core medium if θ' exceeds the
critical angle θ'c. The critical angle is that angle of incidence in denser medium
(n1) for which angle of refraction become 90°. Using Snell’s laws at core
cladding interface,
or

----------------------- (3)

Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as guided
wave, the angle of incidence at core-cladding interface should be greater than
θ'c. As i increases, θ increases and so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is maximum
value of angle of incidence beyond which, it does not propagate rather it is
refracted in to cladding medium (fig: 3(b)). This maximum value of i say i m is
called maximum angle of acceptance and n0 sin im is termed as the numerical
aperture (NA).
From equation (2),

From equation (2)

Therefore,

The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle i m
only propagate through the fiber. The higher the value of im or NA more is the
light collected for propagation in the fiber. Numerical aperture is thus
considered as a light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fiber’s light
acceptance cone. i.e., NA= Sin θ a where θa, is called acceptance cone angle. Let
the spot size of the beam at a distance d (distance between the fiber end and
detector) as the radius of the spot(r). Then,

------------------------ (4)
Block Diagram:
Basic setup for the measurement of numerical aperture:

Procedure:
1) Connect power supply cords to main supply and to the tech book Scientech
2502.

2) Connect the frequency generator 1 kHz sine wave output to input of emitter 1
circuit. Adjust its amplitude at 5vpp.
3) Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter 1 circuit and
the other end to the numerical aperture measurement. Hold the white screen
facing the fiber such that it cuts face is perpendicular to the axis of fiber.
4) Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25mm
diameter) vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber
coincide with 10mm circle.

5) Record the distance of screen from the fiber and L and note the diameter W
of the spot.
6) Compute the2 numerical
2
aperture from formula given below.
N.A. =W/√ (4L +D )

7) Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it
coincide with one of the concentric circles. Note its distance.

8) Tabulate the various distance and diameter of the circles made on the white
screen and computes the numerical aperture from given formula given above.
Observation Table:
Sr. No Length of Co-Incident Distance
the cable circle
diameter
1 20m 10mm 1cm
15mm 1.3cm
20mm 1.6cm
25mm 2.1cm
2 1m 10mm 0.8cm
15mm 1.1cm
20mm 1.45cm
25mm 1.8cm
Result: Thus we have studied how to measure the numerical aperture in optical
fiber.
Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, the numerical
aperture is the measure of the ability of an optical fibre to confine the incident
light ray inside the optical fiber.
 Practical no.9

Aim: To verify the characteristics of electrical to optical converters.

Apparatus: ST2502 trainer with power supply cord, Optical Fiber cable,
Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probes etc.
Theory:
LEDs and Laser Diodes are used for converting electrical signals to optical.
They are generally fairly fast devices and you apply current pulses to generate a
light pulse. It can get more sophisticated than that for higher rates/short pulses
but that's basically it. The devices have either a lens for sending via free-air, or a
connector for fiber optics or a pigtail directly coupled to a fiber pigtail suitable
for splicing or connector to a fiber system.
Optical Transmitter
At the heart of the module that converts RF signals to light is a laser diode. The
basic principle is direct modulation of the incoming RF signal onto the output of
the laser diode. An example of the intensity output from a typical laser diode is
shown in Figure 1. The RF input signal directly modulates the laser diode bias
current about the optimal DC working point, sometimes referred to as the
quiescent point, which is typically 40mA. Modulation gains range from 0.02 to
0.2mW/mA and a monitor photodiode maintain the stability of the fixed
operating point of the laser. For high performance (low noise and high dynamic
range) Distributed Feedback (DFB) semiconductor lasers are used, although for
less demanding lower cost applications Fabry-Perot (FP) lasers can be utilized.

Optical Fiber
The optical fiber is the transport medium for the signal and therefore an
important part of the systems required for maintaining high signal integrity.
Light emitted from the transmitter is coupled into a single mode optical fiber for
cross-site transmission to the receiver location. Corning SMF28 single mode
fiber is typically installed to transmit RF traffic at either 1310nm or 1550nm
laser wavelengths, where the optical attenuation is 0.4dB/km and 0.25dB/km
respectively.
Figure below shows the optical transmission spectrum for typical signal mode
fiber. Optical cable is factory terminated with industry standard FC/APC
connectors. An 8° angled facet fiber end face ensures minimal return loss of
60dB.

Connection Diagram:

Procedure:
1) Connect the Power supply cord to mains supply and to the trainer ST2502.
2) Ensure that all switched faults are in ‘Off’ condition.
3) Put emitter 1 block in Digital Mode
4) Make connections as shown in figure 13.1
5) Connect the bias 1 pre-set on comparator 1 (TP13) to the emitter 1 input at
(TP5)
6) Adjust the bias 1 priest to its minimum setting fully counter clockwise.
7) Now look down the emitter 1 LED Socket and slowly advance the setting of
the bias 1 pre-set until in subdued lighting the light from LED is just visible.
8) Connect the DMM between + 12V supply and TP6, the cathode of LED. The
DMM will now read the forward voltage (Vf) Measure the voltage drop across
the 1K (R9) current limiting resistors by connecting DMM between TP6 and
TP38. The forward current is given by dividing the readings by 1K. This If is
known as threshold current. DVM reading ------------------- mA 1000
9) Vary the bias 1 pre-set so as to vary the forward voltage (as 1.3, 1.4…1.7),
note the corresponding If (forward current).
10) Record these values of Vf and If and plot the characteristic between these
two.

Observation table:
Sr. Forward Forward
no voltage of current of
LED (V) LED (mA)

1. 1.25 0

2. 1.30 0

3. 1.35 0

4. 1.45 0

5. 1.55 0

6. 1.57 0

7. 1.59 1

8. 1.62 2

9. 1.63 2.2

10. 1.65 2.8

11. 1.67 4

12. 1.69 6

13. 1.71 6.5

14. 1.72 8

15. 1.74 10

16. 1.76 16
 17. 1.77 20

18. 1.79 22

19. 1.80 26

20. 1.81 28

21. 1.82 32

Graph:
Result: Thus we have studied the characteristics of electrical to optical converter.
Conclusion: From the above practical we can conclude that, in electrical to
optical converter led is use to the convert the electrical signal into optical siganl.